ENS Law of Constant Composition – all
ELEMENTS, ATOMS & IONS samples of a compound contain the same
Elements - 112 known, of which 88 are
found in nature, others are man-made
- Abundance is the percentage found in
nature
- oxygen most abundant element (by mass)
on earth and in the human body
- symbol of an element may be one letter or
two
Distribution Mass Percent of the 18 Most
Abundant Element in The Earth’s Crust,
Oceans and Atmosphere
Abundance Elements in the Human Body
Names and Symbol of Most Common
Elements
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - Elements are
composed of atoms (tiny, hard, unbreakable,
spheres)
– all atoms of a given element are identical
(all carbon atoms have the same chemical
and physical properties)
– atoms of a given element are different from
those of any other element (carbon atoms
have different chemical and physical
properties than sulfur atoms)
– atoms of one element combine with atoms
of other elements to form compounds
proportions (by mass) of the elements
Chemical Formulas – atoms are indivisible
in a chemical process
- all atoms present at beginning are
present at the end
- atoms are not created or destroyed,
just rearranged
- atoms of one element cannot change
into atoms of another element
- cannot turn Lead into Gold by a
chemical reaction
Formulas Describe Compounds -
compound is a distinct substance that is
composed of atoms of two or more elements
– describe the compound by describing the
number and type of each atom in the
simplest unit of the compound
(molecules/ions)
– each element represented by its letter
symbol
– number of atoms of each element is written
to the right of the element as a subscript (if
there is only one atom, the 1 subscript is not
written)
– polyatomic groups are placed in
parentheses (if more than 1)
Are Atoms Really Unbreakable?
– J.J Thomson investigated a beam called a
cathode ray
– determined that the ray was made of tiny
negatively charged particles we call
electrons
– his measurement led him to conclude that
these electrons were smaller than a
hydrogen atom
– if electrons are smaller than atoms, they
must be pieces of atoms
– if atoms have pieces, they must be
breakable
– Thomson also found that atoms of different
elements all produced these same electrons
The Electron – tiny, negatively charged
particle
– very light compared to mass of atom
– 1/1836th the mass of a H atom
– move very rapidly within atom
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model – atom is
breakable
– atom has structure
– electron suspended in a positively charged
electric field (must have positive charge to
balance negative charge of electrons and
make the atom neutral)
– mass of atom due to electrons
– atom mostly “empty” space (compared size
of electron to size of atom)
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Expt – how can you element are chemically identical (undergo
prove something is empty? (Put something exact same chemical reactions)
through it) – isotopes of an element have different
– use large atoms masses
– use very thin sheets of target so do not –“ “ are identified by their mass numbers
absorb “bullet” Mass number = protons + neutrons
– use very small particle as bullet with very
Elements – arranged in a pattern called the
high energy but not so small that electrons
Periodic Table
will affect it
– Position on the table allows us to predict
Bullet – alpha particles
properties of the element
Target Atoms – gold foil
Metals – about 75% of all the elements
Rutherford’s Results – over 98% of the a – lustrous, malleable, ductile, conduct heat
particles went straight through and electricity
– about 2% of the a particles went through Nonmetals – dull, brittle, insulators
but were deflected by large angles Metalloids – aka semi-metals
– about 0.01% of the a particles bounced off – some properties of both metals &
the gold foil nonmetals
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model – atom The Modern Periodic Table - Elements with
contains a tiny dense center called the similar chemical and physical properties are
nucleus (volume is about 1/10 trillionth the in the same column
volume of the atom) – columns are called Groups/Families
– nucleus is essentially the entire mass of the – rows are called Periods
atom – each period shows the pattern of properties
– nucleus is positively charged (amount of repeated in the next period
positive charge of the nucleus balances the
negative charge of the electrons)
– electrons move around in the empty space
of the atom surrounding the nucleus
Structure of the Nucleus – nucleus was
found to be composed of two kinds of
particles. Some of these particles are called
protons
- charge = +1
- mass is about the same as a
hydrogen atom
– since protons and electrons have the same
amount of charge, for the atom to be neutral
there must be equal numbers of protons and
electrons
– another particle is called neutron
- has no charge
- has a mass slightly more than a proton

The Modern Atom - atoms are composed of

three main pieces - protons, neutrons and
electrons
– nucleus contains protons and neutrons
– nucleus is only about 10-13 cm in diameter
– electrons move outside the nucleus with an
average distance of about 10-8 cm
– therefore, the radius of the atom is about
105 times larger than the radius of the
nucleus
Isotopes – all atoms of an element have the
same number of protons
– number of protons in an atom of a given
element is the same as the atomic number
(found in periodic table)
Isotopes - Atoms of an element with different
numbers of neutrons – all isotopes of an
Allotropes – many solid nonmetallic
elements can exist in different forms with
different physical properties, these are called
allotropes
– different physical properties arise from the
different arrangements of the atoms in the
solid
Allotropes of Carbon include
- diamond
- graphite
- Buckminsterfullerene
Electrical Nature of Matter - common pure
substances are very poor conductors of
electricity with the exception of metals &
graphite. Water is very poor electrical
conductor
Electrolytes - substances dissolve in water
to form a solution that conducts well. When
dissolved in water, electrolyte compounds
break up into component ions
Ions - atoms or groups of atoms that have
an electrical charge
Cations - ions that have a positive charge
Anions - ions that have a negative charge
(form when an atom gain electrons)
– ions with opposite charges attract
(therefore, cations and anions attract each
other)
– moving ions conduct electricity
– compound must have no total charge;
therefore, we must balance the numbers of
cations and anions in a compound to get 0
total charge
Atomic Structures of Ions
MATTER AND ENERGY
Properties – characters of the substance
under observation
Properties can be either – directly
observable or manner something interacts
with other substances in the universe
Matter – part of the universe that has mass
and volume
Energy – part of the universe that has the
ability to do work
Chemistry – study of matter
– properties of different types of matter
– way matter behaves when influenced by
other matter and/or energy
Properties of Matter
Physical Properties – characteristics of
matter that can be changed w/out changing
its composition (Characteristics that are
directly observable)
Chemical Properties – characteristics that
determine how the composition of matter
changes as a result of contact with other
matter or the influence of energy
(Characteristics that describe the behavior
of matter)
“Liquid water takes the shape of its container
 Changes in Matter
Physical Changes – changes to matter that
do not result in a change the fundamental
components that make that substance
- State changes – boiling, melting,
condensing
Chemical Changes – involve a change in
the fundamental components of the
substance
- Produce new substance
- Chemical reaction
- Reactants → products

ENERGY & ENERGY CHANGES

Elements & Compounds
Elements – substance which cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by
chemical reactions
Compounds – most substances are
chemical combinations of elements
- Made of elements
- Can be broken down into elements
- Properties of the compound not
related to the properties of the
elements that compose it
- Same chemical composition at all
times
Classification of Matter
Matter – pure substance constant
composition homogeneous
– mixture variable composition
Homogeneous – uniform throughout,
appears to be one thing
- Pure substances
- Solution (homogeneous mixtures)
Heterogeneous – non-uniform, contains
regions with different properties than other
regions
Pure Substances Vs. Mixtures
Pure Substances – All samples have the
same physical and chemical properties
- Constant Compositions → All
samples have the same composition
- Homogeneous
- Separate into components based on
chemical properties
Mixtures – different samples may show
different properties
- Variable composition
- Homogeneous/Heterogeneous
- Separate into components based on
physical properties
“All mixtures are made of pure substances”
Capacity to do work – chemical,
mechanical, thermal, electrical, radiant,
sound, nuclear
Energy may affect matter – ex; raise its
temperature, eventually causing a state
change
“All physical changes and chemical
changes involve energy changes”
Heat – flow of energy due to a temperature
difference
1. Exothermic – process that results in the
evolution of heat. Ex; when a match is
struck, it is an exothermic process because
energy is produced as heat.
2. Endothermic – process that absorbs
energy. Ex; melting ice from liquid water is
an endothermic process
Units of Energy
One Calorie – amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of water
by 1°C
KCAL – energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1000 g of water 1°C
Joule - .184 = 1 CAL
- In nutrition, calories are capitalized –
1 CAL = 1 KCAL
Energy & the Temperature of Matter
– amount the temperature of an object
increases depends on the amount of heat
added (Q). (If you double the added heat
energy the temperature will increase twice
as much)
– amount the temperature of an object
increases depends on its mass (If you
double the mass, it will take twice as much
heat energy to raise the temperature the
same amount)
Specific Heat Capacity – amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one Celsius degree
Type II Binary Ionic Compounds – contain
Metal Cation + Nonmetal Anion
– metal listed first in formula & name
- Name metal cation first, name
nonmetal anion second
- Metal cation name is the metal name
followed by a Roman Numeral in
parentheses to indicate its charge
(determine charge from anion
charge) (common type II cations in
Table5.2)
“Nonmetal anion named by changing the
ending on the nonmetal name to -ide”

NOMENCLATURE
Common Names – Exceptions
H2O – water, steam, ice
NH3 – ammonia
CH4 – methane
NaCl – table salt
C12H22O11 – table sugar
Naming Starts w/ Classifying Compounds
Binary Compounds – only 2 elements
Compounds containing polyatomic ions
Acids – formula often starts w/ H
Classifying Binary Compounds
Binary Ionic – Compounds containing a
metal & nonmetal (Type I & II)
– made of metal cation & nonmetal anion
– name by naming ions
Acids - Compounds containing H and a
nonmetal
Metal Cations
Type I – metals that can only have one
possible charge
– determine charge by position on the
Periodic Table
Type II – metals that can have more than one
possible charge
– determine metal cation’s charge from the
charge on anion
Type I Binary Ionic Compounds – contain Type III – Binary Compounds of 2
Metal Cation + Nonmetal Anion Nonmetals
– metal listed first in formula & name - Name first element in formula first,
- Name metal cation first, name use the full name of the element
nonmetal anion second - Name the second element in the
- Simple metal cation name is the formula as if it were an anion
metal name - Use a prefix in front of each name to
Simple metals – groups 1A, 2A & Al, Ga & indicate the number of atoms
- Never use the prefix mono- on the
In
first element
- Nonmetal anion named by changing
PREFIXES
the ending on the nonmetal name to
SUBSCRIPT PREFIX
-ide
1 Mono- (not used on
first nonmetals)
2 di-
3 Tri-
4 Tetra-
5 Penta-
6 Hexa-
7 Hepta-
8 Octa-
“Drop last “a” in the prefix if the name
begins with vowel”
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
-Polyatomic ions are charged entities that
contain more than one atom
- Must memorize name, formula and
charge
- Look for patterns
-Polyatomic compounds contain one or more
polyatomic ions
-Name polyatomic compounds by naming
cation and anion
- Non-polyatomic ions named like
Type I and II
-Polyatomic Acids contain H+ and a
polyatomic anion
Patterns for Polyatomic Ions
-Elements in the same column on the
Periodic Table form similar polyatomic ions
- same number of O’s and same
charge
- ClO3- = chlorate BrO3- = bromate
-If the polyatomic ion starts with H, add
hydrogen- before the ions name and add 1
to the charge
CO32- = carbonate HCO3- = hydrogen
carbonate

• -ate ion
– chlorate = ClO3-
• -ate ion plus 1 O → same charge,
per- prefix
– perchlorate = ClO4-
• -ate ion minus 1 O → same charge,
-ite suffix
– chlorite = ClO2-
• -ate ion minus 2 O → same charge,
hypo- prefix, -ite suffix
– hypochlorite = ClO-
Writing the Formulas from the Names
– For Type III compounds, use the prefixes
to determine the subscript
– for Type I, Type II, polyatomic Compounds
and Acids
- Determine the ions present
- Determine the charges on the
cation and anion
- Balance the charges to get the
subscript

Acids - Contain H+ cation and anion

– binary acids have H+ cation and a nonmetal
anion
– Oxyacids have H+ cation and a polyatomic
anion