Republic of the Philippines

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY

Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

A. Course Code / Title : FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of Surveying

B. Module Number : Module 3 – Curvature, Refraction and Compass

C.Description : This module looks into the definition and theorems relating to
fundamentals of surveying; properties and formula
concerning to curvature, refraction and compass.

D. Objectives : At the end of these module, the learner should be able to:
1. Learn the significance fundamentals of surveying and
other important definitions.
2. Have a deeper understanding about theorems,
properties, formula relating to curvature, refraction and
compass
3. Solve problems relating to curvature, refraction and
compass.
E. Contents :

Curvature and Refraction

The effect of earth curvature and
atmospheric refraction are taken into account in
levelling work. Since the measurements are made in
vertical planes and these effects all occur in the
same time. The combined effects are represented in
the figure shown:

The combination of the earth’s curvature

and atmospheric refraction cause the telescope’s
line of sight to vary from a level line by
approximately 0.0785 minus 0.011 or 0.0675m. in
one kilometer varying as the square of the sight
distance in one kilometer. This may derived from

Consider triangle ABC

𝐾2 + 𝑅2 = (𝑅 + ℎ)2
𝐾 + 𝑅2 = (𝑅2 + 2𝑅ℎ + ℎ2)
2

Since, h is so small, h2 ne negligible

𝐾2 + 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 + 2𝑅ℎ
2
ℎ = 𝐾 (1000)
2𝑅
Assume R = 6,400km

ℎ
ℎ𝑟 =
7
From: h = hcr + hr
FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of
Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 2 ℎ
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 𝐾 (1000) −
2 7
or
𝑅
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 𝐾2 𝐾2(1000)
(1000) −
2𝑅 2𝑅(7)

𝐾2 𝐾2(1000)
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = (1000) −
2(6400) 2(6400)(7)

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.078125𝐾2 − 0.011161𝐾2

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2

ℎ=ℎ + 𝐷2 (ℎ − ℎ ) − 0.067𝐷 𝐷
2 1 2 1 2
𝐷1 + 𝐷2

Where:
Hcr –a departure of a telescope line of sight from a level line in meters.
K – length of the line of sight in km
0.0675 – coefficient of refraction
R – radius of the earth, approximately 6,400km.
hr – correction in refraction

Sample Problems:

1. The top of a tower signal at B 2000m. away from a was sighted through a transit with
recorded vertical angle of 3°30’. The height of the mast is 12m and the HI of the transit
above the point where it is set is 1.10m. The elevation of the point under the transit. A is
133.33m. Compute the elevation of the base of the signal B.

Solution:
ℎ
tan 3°30′ =
2000𝑚
ℎ = 2000𝑚 tan 3°30′
ℎ = 122.325𝑚

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067(2𝑘𝑚)2
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.268 𝑚

𝐻 = 122.325𝑚 + 0.268 𝑚 + 1.1𝑚

𝐻 = 122.861𝑚

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐴 + 𝐻
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵 = 133.33𝑚 + 122.861𝑚
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗 𝑩 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔. 𝟏𝟗𝟏𝒎

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 2. A man’s eye 1.75m. above sea level can barely see the top of a lighthouse which is at a
certain distance away from a man.

a. What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above the sea level if the
lighthouse is 20km. away from the man.
b. How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is
26.506m above the sea level.
c. What is the height of the tower at a distance 20km. away from the man that will
just be visible without the line of sight approaching nearer than 1.75m to the
water.

Solution a:

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2
1.75𝑚 = 0.067(𝐾1)2

𝐾1 = √1.75𝑚
0.067
𝐾1 = 5.11 𝑘𝑚

𝐾2 = 20𝑘𝑚 − 𝐾1
𝐾2 = 20𝑘𝑚 − 5.11𝑘𝑚
𝐾2 = 14.89𝑘𝑚

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾22
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067(14.89𝑘𝑚)2
𝒉𝒄𝒓 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟓 𝒎

Solution b:

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2
1.75𝑚 = 0.067(𝐾1)2

𝐾1 = √1.75𝑚
0.067
𝐾1 = 5.11 𝑘𝑚

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2
26.506𝑚 = 0.067(𝐾2)2
26.506𝑚
𝐾2 = √
0.067
𝐾2 = 19.89 𝑘𝑚

𝐾 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
𝐾 = 5.11𝑘𝑚 + 19.89𝑘𝑚
𝑲 = 𝟐𝟓𝒌𝒎

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 Solution c:

ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067𝐾2
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.067(20𝑘𝑚)2
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 26.8𝑚

ℎ = 1.75𝑚 + ℎ𝑐𝑟
ℎ = 1.75𝑘𝑚 + 26.8 𝑘𝑚
𝑲 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟓𝟓𝒌𝒎

3. Two hills A and C have elevations of 600m. and 800m. respectively. In between A and C is
another hill B which has an elevation of 705m. and is located at 12km. from A and 10km
from C.
a. Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the
observer is at A so that C will be visible from A.
b. If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed at C so that it
could be visible from A with the line of sight having a clearance of 2m. above hill
B.
c. What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order that A, B
and C will be intervisible.

Solution a:

ℎ=ℎ + 𝑑2 (ℎ − ℎ ) − 0.067𝑑 𝑑
3 1 3 1 2
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
ℎ = 800𝑚 + 10𝑚
(600𝑚 − 800𝑚) − 0.067(12𝑚)(10𝑚)
12𝑚 +
10𝑚
ℎ2 = 701.051 𝑚
Obstruction:
x = 705 − ℎ2
x = 705 − 701.051
𝐱 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒𝟗 𝒎

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 Solution b:
h1 = 600𝑚
h2 = 705𝑚 + 2𝑚
h3 = 800𝑚 + 𝑥

ℎ =ℎ + 𝑑2 (ℎ + ℎ ) − 0.067𝑑 𝑑
2 3 1 3 1 2
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
10𝑚
707 = (800𝑚 + 𝑥) + (600𝑚 − (800𝑚 + 𝑥)) − 0.067(12𝑚)(10𝑚)
12𝑚 + 10𝑚
𝐱 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟕𝒎

Solution c:

h1 = 600𝑚 + 𝑥
h2 = 705𝑚
h3 = 800𝑚 + 𝑥

ℎ =ℎ + 𝑑2 (ℎ + ℎ ) − 0.067𝑑 𝑑
2 3
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 1 3 1 2
10𝑚
705 = (800𝑚 + 𝑥) + ((600𝑚 + 𝑥) − (800𝑚 + 𝑥)) − 0.067(12𝑚)(10𝑚)
12𝑚 +
10𝑚 𝐱 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒𝟗 𝒎

Compass Surveying

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 The compass is a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line
with reference to the magnetic meridian. It is so constructed to allow a magnetized needle to swing
freely on a pivot at the center of graduated circle and point toward north.

Surveyor’s Compass – An instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line with
reference to the direction of the magnetic needle.

Essential Features of Compass:

1. Compass box – with a circle graduated from 0° to 90° in both directions from the N. and
S. points and usually having the E and W points interchanged.
2. Sight vanes – which defines the line of sight in the direction of the SN points of the
compass box.
3. Magnetic needle – has the property of pointing a fixed direction namely, the magnetic
meridian.

Kinds of Compass:

1. Pocket Compass – which is generally held in the hand when bearings are observed;
used on reconnaissance or other rough surveys.
2. Surveyor’s Compass – which is mounted usually on a light tripod, or sometimes on a
Jacob’s staff (a point stick about 1.5m long)
3. Transit Compass – a compass box similar to the surveyor’s compass, mounted on the
upper or vernier plate of the engineer’s transit.

Sources of Errors in Compass Work:

1. Needle Bent – if the needle is not perfectly straight, a constant error is introduced in all
observed bearings. The needle can be corrected by using pliers.
2. Pivot Bent – if the point of the pivot supporting the needle is not at the center of the
graduated circle, there is introduced a variable systematic error, the magnitude of which
depends on the direction in which the compass is sighted. The instrument can be
corrected by bending the pivot until the end readings of the needle are 180° apart for
any direction of the pointing.
3. Plane of sight not vertical or graduated circle not horizontal.
4. Sluggish
5. Reading the needle
6. Magnetic variations

Advantages of the Compass:

1. Compass is light and portable and it requires less time for setting up, sighting and reading.
2. An error in the direction of one line does not necessarily affect other lines of the survey.
3. The compass is especially adopted to running straight lines through woods and other
places where obstacles are likely to interfere with the line of sight.

Disadvantages of the Compass:

1. The compass reading is not very accurate.

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 2. The needle is unreliable especially with the presence of local attractions, such as electric
wires metals, magnets that may render it practically useless.

Magnetic Declination – the angle that a magnetic meridian makes with the true meridian.
Magnetic Dip – the vertical angle which the magnetic needle makes with horizontal due to uneven
magnetic attraction from the magnetic poles.
Isogonic Lines – an imaginary lines passing through places having the same magnetic declination.
Isoclinic Lines – an imaginary lines passing through points having the same magnetic dip.
Agonic Lines – imaginary line passing through places having zero declination.

Adjustment of a Closed Compass Traverse:

When the compass traverse forms a closed figure, the interior angle at each station is
computed from the observed bearings at that particular point, the computed value which is free
from local attraction. The sum of the interior angles of a closed polygon must be equal to (n-2)180°
in which n is the number of sides of the polygon. Since the error of sides of observing a bearing is
accidental. It is assumed to be distributed equally at each interior angle. The bearings are then
adjusted from a line whose observed bearing is to be correct using the adjusted values of each
interior angle.

Why is the East and West points of a compass interchanged?

From the figure shows a compass having a NS and EW calibration. In using a compass,
always sight the object with the north end of the compass and the compass and the compass needle
when pivoted and brought to rest gives the magnetic bearing.

Let us say an object on the right side is observed, sight this object with the north end of the
compass. The needle at this instant will point steadily on the magnetic north, so a reading could
now be obtained as shown as NE.

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
Sample Problems:

1. The observed compass bearing of a line in 1981 was S 37°30’ E. and the magnetic
declination of the place then was known to be 3°10 W. it has also discovered that during the
observation local attraction of the place at that moment of 5° E. existed. Find the true
azimuth of the line.

Solution:

𝜃 = 5°00′ + 3°10′

𝜃 = 1°50′

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 37°30′ − 1°50′

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 35°40′

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑆 = 360° − 35°40′

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑆 = 324°20′(𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ)

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑁 = 180° − 35°40′

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑧𝑖𝑚𝑁 = 144°20′(𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ)

2. The bearing of a line from A to B was measured as S 16°30’ W. it was found that there was
local attraction at both A and B and therefore a forward and a backward bearing were taken
between A and a point C at which there was no local attraction. If the bearing of AC was S
30°10’ E. and that of CA was N 28°20’ W., what is the corrected bearing of AB?

Solution:

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐶 = 28°20′

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 30°10′ − 28°20′

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 1°50′

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = 16°30′ + 1°50′

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = 18°20′

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 3. In a particular year, the magnetic bearing declination was 1°10’ E nd the magnetic bearing
of line DE was N 16°30’ W. If the secular variation per year is 3° E., determine the magnetic
bearing of line DE 5 years later?

Solution:

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0°3′𝐸

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 5 𝑦𝑟𝑠) = 5(0°3′)

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 5 𝑦𝑟𝑠) = 0°15′𝐸

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 16°30′ − 0°15′

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑁16°15′𝑊

4. A field is in the form of a regular pentagon. The direction of the bounding sides were
surveyed with as assumed meridian 5° to the right of the true north and south meridian. As
surveyed with an assumed meridian, the bearing of one side AB is N 33°20’ W.
a. Compute the true bearing of line BC.
b. Compute the true azimuth of line CD.
c. Compute the true bearing of line

AE. Solution:

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = 33°20′ − 5°

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 = 28°20′

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = (𝑛 − 2)(180)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = (5 − 2)(180)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 540°
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 540
5
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 108°

𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 180° − 108° − 28°20′

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑵𝟒𝟑°40′E

𝐴𝑧𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝐷 = 360° − 108° + 43°40′

𝑨𝒛𝒊𝒎 𝑪𝑫 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓°40′(𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ)

𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐸 = 108° + 28°20′

𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝑬 = 𝑵𝟕𝟗°40′𝐸

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
 5. The following bearings taken on a closed compass. Assuming the observed bearing of line
AB to be correct.
Forward Backward
Line
Bearing Bearing
AB S 37°30 E N 37°30W
BC S 43°15’ W N 44°15’ E
CD N 73°00’ W S 72°15’ E
DE N 12°45’ E S 13°15’ W
EA N 60°00’ E S 59°00’ W

a. Compute the bearing of line BC.

b. Compute the bearing of line CD.
c. Compute the bearing of line DE.
Solution:

SOLVE FOR INTERIOR ANGLE

∠A = 59° + 37°30′ = 96°30′

∠B = (90° − 43°15′) + (90° − 37°30′) = 99°15′
∠C = 73° + 44°15′ = 117°15′
∠D = 95° + 0°15′ = 94°45′
∠E = 133°15′ + 0°15′ = 133°15′
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 541°15′
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = (5 − 2)(180)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 540°

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 540° − 541°15′ = 1°15′

1°15′
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = 0°15′
5

Corrected Interior Angle

∠A = 96°30′ − 1°15′ = 96°15′
∠B = 99°15′ − 1°15′ = 99°
∠C = 117°15′ − 1°15′ = 117°
∠D = 94°45′ − 1°15′ = 94°45′
∠E = 133°15 − 1°15′ = 133°
∠A + ∠B + ∠C + ∠D + ∠E = 540°

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 = 180° + 99° − 37°30′ = N43°30′W

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐷 = 117° + 43°30′ = N73°30′W
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝐸 = 180° + 94°45′ − 73°30′ = N11°45′E

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
Plate No.2:
In the deflection angle traverse with a transit survey data below. Assume deflection T 1 T2 T3
and bearing T1 T2 is correct.

Sta. Sta. Magnetic Deflection

Dist.
Occ. Obs. Bearing Angles
T1 N 54°00’ W 85.26
T3 N 30°00’ W
T4 156°00’R
T4 S 30°15’ E 83.44
T2 N 39°00’ E
T3 69°16’ L
T3 S 39°00’ W 83.22
T1 S 42°25’ W
T2 176°33’ R
T2 N 42°25’ W 118.38
T4 S 54°00’ E
T1 96°42’ R
a. Find the bearing of line T2 – T3.
b. Find the bearing of line T3 – T4.
c. Find the bearing of line T4 – T1.

F. REFERENCES

Printed Materials:

a. Surveying for Civil and Geodetic Licensure Exam by Besavilla

b. Elementary Surveying (3RD ED) by Juny Pilapil La Putt,
c. Elementary Surveying Manual by Juny Pilapil La Putt
d. Elementary Surveying An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Edition by Charles D. Ghilani
and Paul R. Wolf

FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of

Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE
FUNDASURV 215 – Fundamentals of
Surveying Reynaldo H. Paras, Jr., RCE