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RELATION , FUNCTION & INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
RELATION, FUNCTION & INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
RELATION AND FUNCTION–II
1. RELATION
1.1 Cartesian product of sets
Definition : Given two non-empty sets P & Q. The cartesian
product P × Q is the set of all ordered pairs of elements
from P & Q i.e.
P × Q = {(p, q); p  P; q  Q}
1.2 Relations
1.2.1 Definition : Let A & B be two non-empty sets. Then
any subset ‘R’ of A × B is a relation from A to B.
If (a, b)  R, then we write it as a R b which is read as
‘a is related to b’ by the relation R, ‘b’ is also called
image of ‘a’ under R.
1.2.2 Domain and range of a relation : If R is a relation
from A to B, then the set of first elements in R is
called domain & the set of second elements in R is
called range of R. symbolically.
Domain of R = { x : (x, y)  R}
Range of R = { y : (x, y)  R}
The set B is called co-domain of relation R.
Note that range  co-domain.
Total number of relations that can be defined from a set
A to a set B is the number of possible subsets of A × B. If
n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq and total number
pq
of relations is 2 .
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1.2.3 Inverse of a relation : Let A, B be two sets and let R
be a relation from a set A to set B. Then the inverse of
–1
R, denoted by R , is a relation from B to A and is
defined by
–1
R = {(b, a) : (a, b)  R}
–1
Clearly, (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R
–1 –1
Also, Dom (R) = Range (R ) and Range (R) = Dom (R ).
1.2.4 Types of relation :
(a) Void Relation : Let A be a non-empty set. Then
 A × A and so it is a relation on set A. This relation
is called the void or empty relation on set A.
(b) Universal Relation : Let A be a non-empty set. Then,
A × A is known as the universal relation set A.
(c) Identity Relation : Let A be a non-empty set. Then, IA
= {(a, a) : a  A} is called the identity relation on A.
(d) Reflexive Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to
be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself.
Thus, R is reflexive  (a, a)  R for all a  A.
(e) Symmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is
said to be a symmetric relation iff
(a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A
i.e. aRb  bRa for all a, b  A.
(f) Antisymmetric Relation : A relation R on set A is
said to be antisymmetric relation iff
(a, b)  R and (b, a)  R  a = b for all a, b  A
(g) Equivalence Relation : A relation R on a set A is
said to be an equivalence relation on A iff
(i) it is reflexive i.e. (a, a)  R for all a  A
(ii) it is symmetric i.e. (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for
all a, b  A
(iii) it is transitive i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R 
(a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A.
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(ii) If domain  R or R – {some finite points}

2. FUNCTIONS
Put y = f(x)
2.1 Definition Then express x in terms of y. From this find y for x to be
defined. (i.e., find the values of y for which x exists).
A relation ‘f’ from a set A to set B is said to be a function if (iii) If domain  a finite interval, find the least and greater
every element of set A has one and only one image in set B. value for range using monotonocity.
Notations

x f y (= f (x))
(Domain) input output (Range)
(independent variable) (dependent variable)
Two functions f & g are said to be equal iff
1. Domain of f = Domain of g
Domain
2. Co-Domain of f = Co-domain of g
f: A B co-domain. 3. f(x) = g(x)  x  Domain.

(read as : f is a function 2.3 Types of Functions

from set A to set B)
Definition 1 : A function f : X  Y is defined to be one-
2.2 Domain, Co-domain and Range of a function one (or injective), if the images of distinct
elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for
Domain : When we define y = f (x) with a formula and the every x1, x2  X, f (x1) = f (x2) implies
domain is not stated explicitly, the domain is x1 = x2. Otherwise, f is called many-one.
assumed to be the largest set of x–values for which
Definition 2 : A function f : X  Y is said to be onto
the formula gives real y–values.
(or surjective, if every element of Y is the
The domain of y = f (x) is the set of all real x for image of some element of X under f, i.e.,
which f (x) is defined (real). for every y  Y, there exists an element x
Algo Check : Rules for finding Domain : in X such that f (x) = y.

(i) Expression under even root (i.e. square root, fourth

root etc.) should be non–negative. Range = Co-domain
f f
(ii) Denominator  0.
(iii) logax is defined when x > 0, a > 0 and a  1.
(iv) If domain of y = f (x) and y = g(x) are D1 and D2
respectively, then the domain of f (x) ± g(x) or f (x)
. g(x) is D1  D2. While domain of A B A B
(one-to-one) & (onto) (one-to-one) & (into)
f x
is D1  D2 – {x: g(x) = 0}.
gx
Range = Co-domain
Range : The set of all f -images of elements of A is known f f
as the range of f & denoted by f (A).
Range = f (A) = {f (x) : x  A};
f (A)B {Range Co-domain}.
Algo Check : Rule for finding range : A B A B
First of all find the domain of y = f (x) (many-to-one) & (onto) (many-to-one) & (into)

(i) If domain  finite number of points

 range  set of corresponding f (x) values.

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Methods to check one-one mapping

2.5 Composite Functions
1. Theoretically : If f (x1) = f (x2)
 x1 = x2, then f (x) is one-one. Let us consider two functions,  f : X  Y1 and g : Y1  Y. We
define function h : x  y; such that
2. Graphically : A function is one-one, iff no line parallel
to x-axis meets the graph of function at more than h (x) = g (f (x)) = (gof ) (x).
one point.
3. By Calculus : For checking whether f (x) is One-One,
find whether function is only increasing or only
decreasing in their domain. If yes, then function is
one-one,

i.e. if f '  x   0,  x  domain

or if f '  x   0,  x  domain, To obtain h (x), we first take f–image of an element x  X so

that f (x)  Y1, which is the domain of g (x). Then take g–
then function is one-one. image of f (x), i.e., g ( f (x)) which would be an element of Y.
2.4 Even and Odd Functions

Even Function : f (–x) = f (x),  x  Domain

The graph of an even function y = f (x) is symmetric about
the y–axis. i.e., (x, y) lies on the graph  (–x, y) lies on
the graph. It should be noted that gof exists iff; the range of
f domain of g. Similarly, fog exists; iff; the range
Y–axis y = x2 of g   domain of f.

(–x, y) (x, y) 2.6 Inverse of Function

Definition : A function f : X  Y is defined to be invertible, if

X–axis there exists a function g : Y  X such that gof = IX
O
and fog = IY. The function g is called the inverse of
–1
Graph of an even function f  and is denoted by f  .
Let f : A  B be a one–one and onto function, then
Odd Function : f (– x) = –f (x),  x  Domain there exists a unique function, g : B  A such that
The graph of an odd function y = f (x) is symmetric about f (x) = y  g (y) = x,  x  A and y  B. Then g
origin i.e. if point (x, y) is on the graph of an odd function, is said to be inverse of f.
then (–x, –y) will also lie on the graph.
Thus, g  f
1
:BA  f  x  , x | x, f  x   f 
Let us consider one–one function with domain A and range B.
3
Y–axis y=x where A= {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and   f  : A B is given by
(x, y) –1
f (x) = 2x, then write f and  f  as a set of ordered pairs.
Here, member y  B arises from one and only one member x  A.

X–axis
O

(–x, –y) Graph of an odd function

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So,    f = {(1, 2) (2, 4) (3, 6) (4, 8)} Properties of inverse of a function
–1
and  f  = {(2, 1) (4, 2) (6, 3) (8. 4)} (i) The inverse of bijection is unique.
(ii) The inverse of bijection is also bijection.
(iii) If  f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f,
then fog = IB and gof = IA.
Where, IA and IB are identity function on the sets A
and B respectively.
–1 (iv) If  f  : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then
In above function, Domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 4} = range of f –1 –1 –1
–1 gof : A  C is bijection and (gof ) = (f   og ).
Range of f  = {2, 4, 6, 8} = domain of f 
(v) In general, fog gof but if, (fog) (x) = (gof) (x) = x.
Which represents for a function to have its inverse, it –1 –1
then f  = g and g = f .
must be one–one onto or bijective.
3. BINARY OPERATIONS
Graph of the inverse of an invertible function :
Definition 1 : A binary operations * on a set A is a
Let (h, k) be a point on the graph of the function f. Then
function* : A × A  A. We denote * (a, b)
(k, h) is the corresponding point on the graph of inverse of
–1 by a * b.
f  i.e.,  f  .
Definition 2 : A binary operation * on a set X is called
commutative, if a * b = b * a, for every
a, b  X.
Definition 3 : A binary operations * : A × A  A is said
to be associative if (a * b) * c = a * (b * c),
 a, b, c,  A.
Definition 4 : Given a binary operation * : A × A  A,
an element e  A, if it exists, is called
identity for the operation *,
if a * e = a = e * a,  a  A.
The line segment joining the points (h, k) and (k, h) is
3.1 General Results
bisected at right angle by the line y = x.
So that the two points play object–image role in the line If x, y are independent variable then ;
y = x as plane mirror.
(i) f (xy) = f (x) + f (y)  f (x) = k ln x or f(x) = 0
It follows that the graph of y = f (x) and its inverse written
in form y = g (x) are symmetrical about the line y = x. (ii) f (xy) = f (x) . f (y)  f (x) = xn , n  R.
(iii) f (x + y) = f (x) . f (y)  f (x) = akx.
(iv) f (x) takes rational values for all x  f (x) is constant
function.
(v) By considering a general nth degree polynomial and
writting the expression.

1 1
f (x)  f    f (x)  f 
x x

 f (x )   xn  1  1  xn

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INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

Function Domain Range

LM  ,  OP
1. y = sin-1 x iff x = sin y –1 < x < 1,
N 2 2Q
2. y = cos-1 x iff x = cos y –1 < x < 1 [0,  ]

FG   ,  IJ
3. y = tan-1 x iff x = tan y   x   H 2 2K
4. y = cot-1 x iff x = cot y   x   (0,  )

LM  .0IJ  FG 0,  OP
5. y = cosec-1 x iff x = cosec y  ,  1  [1, ] N 2 K H 2Q
LM0.  IJ  FG  , OP
6. y = sec-1 x iff x = sec y  ,  1  [1, ] N 2K H 2 Q

(i) Sin–1 x & tan–1 x are increasing functions in their domain.

(ii) Cos–1 x & cot–1 x are decreasing functions in their domain.

PROPERTY – I
{  x [–1, 1] and (/2–) [0, ])
–1 1
(i) sin x + cos x = /2, for all x [ –1, 1]  + cos–1 x = /2 ... (ii)
Proof. Let, sin–1 x =  ... (i) from (i) and (ii), we get
then, [– /2, /2] ( x [–1, 1])

 – /2 /2 sin–1 x + cos–1 x =
2
 – /2 – /2 (ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = /2, for all x R

 0

 
Proof. Let, tan–1 x =  ... (i)
2
then, (–/2, /2) {  x R)

 – [0, ]  
2   
2 2
Now, sin–1 x = 
 
 x = sin      
2 2

 
 x  cos     
2   0  
2

 cos1 x  
2

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  1
      (0, )   sin 
2  x

Now, tan–1 x =  1
{  x (–, –1] [1, )  [–1, 1] – {0}
 x = tan  x
 x = cot (/2 – ) cosec–1 x = [– /2, /2] – {0}

 1
 cot 1 x   {  /2 – (0, )}    sin 1   ... (ii)
2 x

 from (i) and (ii); we get

   cot 1 x  ... (ii)
2
1
from (i) and (ii), we get sin 1    cos ec1x
x
tan–1 x + cot–1 x = /2
1
 (ii) cos–1   = sec–1 x, for all x  (– , 1] [1, )
(iii) sec–1x + cosec–1 x = , for all x (– , –1] [1, ) x
2
Proof. Let, sec–1 x =  ... (i) Proof. Let, sec–1 x =  ... (i)

then, [0, ] – {/2} {  x  (–, –1] [1, )} then, x (–, 1] [1, ) and [0, ] – {/2}

 0 , /2 Now, sec–1 x = 

 – – 0, /2  x = sec 

    1
    ,    0   cos 
2 2 2 2 x

      1
   cos 1   ... (ii)
       ,  ,    0 x
 2   2 2 2
Now, sec–1 x =   x  (,  1]  (1, )

 x = sec  
 1
 x = cosec (/2 – )  x  [1, 1]  {0} and   [0, ]

 cosec–1 x = /2 – 
from (i) & (ii), we get
       
        ,  ,    0  1
cos1    sec 1 (x)
 2   2 2 2  x
 + cosec–1 x = /2 ... (ii)
1  cot 1 x , for x  0
from (i) and (ii); we get (iii) tan–1    
sec–1 x + cosec–1 x = /2  x    cot 1 x, for x  0

PROPERTY – II Proof. Let cot–1 x = . Then xR, x 0 and (0, ) ... (i)
Now two cases arises :
1 Case I : When x > 0
(i) sin–1   = cosec–1 x, for all x  (– , 1] [1, )
x In this case, (0, /2)
Proof. Let, cosec–1 x =  ... (i)  cot–1 x = 
then, x = cosec   x = cot 

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1 PROPERTY – III
  tan 
x
(i) cos–1 (–x) =  – cos–1 (x), for all x [–1, 1]
1 (ii) sec–1 (–x) = – sec–1 x, for all x (–, –1] [1, )
  tan 1   ... (ii)
x (iii) cot–1 (–x) = – cot–1 x, for all x R
from (i) and (ii), we get {  (0, /2)} (iv) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 (x), for all x [–1, 1]
(v) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, for all x R
1 (vi) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, for all x (–, –1] [1, )
tan 1    cot 1 x, for all x  0.
x
Proof. (i) Clearly, – x [–1, 1] for all x [–1, 1]
Case II : When x < 0 let cos–1 (–x) =  ... (i)
In this case (/2, ) {  x = cot < 0) then, – x = cos 
 x = – cos 

Now,      x = cos (– )
2
{  x (–1, 1) and – [0, ] for all [0, ]
 cos–1 x = – 
  0
2  = – cos–1 x ... (ii)
 – (–/2, 0) from (i) and (ii), we get
 cot–1 x =  cos–1 (–x) = – cos–1 x
 x = cot  Similarly, we can prove other results.
(iv) Clearly, – x [–1, 1] for all x [–1, 1]
1
  tan  let sin–1 (–x) = 
x
then, – x = sin  ... (i)
1  x = – sin 
   tan (  )
x  x = sin (–)
 – = sin–1 x
1
  tan (  ) {  tan (–) = – tan } {  x [–1, 1] and – [–/2, /2] for all [–/2, /2]
x
 = – sin–1 x ... (ii)
1 from (i) and (ii), we get
 – = tan–1   {  – (–/2, 0)}
x sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 (x)

1 PROPERTY – IV
 tan 1       ... (iii)
x
(i) sin (sin–1 x) = x, for all x [–1, 1]
from (i) and (iii), we get (ii) cos (cos–1 x) = x, for all x [–1, 1]
(iii) tan (tan–1 x) = x, for all x R
1
tan       cot 1 x, if x  0
1
(iv) cosec (cosec–1 x) = x, for all x (–, –1] [1, )
x
(v) sec (sec–1 x) = x, for all x (–, –1] [1, )
Hence, (vi) cot (cot–1 x) = x, for all x R
1 Proof. We know that, if f : A  B is a bijection, then f–1 : B A
 1   cot x,
1 for x  0
tan     1
exists such that fof–1 (y) = f (f–1 (y)) = y for all y B.
 x    cot x, for x  0
Clearly, all these results are direct consequences of this
property.

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RELATION , FUNCTION & INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Aliter : Let   [–/2, /2] and x  [–1, 1] such that

sin = x.
Repeated Curve Main Curve Repeated Curve
then, = sin–1 x
x

y=
 x = sin = sin (sin–1 x) y= x or y = 0

-

 O  3
Hence, sin (sin–1 x) = x for all x [–1, 1]

-x
2 2 2

Similarly, we can prove other results.

Remark : It should be noted that,
sin–1 (sin ) , if [– /2, /2]. Infact, we have Thus, the graph for y = sin–1 (sin x), is a straight line up and
a straight line down with slopes 1 and –1 respectively lying
   , if   [3 / 2,   / 2]
 ,   
 if   [ / 2,  / 2] between   , .
sin 1 (sin )    2 2 
   , if   [ / 2, 3 / 2]
 2  , if   [3 / 2, 5 / 2] and so on.

Similarly,

Students are adviced to learn the definition of sin–1 (sin x) as,

 , if   [, 0]
 , if   [0, ]

cos 1 (cos )  
 2  , if   [, 2 ]  5 3
2  , if   [2, 3] and so on.  x  2 ;  x
2 2

   x 3 
;  x
 2 2
  , if   (3 / 2,   / 2) 
  
 ,
 if   ( / 2,  / 2) y  sin 1 (sin x)   x ;  x
tan 1 (tan )    2 2
   , if   ( / 2, 3 / 2)   3
   2, if   (3 / 2, 5 / 2) and so on.  x ; x
 2 2
 3 5
PROPERTY – V  x  2 ;
2
x
2
... and so on

(i) Sketch the graph for y = sin–1 (sin x)

(ii) Sketch the graph for y = cos–1 (cos x).
Proof. As, y = sin–1 (sin x) is periodic with period 2.
Proof. As, y = cos–1 (cos x) is periodic with period 2.
 to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval
of length 2and repeat for entire values of x.  to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval
of length 2and repear for entire values of x of length 2.
As we know,
As we know;
  
 x;  x
2 2  x; 0x
sin 1 (sin x)   cos 1 (cos x)  
 2  x; 0  2  x  ,
(  x);      x    i.e.,   x  3 
  
2 2 2 2 
 x; 0x
or cos 1 (cos x)  
 2  x;   x  2,
  
1
 x,  x
2 2 Thus, it has been defined for 0  x  2that has length 2.
or sin (sin x)  
  x,  3 So, its graph could be plotted as;
x ,
 2 2

which is defined for the interval of length 2 , plotted as ;

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RELATION , FUNCTION & INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

y FORMULAE
xy
(i) tan–1 x + tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy < 1
–x x 1  xy
x or y = 0
O xy
(ii) tan–1 x – tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy > – 1
1  xy
Thus, the curve y = cos–1 (cos x).
2x
(iii) Sketch the graph for y = tan–1 (tan x). (iii) 2 tan–1 x = tan–1 ,|x|<1
1 x2
Proof. As y = tan–1 (tan x) is periodic with period .
 to draw this graph we should draw the graph for one interval 2x
(iv) 2 tan–1 x = sin–1 , | x | 1
of length and repeat for entire values of x. 1 x2

  
As we know; tan–1 (tan x) =  x;   x   1  x2
(v) 2 tan–1 x = cos–1 , x 0
 2 2 1 x2

  (vi) sin–1 x + sin–1 y = sin–1 (x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 )

Thus, it has been defined for   x  that has length .
2 2
So, its graph could be plotted as; (vii) sin–1 x – sin–1 y = sin–1 (x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 )

y
(viii) cos–1 x + cos–1 y = cos–1 (xy – 1  x 2 1  y2 )

x
(ix) cos–1 x – cos–1 y = cos–1 (xy + 1  x 2 1  y2 )
O

Thus, the curve for y = tan–1 (tan x), where y is not defined

for x(2n+1) .
2

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

DETERMINANTS

1. DEFINITION
a 22 a 23
e.g. M11 = minor of a11 = = a22 a33 – a32 a23
(i) The determinant consisting two rows and two a 32 a 33

a1 b1
columns is D = . Its value is given by : Cofactor of aij : Denoted by Cij
a2 b2

Cofactor of aij (Cij) = (–1)i + j Minor of aij

D = a1b2 – a2 b1
e.g. Cofactor of a11 (C11) = (–1)1+1 M11 = M11
(ii) A determinant which consists of 3 rows and 3
columns is called a 3rd-order-determinant and is of 3. EVALUATION OF DETERMINANT
the following form.

Value of any determinant can be obtain by adding product

a11 a12 a13
of all elements of a row (or column) to their corresponding
D = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a 32 a 33 cofactors.

It’s value is :
a11 a12 a13
D = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a21a32a13 e.g.   a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
– a13a22a31 – a23a32a11–a12a21a33

2. MINORS AND COFACTORS

 = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13

a11 a12 a13 = a21 C21 + a22 C22 + a23 C23

Let   a 21 a 22 a 23
= a31 C31 + a32 C32 + a33 C33
a 31 a 32 a 33
= a11 C11 + a21 C21 + a31 C31
Here aij = Element in ith row and jth column of .
= a12 C12 + a22 C22 + a32 C32
Minor of aij :
It is defined as the value of the determinant obtained by = a13 C13 + a23 C23 + a33 C33
eleminating the ith row and jth column of .
We donote the minor of aij by Mij .

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

4. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
a1 b1 c1 Ka1 Kb1 Kc1
(i) The value of a determinant remains unaltered; if the D = a2 b2 c 2 ; and D’ = a 2 b2 c2
rows and columns are interchanged, a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1 a1 a 2 a3 Then D’ = KD
D = a2 b2 c2 = 1 b2
b b3 (vi) If each element of any row (or column) can be
a3 b3 c3 c1 c 2 c3
expressed as a sum of two terms then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of two
(ii) If any two adjacent rows (or columns) of a
determinants, i.e.
determinant be interchanged, the value of
determinant is changed in sign only.
a1  x b1  y c1  z a1 b1 c1 x y z
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 = +
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
D = a2 b2 c 2 and D’ = a 1 b1 c1
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3
(vii) The value of determinant is not altered by adding
to the elements of any row (or column) a constant
D’ = – D.
multiple of the corresponding elements of any other
(iii) If a determinant has all the elements zero in any
row (or column).
row (or column) then its values is zero.
e.g.

0 0 0 R1  R1 + mR2 (change R1 as sum of R1 and m (R2).

D = a2 b2 c2 = 0
R3  R3 + nR2 (change R3 as sum of R3 and n (R2).
a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1
(iv) If a determinant has any two rows (or columns)
a2 b2 c2
D= and
identical or proportional, then its values is zero. a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1
D = a1 b1 c1 = 0 a 1  ma 2 b1  mb 2 c1  mc 2
c1 c 2 c 3
D’ = a2 b2 c2
a 3  na 2 b 3  nb 2 c 3  nc 2
(v) If all the elements of any row (or column) be
multiplied by the same number, then the determinant Then D’ = D.
is multiplied by that number.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

5. CRAMER’S RULE (NOT IN CBSE SYLLABUS)

(i) Two Variables

If a1x + b1y = c1 ... (i)

This root can be applied for solving system of ‘n’ linear
a2x + b2y = c2 ... (ii)
equations in ‘n’ variables.
Dx Dy
then x  ,y values of x, y are unique, if D  0. CONSISTENCY OF A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS
D D

a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1 (i) If D  0 then the given system of equations are

where, D  , Dx  , Dy 
a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2 consistent and have unique solution.

Similarly ‘n’ equations in ‘n’ variables can be solved. (ii) If D = 0 but at least one of Dx, Dy, Dz is not zero then
the equations are inconsistent and have no solution.
(ii) Three Variables

Let, a1x + b1y + c1z = d1 .................(i) (iii) If D = Dx = Dy = Dz = 0 then the given system of

a2x + b2y + c2z = d2 .................(ii) equations are consistent and have infinite solution

a3x + b3y + c3z = d3 .................(iii) except the case of parallel planes when there is no

solution.
Dx Dy D
Then, x = ,y  ,z  z
D D D (iv) If d1= d2 = d3 = 0 then system of equation is called
Homogenous system of equations.

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 (v) Solution of Homogenous Equations is always

Where, D = a 2 b2 c 2 ; Dx = d 2 b2 c2 ; consistent, as x = 0 = y = z is always a solution.
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3
This is known as TRIVIAL solution.

(vi) For Homogenous Equations, if D  0. Then

a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1 x = 0 = y = z is only solution.
Dy = a 2 d2 c 2 and Dz = a 2 b2 d2
(vii) For Homogenous Equations, if D = 0, then there exists
a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3
non zero solutions [NON TRIVIAL SOLUTONS] also.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

6. APPLICATION OF DETERMINANT 7. SOME MORE PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT

Following examples of short hand writing large expressions (i) Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order
are : is zero.

(i) Area of triangle whose vertices are (xr, yr) ; r = 1, 2, 3, is:

0 2 9
x1 y1 1
1 D= 2 0 log a b = 0
D= x2 y2 1
2 1
 
x3 y3 1  9 log a   0
b

If D = 0 then the three points are collinear.

(ii) Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of even order
(ii) Equation of straight line passing through (x1, y1) & is always a perfect square.

x y 1 0 5
D= = 25
 5 0 22
(x2, y2) is x1 y1 1 = 0
x2 y2 1
(iii) n–1, where n is order of the determinant is equal to the
determinant made from cofactors of elements of .
(iii) The lines :
31
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 ...........(1) a1 b1 c1 A1 B1 C1
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0............(2) e.g. a 2 b2 c2 = A 2 B2 C2
a3 b3 c 3 33 A 3 B3 C3
a3x + b3y + c3 = 0............(3)

Where Ai’s are co-factors of ai’s

a1 b1 c1
(iv) Determinant of a diagonal matrix is product of its
are concurrent if, a2 b2 c2 = 0
diagonal elements
a3 b3 c3

5 0 0
This is condition for the consistency of simultaneous
D = 0 2 0 = 5 × 2 × 6 = 60
linear equation in two variables.
0 0 6
(iv) ax2 + 2 hxy + by2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0 represents a
pair of straight lines if : (v) If a determinant considered as a polynomial becomes
zero when x = a, then x – a is factor of this. (This is
a h g an application of Factor Theorem)
abc + 2 fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 = h b f =0
g f c x a a2
D= a x x2
(v) To find the variable (x, y, z etc) in linear equations a x a
(Cramer’s rule)
Because zero when x = a so x – a is factor of this.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

(vi) The sum of the products of the elements of the i th

row/column with the co-factor of the corresponding 1 1 1
elements of kth row/column is zero provided i  k. (iii) a b c = (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (a + b + c)
3 3
n
a b c3
i.e. (i) a C
j1
ij kj  0; if i  k
1 1 1
2 2
n (iv) a b c 2 = (a – b) (b – c) (c – a) (ab + bc + ca)
(ii) 
i 1
aijCik  0 if j k a3 b3 c3

(vii) | AB | = | A | | B|
9. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS
5 2 2 3  2  17
i.e. A = ; B= ; AB =
1 1 4 1 6 2
a1 b1 1 m1 a11  b1 2 a1m1  b1m2
|A| = – 7 | B | = – 14 (a) ×
b2  2 =
a2 m2 a 2 1  b 2  2 a 2 m1  b2 m2
| A | | B | = – 7 × –14 = 98, | AB | = – 4 + 102
| AB| = 98.
a1 b1 c1 1 m1 n1
(viii) Determinant of a triangular matrix is product of its
a2 b2 c2   2 m2 n2
diagonal elements only. =
a3 b3 c3 3 m3 n3
3 2 1
D = 0 4 3 = 3 × 4 × – 1 = – 12 a11  b1 2  c1 3 a1m1  b1m 2  c1m3 a1n1  b1n 2  c1n 3
0 0 1 a 2 1  b 2 2  c 2  3 a 2 m1  b 2 m 2  c 2 m 3 a 2 n1  b 2 n 2  c 2 n 3
a 3 1  b 3 2  c3 3 a 3m1  b3m 2  c3m 3 a 3 n1  b 3 n 2  c 3 n 3

5 0 0
(b) Summation of Determinants
D’ = 4 9 0 = 5 × 9 × 1 = 45
3 2 1 f (r ) a 
Let r = g(r ) b m
8. SPECIAL DETERMINANTS h (r ) c n

(i) Circulant Determinants :

Where a, b, c, l, m and n are constants independent
The elements of the rows (or columns) are in cyclic of r, then
arrangement
n
a b c  f (r )
r 1
a 
b c a = – (a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc). n n
c a b     g(r )
r 1
r
r 1
b m
n
= – (a + b + c) (a2 + b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac)
 h (r )
r 1
c n

1 1 1
(ii) a b c = (a – b) (b – c) (c – a)
Here functions of r can be the elements of only one
a2 b2 c2 row or column. None of the elements other than
row or column should be dependent on r.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

10. DIFFERENTIATION OF DETERMINANT

f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) f 3 ( x )
This formula is only applicable if there is a variable only in
g1 ( x ) g 2 ( x ) g 3 ( x )
(x) = one row or column, otherwise expand the determinant and
h1 ( x ) h 2 ( x ) h 3 ( x )
integrate.

Then 4
x3 cos 2 x 2 x / 2
5
Example : If f(x) = tan x 1 sec 2x then
f1 ' ( x ) f 2 ' ( x ) f 3 ' ( x ) f1 ( x ) f 2 (x) f 3 (x)
sin 3 x x4 5
 f (x)dx 
 / 2
’(x) = g1 ( x ) g 2 ( x ) g 3 ( x )  g1 ' ( x ) g 2 ' ( x ) g 3 ' ( x )
h1 ( x ) h 2 ( x ) h 3 ( x ) h1 ( x ) h 2 ( x ) h 3 ( x )
(a) 2 (b) –2 (c) 0 (d) none of these
Sol. We have
f1 ( x ) f 2 (x ) f 3 (x )
g1 ( x ) g 2 ( x) g 3 (x ) 4
+  x3 cos 2 x 2 x
h1 ' ( x ) h 2 ' ( x ) h 3 ' ( x ) 5
f(–x) =  tan x 1 sec 2 x = – f(x)
3 4
 sin x x 5
Integration of determinant

f ( x ) g( x ) /2
 f ( x )dx  0 
If (x) =
1 2
,
 / 2

b b
x 3 sin x a
b

then  (x) dx = a f (x) dx a g(x) dx .

Example : If f(x) =
1 2
, then  f (x ) dx is
a
a
1 2
1 1
(a) 0 (b) (c) 3 (d) 
2 2
Here f (x) and g (x) and functions of x and 1,  2 are
constants. a a
a
x 3dx  sin xdx  10 0
Sol.  f (x ) dx =  a a 1
=0
a 1 2

Hence (a) is correct answer.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

MATRICES
Square Matrix
1. DEFINITION AND IMPORTANT TERMS
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number
A set of (m × n) numbers arranged in the form of an ordered set of column, say (n × n) is called a square matirx of order n.
of m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n.
 2 1  1
A  [a ij ]mn e.g. the matrix 3  2 5  is square matrix of order 3.
 
1 5  3
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
a ... a 2 n  Diagonal Matrix
 21 a 22
or A   a 31 a 32 ... a 3n  is a matrix of order m×n.
  A square matix is called a diagonal matrix if all the elements,
 ... ... ... ... 
except those in the leading diagonal, are zero.
a ... a mn 
 m1 a m 2 A = [aij]n×n , aij = 0 for all i  j

Scalar Matrix

A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are

equal is called the scalar matrix.
The matrix is not a number. It has no numerical value. A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is called a scalar matrix if.
But it is an arrangement of numbers. (i) aij = 0 for all i  j and
(ii) aii = C for all i {1, 2, ..., n}

Identity or Unit Matrix

2. TYPES OF MATRICES
A square matrix each of whose diagonal element is unity
and each of whose non diagonal element is equal to zero is
Row Matrix
called an identity or unit matrix.
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix or a A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is called identity or unit matrix if
row vector. (i) aij = 0 for all i  j, and
e.g. A = [1 2 –1 –2] is a row matrix of order 1×4. (ii) aii = 1 for all i {1, 2, ..., n}
Column Matrix The identity matrix of order n is denoted by In.

A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix 1 0 0

1 0   
or a column vector. e.g. I2 =   , I3 = 0 1 0
 0 1 
0 0 1
3
1 2
Null Matrix
e.g. A =  2  and B =   are column matrices or
5
1   A matrix whose all elements are zero is called a null matrix
4
or a zero matrix, represented by O.
order 3×1 and 4×1 respectively.

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DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

4. SUM OF MATRICES
 0 0  0 0 0 
e.g. 0 0  ,  
  0 0 0  Let A = [aij], B = [bij] be matrices of the same order m×n.

Then C = A + B = [cij], is a matrix of order m×n.

Upper Triangular Matrix
Where, [cij] = [aij + bij]

A square matrix A = [aij] is called an upper triangular matrix

1 2 4 7 3 2 
if aij = 0 i > j. e.g. A = 0 5 3 and B = 5 1 9 
   

5 4 3 1  7 2  3 4  2 8 5 6 
  A+B=   =  
e.g A = 0 2 1 0  5 5  1 3  9  5 6 12
0 0 6

1  7 2  3 4  2  6  1 2 
A – B = 0  5 5  1 3  9  =   5 4  6 
Lower Triangular Matrix    

A square matrix A = [aij] is called lower triangular PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

if aij = 0 i < j. (i) Matrix addition is commutative

A+ B = B +A
2 0 0 (ii) Matrix addition is associative
 
e.g A = 3 2 0
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
4 5 3
5. SCALAR MULTIPLE OF A MATRIX

3. EQUALITY OF MATRICES If A be a given matrix and k is any scalar number real or

complex.
Two matrices A = [aij]m×n and B = [bij]r×s are equal if
Then by matrix kA is a matrix of same order, where all the
(i) m = r, i.e., the number of rows in A equals the number elements of kA are k times of the corresponding elements
of rows in B. of A.

(ii) n = s, i.e., the number of columns in A equals the 2 3 1 

e.g. If A = 5 2 4
number of columns in B.  

(iii) aij = bij for i = 1, 2, ..., m and j = 1, 2, ..., n.

3.2 3.3 3.1 6 9 3
If two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B, Then 3A =   = 15 6 12
3.5 3.2 3.4  
otherwise we write A  B.

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Properties of Multiplication by a Scalar 7. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are matrix of the same type and  (i) Multiplication of matrices is distributive with
and are any scalars, then respect to a addition of matrices.
(i) (A + B) = A + B A (B + C) = AB + AC.
(ii) (+ ) A = A + A (ii) Matrix multiplication is associative if
(iii) (A) = () A. conformability is assured.
(iv) If A is a square matrix of order ‘n’ i.e. A (BC) = (AB) C.
n
Then |kA| = k |A| (iii) The multiplication of matrices is not always
commutative. i.e. AB is not always equal to BA.
6. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION (iv) Multiplication of a matrix A by a null matrix
conformable with A for multiplication is a null
If A = [aij]m×p and B = [bjk]p×n
matrix i.e. AO = O.
In particular if A be a square matrix and O be square
Then Am×p × Bp×n = (AB)m×n null matrix of the same order, then OA = AO = O.
p (v) If AB = O then it does not necessarily mean that
or C = AB = [cik]m×n where cik = 
j1
a ij b jk A = O or B = O.

 0 0  1 0  0 0 
For multiplication number of columns of first matrix 0 1  0 0  = 0 0 
     
should be equal to number of rows of second matrix.
i.e. cik = ai1 b1k + ai2b2k + ... aipbpk None of the matrices on the left is a null matrix
In other words cik = Sum of the products of ith row of A whereas their products is a null matrix.
(having p elements) with k th column of B (having p (vi) Multiplication of matrix A by a unit matrix I :
elements). Let A be a m × n matrix.
Then AIn = A and Im A = A..
2 3
 1  2 3   (vii) If A and B are square matrices of order ‘n’
e.g. If A =   and B = 4 5
 4 2 5 23 2 1
Then |AB| = |A| |B|
32 n
(viii) |kA| = k |A| where k is a scalar and n is the order of
Compute AB and show that AB  BA. A is 2×3 type and B square matrix A.
is 3×2 type and hence both AB and BA are defined because (ix) Positive Integral Powers of Matrix
the number of columns in pre factor is equal to the number
Let A be any square matrix of order n.
of rows in post factor.
Then A2 = A.A
Sol.
A3 = A.A.A
 1.2  2.4  3.2 1.3  2.5  3.1   0  4 Am = A.A.A ... m times
AB =  4.2  2.4  5.2 4.3  2.5  5.1 = 10 3 
 22 All are square matrix of order n.
(i) Am . An = (A.A.A ... m times) (A.A.A ... n times)
2 3  10 2 21
   1  2 3   = A.A.A.... (m + n) times
BA = 4 5  4 2 5 =  16 2 37 
2 1   23   2  2 11  = Am+n
32 33
(ii) (Am)n = Amn
Hence A B  BA. Also, we define A0 = I

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8. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If A be a given matrix of the order m × n then the matrix

obtained by changing the rows of A into columns and
columns of A into rows is called Transpose of matrix A For a skew symmetric matrix :
and is denoted by A' or AT. Hence the matrix A' is of order
aii = – aii for all values of i
n × m.
[i = j when elements are diagonals].

3 4  2aii = 0  aii = 0
   3 2 5
e.g. A = 2 1 then AT = A' =  4 1 9 Hence the diagonal elements of skew symmetric
5 9   23
32
matrix are zero.

Properties of Transpose 0 h g
e.g.  h 0 f  is a skew symmetric matrix

(i) (A')' = A.   g  f 0
(ii) (kA)' = kA'. k being a scalar.

(iii) (A + B)' = A' + B'.

10. ADJOINT
(iv) (AB)' = B'A'.

(v) (ABC)' = C'B'A'. If A is a square matrix, then transpose of a matrix made

from cofactors of elements of A is called adjoint matrix of
9. SYMMETRIC AND SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRICES
A. It’s denoted by adj A.

(i) A sqaure matrix A = [aij] will be called symmetric Properties of Adjoint Matrix
if AT = A.
(i) A. (Adj A) = | A | In = (adj A) . A
i.e. every ijth element = jith element.
(ii) |adj A | = | A |n–1

a h g  (iii) adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A

e.g. A = h b f 
(iv) (adj A)T = adj AT
g f c 
33
(v) adj (AB) = (adj B) . (adj A)

(ii) A square matrix A = [a ij ] will be called (iv) Adj (A–1) = (adj A)–1

skew symmetric if AT = –A. 2

(vii) |(adj (adj (A)) | = |A|(n-1)
i.e. every ijth element = -(jith element).

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11. INVERSE OF MATRIX (A) Method to Find Inverse by Elementary Transformations :

Row Transformation
1
A–1 = adj(A)
|A| (i) A–1 exists if |A|  0.

(ii) To find A–1 by row transformation, then we write

Properties of Inverse Matrices
A A–1 = I.
(i) (AT)–1 = (A–1)T (iii) Apply row transformations to the pre-factor A on
(ii) (AB)–1 = B–1 A–1 L.H.S. & to I on R.H.S. such that A becomes a unit

(iii) (A–1)–1 = A matrix.

(iv) Now R.H.S. becomes I A–1 = B A–1 = B

1
(iv) (kA)–1 = A–1 if k  0.
k 13. SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION
BY MATRIX METHOD
(v) Let A, B, C be square matrix of the same order n. If A
is non–singular matrix then Consider a system of linear equation
(a) AB = AC  B = C (left cancellation law) a11 x1 + a12x2 + ....................... a1n xn = b1

(b) BA = CA  B = C (right cancellation law) a21 x1 + a22x2 + ....................... a2n xn = b2

.....................................................................
(vi) If A is non singular matrix such that A is symmetric
then A–1 is also symmetric. .....................................................................

an1 x1 + an2x2 + ....................... ann xn = bn

12. ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATIONS We can express these equations as a single matrix equation.

Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called

an elementary transformation.  a 11 a 12 ...... a 1n   x1   b1 
a  x  b 
(i) Interchanging any two rows (or column).  21 a 22 ...... a 2 n   2  2
 ..... ..... .....  ..... .....
(ii) Multiplication of the elements of any row (or    = 
 ..... ..... .....  ..... .....
column) by a non zero scalar quantity. a a n2 a nn  x   b 
 n1  n  n
(iii) Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any
row to the corresponding element of any other row. A X B
Two matrices are said to be equivalent if one is obtained Let | A |  0 so that A–1exists uniquely per-multiplying
from the other by elementary transformation. The sysmbol  both sides AX = B, by A–1 we get
is used for equivalence. A–1 (AX) = A–1 B  (AA–1) X = A–1 B
 I X = A–1 B  X = A–1 B

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Criterion of Consistency
14. SOME OTHER TYPES OF MATRICES
Let AX = B be a system of n linear equation in n variables.
(a) Orthogonal Matrix : A square matrix A is called an orthogonal
(i) If | A |  0 then the system of the equations is matrix if the product of the matrix A and its transpose A’ is
consistent and has a unique solution given by identity matrix.
X = A–1 B. AA’ = I
(ii) If | A | = 0 and (adj A) B = O then the system of
equations is consistent and has infinitely many
solutions except the case of parallel planes when
there is no solution.
(iii) If | A | = 0 and (adj A) B  O then the system of (i) If AA’ = I then A–1 = A’
equations is inconsistent i.e. it has no solution. (ii) If A and B are orthogonal then AB is also orthogonal.
Homogeneous Equation (iii) All above properties are defined for square matrix only.
(iv) Elements of all 3 rows (or columns) of orthogonal
The system of equations AX = B is said to be homogeneous matrix of order 3 × 3 represent unit vectors.
if the constants b1, b2, b3..... bn are all zero. That is if the
(b) Idempotent Matrix : A matrix ‘A’ such that A2 = A is
matrix B is a zero matrix and the matrix and the system is called idempotent..
of the form
* Only square matrix can be idempotent matrix.
AX = O * Identity matrix (unit matrix) is also idempotent
Where 0 is the null matrix of order n × 1. matrix.
(i) If | A |  0 then its only solution X = 0 is called
1 0 0
trivial solution. (x = y = z = 0)  
Example : A = 0 1 0
(ii) If | A | = 0 then AX = O have both trivial and non 0 0 0
trivial type solutions. In this case number of
solutions will be Infinite.
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
(iii) The condition for 0 1 0 0 1 0  
A2 =     = 0 1 0
a1x + b1y + c1z = 0; 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 and
(c) Periodic Matrix : A matrix ‘A’ will be called a periodic
a3x + b3y + c3z = 0 matrix if Ak+1 = A where A is +ve integer and k is least
to have non-zero or non-trivial solutions is : positive integer for which Ak+1 = A, then k is said to be the
period of A.
a1 b1 c1 (d) Nilpotent Matrix : A matrix ‘A’ will be called nilpotent
a2 b2 c2
=0 matrix if Ak = 0 (null matrix), k is least positive integer
a3 b3 c3 and k is called index of the nilpolent matrix.
(e) Involuntary Matrix : A matrix ‘A’ will be called an
involluntary matrix if A2 = I (Unit Matrix).
• Unit matrix is also involuntary matrix.

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CONTINUITY

1. DEFINITION 5. If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b)

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a; where are of opposite signs, then there exists at least one
a  domain of f (x), if solution of equation f (x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b).

lim f  x   lim f  x   f  a  3. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

x a  x a

i.e., LHL = RHL = value of a function at x = a Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any
or lim f  x   f  a  two points of I. Then if y0 is a number between f (a) and f (b),
x a
their exits a number c between a and b such that f (c) = y0.
12.1 Reasons of discontinuity
f (b)
If f (x) is not continuous at x = a, we say that f (x) is
discontinuous at x = a. y0
There are following possibilities of discontinuity :
f (a)
1. lim f  x  and lim f  x  exist but they are not
x a  x a
equal. 0 a c b x
The Function f, being continuous on (a,b)
2. lim f  x  and lim f  x  exists and are equal but takes on every value between f (a) and f (b)
x a  x a
not equal to f (a).
3. f (a) is not defined.
4. At least one of the limits does not exist. Geometrically,
the graph of the function will exhibit a break at the
point of discontinuity. That a function f which is continuous in [a, b] possesses
the following properties :
(i) If f (a) and f (b) possess opposite signs, then there
3 exists at least one solution of the equation
2 f (x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b).
(ii) If K is any real number between f (a) and f (b), then
1
there exists at least one solution of the equation f
0 (x) = K in the open interval (a, b).
1 2 3 4
The graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1, 2 and 3. 4. CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL

2. PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS (a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is

continuous at each and every point  (a, b).
Let f (x) and g (x) be continuous functions at x = a. Then, (b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed
interval [a, b] if :
1. c f (x) is continuous at x = a, where c is any constant. (1) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b) and
2. f (x) ± g (x) is continuous at x = a. (2) f is right continuous at 'a' i.e. Limit
x a
3. f (x). g (x) is continuous at x = a. f (x) = f (a) = a finite quantity.
4. f (x)/g (x) is continuous at x = a, provided g(a)  0.- (3) f is left continuous at 'b'; i.e. Limit
xb
f (x) = f (b) = a finite quantity.

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(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity :

5. A LIST OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Where Limit f (x) exists & f (a) also exists but;
Function f (x) Interval in which x a

f (x) is continuous
Limit  f (a).
1. constant c (–, ) x a
2. xn, n is an integer 0 (–, )
3. x–n, n is a positive integer (–, ) – {0}
4. |x–a| (–, ) x 2  16
E.g. f (x) = , x  4 and f (4) = 9 has an isolated point
5. P (x) = a0xn + a1xn–1 +.....+ an (–, ) x4
p (x)
6. , where p (x) and (–, )–{x ; q (x)=0} discontinuity at x = 4.
q (x)
q (x) are polynomial in x
 0 if x  I
7. sin x (–, ) Similarly f (x) = [x] + [–x] =  has an isolated
8. cos x (–, )  1 if x  I

9. tan x (–, ) – (2n  1) : n  I  point discontinuity at all x  I.
 2 
10. cot x (–, )– {n : n I}
11. sec x (–, ) – {(2n + 1)
/2 : nI}
12. cosec x (–, ) – {n : n I}
13. ex (–, )
14. logex (0, )

6. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
Type-1 : (Removable type of discontinuities)
In case, Limit f (x) exists but is not equal to f (c) then the
x c
function is said to have a removable discontnuity or
discontinuity of the first kind. In this case, we can redefine Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities)
the function such that Limit f (x) = f (c) and make it
x c
continuous at x = c. Removable type of discontinuity can be In case, Limit f (x) does not exist, then it is not possible to
xa
further classified as :
(a) Missing Point Discontinuity : make the function continuous by redefining it. Such
discontinuities are known as non-removable discontinuity
Where Limit f (x) exists finitely but f (a) is not defined.
x a or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of
discontinuity can be further classified as :
1 x   9  x 2
 has a missing point discontinuity
E.g. f (x) =
1 x 
at x = 1, and
sin x
f (x) = has a missing point discontinuity at x = 0.
x
y f (x) Lim
xa

a x

missing point discontinuity at x = a

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(a) Finite Discontinuity :

1
E.g., f (x) = x – [x] at all integral x; f (x) = tan–1 at x = 0 and
x
(a) In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the non-
negative difference between the value of the RHL at
1 + –
f (x) = 1 at x = 0 (note that f (0 ) = 0 ; f (0 ) = 1) x = a and LHL at x = a is called the jump of discontinuity. A
1 2x function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval
I is called a piece wise continuous or sectionally continuous
(b) Infinite Discontiunity : function in this interval.
(b) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential
1 1
E.g., f (x) = or g (x) = 2 at x = 4 ; f (x) = 2
tanx and Logarithmic functions are continuous in their
x 4  
x  4
domains.
(c) If f (x) is continuous and g (x) is discontinuous at x = a
 cos x
at x = and f (x) = at x = 0. then theproduct function  (x) = f (x) . g (x) is not necessarily
2 x
be discontinuous at x = a. e.g.
(c) Oscillatory Discontinuity :
 
sin x0
E.g., f (x) = sin
1
at x = 0. f (x) = x and g (x) =  x

x  0 x0

In all these cases the value of f (a) of the function at x = a

(d) If f (x) and g (x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the
(point of discontinuity) may or may not exist but Limit
im does
xa product function  (x) = f (x) . g (x) is not necessarily be
not exist. discontinuous at x = a . e.g.

 1 x 0
f (x) = –g (x) = 
 1 x  0
y

(e) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous eg.

2
f (x) = 1 x  x 1 is not continuous at x = 1.
1
(1,1)
–1 (f) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have
1 2 x a range also in closed interval.
Nature of discontinuity (g) If f is continuous at x = a and g is continuous at
x = f (a) then the composite g [ f (x)] is continous at

x sin x
x = a E.g f (x) = and g (x) = |x| are continuous at x
From the adjacent graph note that x2 + 2
– f is continuous at x = –1
– f has isolated discontinuity at x = 1 x sin x
= 0, hence the composite (gof ) (x) = will also be
x2 + 2
– f has missing point discontinuity at x = 2
– f has non-removable (finite type) discontinity at the origin. continuous at x = 0.

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DIFFERENTIABILITY
7. DEFINITION
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from right)
Let f (x) be a real valued function defined on an open interval f (a+).
(a, b) where c  (a, b). Then f (x) is said to be differentiable or
f a – h   f a 
derivable at x = c,  Slope of Left hand secant = as h
h

f  x   f c  0, Q  A and secant AQ  tangent at A

iff, lim exists finitely..
x c  x  c
 f a – h   f a  
 Left hand derivative  Lim  
This limit is called the derivative or differentiable coefficient h 0  h 
of the function f (x) at x = c, and is denoted by
= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from left) f (a–).
d Thus, f (x) is differentiable at x = c.
f   c  or
dx
 f  x  x  c .
f  x   f c
 lim exists finitely
x c  x  c
Y y – f (x)
P f  x   f c f  x   f c
Right secant (a+h, f (a+h))  lim  lim
through A
x c   
x  c x  c  x  c
Left secant
through A f c  h   f c f  c  h   f c
A  lim  lim
Tangent at A. h 0 h h 0 h
(a–h, f (a–h)) Q

f  x – f c f c – h – f c
Hence, lim–  lim is
a X x c  x – c h 0 –h
a–h a+h
called the left hand derivative of f (x) at x = c and
is denoted by f  (c–) or L f  (c).

f a  h   f a  f  x  – f c f c + h – f c
 Slope of Right hand secant = as While, lim+  lim is
h xc x–c h 0 h

h  0, P  A and secant (AP)  tangent at A called the right hand derivative of f (x) at x = c
and is denoted by f  (c+) or R f  (c).
 f a  h   f a  
 Right hand derivative  Lim   If f  (c–)  f  (c+), we say that f (x) is not differentiable
h 0  h 
at x = c.

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or f (x) is differentiable at x = c
8. DIFFERENTIABILITY IN A SET
 f (x) is continuous at x = c.
1. A function f (x) defined on an open interval (a, b) is said to
be differentiable or derivable in open interval (a, b), if it is
differentiable at each point of (a, b).
2. A function f (x) defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to be Converse : The converse of the above theorem is not
differentiable or derivable. “If f is derivable in the open necessarily true i.e., a function may be continuous at a
interval (a, b) and also the end points a and b, then f is said point but may not be differentiable at that point.
to be derivable in the closed interval [a, b]”. E.g., The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but it is
not differentiable at x = 0, as shown in the figure.
f  x   f a  f  x   f  b
i.e., lim and lim , both exist.
x a
x a x b  xb
y
A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is f (x)=|x|
differentiable at every point of its domain.

x' x
O

1. If f (x) and g (x) are derivable at x = a then the y'

functions f (x) + g (x), f (x) – g (x), f (x). g (x) will also
be derivable at x = a and if g (a)  0 then the function The figure shows that sharp edge at x = 0 hence, function
f (x)/g(x) will also be derivable at is not differentiable but continuous at x = 0.
x = a.
2. If f (x) is differentiable at x = a and g (x) is not
differentiable at x = a, then the product function
F (x) = f (x). g (x) can still be differentiable at
x = a. E.g. f (x) = x and g (x) = |x|.
(a) Let f + (a) = p & f – (a) = q where p & q are finite then
3. If f (x) and g (x) both are not differentiable at
:
x = a then the product function; F (x) = f (x). g (x)
can still be differentiable at x = a. E.g., (i) p = q  f is derivable at x = a
f (x) = |x| and g (x) = |x|.  f is continuous at x = a.
4. If f (x) and g (x) both are not differentiable at (ii) p  q  f is not derivable at x = a.
x = a then the sum function F (x) = f (x) + g (x) may
It is very important to note that f may be still continuous
be a differentiable function. E.g., f (x) = |x| and
at x = a.
g (x) = – |x|.
In short, for a function f :
Differentiable  Continuous;
9. RELATION B/W CONTINUITY & Not Differentiable  Not Continuous
DIFFERENTIABILITY (i.e., function may be continuous)
But,
In the previous section we have discussed that if a function
Not Continuous  Not Differentiable.
is differentiable at a point, then it should be continuous at
(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at
that point and a discontinuous function cannot be
x = a it geometrically implies a sharp corner at
differentiable. This fact is proved in the following theorem.
x = a.
Theorem : If a function is differentiable at a point, it is
necessarily continuous at that point. But the converse is Theorem 2 : Let f and g be real functions such that fog is
not necessarily true, defined if g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g
(a), show that fog is continuous at x = a.

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DIFFERENTIATION

10. DEFINITION 11. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARD FUNCTION

(a) Let us consider a function y = f (x) defined in a certain interval.

d n
It has a definite value for each value of the independent (i)
dx
 
x  n . x n 1 ; x  R, n  R, x  0
variable x in this interval.
d x
Now, the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment (ii)
dx
 
e  ex
in the independent variable,
d x
y f  x  x   f  x 

(iii)
dx
 
a  a x . ln a  a  0 
x x
d 1
y (iv)
dx
 ln x  
x
Now, as  x  0, y  0 and  finite quantity, then
x
d 1
dy (v)
dx
 loga x   log a e
x
derivative f(x) exists and is denoted by y’ or f ’(x) or
dx
d
(vi)  sin x   cos x
y  f  x  x   f  x  dx
Thus, f '  x   lim    lim
x 0  x  x 0 x
d
(vii)  cos x    sin x
(if it exits) dx

for the limit to exist, d

(viii) (tan x)  sec2 x
dx
f x  h  f x f x  h  f x
lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h d
(ix)  sec x   sec x . tan x
dx
(Right Hand derivative) (Left Hand derivative)
d
(b) The derivative of a given function f at a point x = a of its (x)  cosec x    cosec x . cot x
dx
domain is defined as :
d
f a  h   f a  (xi)  cot x    cosec2 x
Limit , provided the limit exists & is dx
h 0 h
denoted by f ’(a). d
(xii)  constant   0
dx
Note that alternatively, we can define
d 1
f  x   f a  (xiii)
dx
 
sin 1 x  , –1<x<1
f '  a   Limit , provided the limit exists. 1 x2
x a xa

This method is called first principle of finding the derivative d 1

(xiv)
dx
 
cos 1 x  , –1<x<1
of f(x). 1  x2

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d 1  du   du 
(xv) 
tan 1 x   , xR   3   u1 u 2 u 4 ... u n    4   u1 u 2 u 3 u 5 ... u n 
dx 1  x2  dx   dx 

d 1  du 
(xvi)
dx

cot 1 x  
1 x2
, xR  ...   n   u1 u 2 u 3 ... u n 1 
 dx 

d 1
(xvii)
dx

sec1 x   , x 1  du   dv 
v   u  
x x2 1 d u  dx   dx  where v  0
(iv) “Quotient Rule”  
dx  v  v2
d 1
(xviii)
dx

cosec1x   , x 1 known as
x x2 1
(b) Chain Rule : If y = f (u), u = g(w), w = h (x)
(xix) Results : dy dy du dw
then  . .
dx du dw dx
If the inverse functions f & g are defined by
y = f (x) & x = g (y). Then g (f (x)) = x. dy
or  f ' u  . g ' w  . h ' x 
 g’ (f(x)) . f’ (x) = 1. dx

dy dy
This result can also be written as, if exists &  0 , then
dx dx

dx  dy  dy dx dy  dx   dx  dy du
 1/   or .  1 or  1/     0  In general if y = f (u) then  f u . .
dy  dx  dx dy dx  dy   dy  dx dx

12. THEOREMS ON DERIVATIVES 13. METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION

13.1 Derivative by using Trigonometrical Substitution

If u and v are derivable functions of x, then,

d du dv Using trigonometrical transformations before differentiation

(i) Term by term differentiation : u  v  
dx dx dx shorten the work considerably. Some important results are
given below :
d du
(ii) Multiplication by a constant  K u   K , where K is 2 tan x
dx dx (i) sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x =
1  tan 2 x
any constant
1  tan 2 x
d dv du (ii) cos 2x = 2 cos2 x – 1 = 1 – 2 sin2 x 
(iii) “Product Rule”  u.v   u  v known as 1  tan 2 x
dx dx dx
In general, 2 tan x 1  cos 2x
(iii) tan 2x  2
, tan 2 x 
1  tan x 1  cos 2x
(a) If u1, u2, u3, u4, ..., un are the functions of x, then
(iv) sin 3x = 3 sin x – 4 sin3 x
d (v) cos 3x = 4 cos3 x – 3 cos x
 u1 . u 2 . u3 . u 4 . ... . u n 
dx
3tan x  tan 3 x
(vi) tan 3x 
 du   du  1  3tan 2 x
  1   u 2 u 3 u 4 ... u n    2   u1 u 3 u 4 ... u n 
 dx   dx 
  1  tan x
(vii) tan   x  
 4  1  tan x

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  1  tan x 13.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

(viii) tan   x  
4  1  tan x
To find the derivative of :
(ix) 1  sin x   cos x  sin x f2 (x)
2 2 If y   f1  x or y = f1 (x) . f2 (x) . f3 (x) ...

 xy  f1  x  . f 2  x  . f3  x  ...
(x) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1   or y
 1  xy  g1  x  .g 2  x  .g3  x  ...

(xi) 
sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1 x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2  then it is convenient to take the logarithm of the function
first and then differentiate. This is called derivative of the
logarithmic function.
1 1 2

(xii) cos x  cos y  cos xy  1  x 1  y
1 2
 Important Notes (Alternate methods)
(xiii) sin–1x + cos–1x = tan–1x + cot–1x = sec–1x + cosec–1x = /2 g x
1. If y   f  x   e g  x  ln f  x  ((variable)variable) { x = eln x}
–1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
(xiv) sin x = cosec (1/x) ; cos x = sec (1/x) ; tan x = cot (1/x)
dy  d d 
  e g  x  ln f  x  .  g  x  . ln f  x   ln f  x  . g  x  
dx  dx dx 

Some standard substitutions : gx  f ' x  

  f  x  .  g  x .  ln f  x  . g '  x  
Expressions Substitutions  f x 

2. If y = {f (x)}g (x)
a2  x2  x = a sin  or a cos 
dy
  Derivative of y treating f (x) as constant + Derivative of
dx
a2  x2  x = a tan or a cot 
y treating g(x) as constant

 x2  a 2  x = a sec  or a cosec    f  x 
gx
.ln f  x  .
d
g  x   g  x   f  x 
g  x  1 d
. f x
dx dx

ax ax g x  g  x 1

  or   x = a cos  or a cos 2   f  x  .ln f  x  . g '  x   g  x  . f  x  . f ' x 
ax ax
13.3 Implict Differentiation :  (x, y) = 0
 a  x   x  b  or 2 2
x = a cos  + b sin 
(i) In order to find dy/dx in the case of implicit function, we
ax  xb differentiate each term w.r.t. x, regarding y as a function of x
  or   & then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally
 xb ax
find dy/dx.
(ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit function, both x &
 x  a   x  b  or x = a sec2  – b tan2 
y are present.
Alternate Method : If f (x, y) = 0
 xa   xb
  or  
 xb  x a   f 
dy   diff . of f w.r.t. x treating y as constant
x
then     
 2ax  x 2  x = a (1 – cos ) dx  f 
 
diff . of f w.r.t. y treating x as constant

 y

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13.4 Parametric Differentiation 14. DERIVATIVE OF ORDER TWO & THREE

If y = f (t) & x = g(t) where t is a Parameter, then Let a function y = f (x) be defined on an open interval
(a, b). It’s derivative, if it exists on (a, b), is a certain function
dy dy / dt
 ...(1) f ’(x) [or (dy/dx) or y’] & is called the first derivative of y w.r.t.
dx dx / dt
x. If it happens that the first derivative has a derivative on
(a, b) then this derivative is called the second derivative of
y w.r.t. x & is denoted by f ”(x) or (d2y/dx2) or y”.

dy dy dt Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t. x, if it exists, is

1.  .
dx dt dx
d3 y d  d 2 y 
d 2 y d  dy  d  dy  dt  dy  defined by    it is also denoted by f ”(x) or y”’.
2.      .  in terms of t dx 3 dx  dx 2 
dx 2 dx  dx  dt  dx  dx  dx 
Some Standard Results :
d  f 't   1
  . {From (1)}
dt  g '  t   f '  t  dn m!
(i) n
 ax  b m  .a n .  ax  b 
mn
, m  n.
dx  m  n !
f   t  g   t   g   t  f   t 
 3
 f '  t  dn n
(ii) x  n!
dx n
13.5 Derivative of a Function w.r.t. another Function

dy dy / dx f   x  dn
Let y = f (x) ; z = g(x) then dz  dz / dx  g  x
(iii)
dx n
 
e mx  m n .emx , m  R
 
13.6 Derivative of Infinite Series dn  n 
n 
(iv) sin  ax  b    a n sin  ax  b   , n  N
dx  2 
If taking out one or more than one terms from an infinite
series, it remains unchanged. Such that
dn
(v)
dx n
 cos  ax  b    a n cos  ax  b  n2  , n  N
(A) If y  f x  f x  f  x   .......  

then y  f  x   y  (y2 – y) = f (x) d n ax

(vi)
dx n
 
e sin  bx  c   r n .eax .sin  bx  c  n   , n  N

dy
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get (2y – 1) = f ’(x)
dx
where r   a 2  b2  ,   tan 1  b / a .
.......
f  x f  x 
(B) If y  f  x  then y = {f (x)}y  y = ey ln f (x)
d n ax
(vii)
dx n
 
e .cos  bx  c   r n .eax .cos  bx  c  n   , n  N
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

y 1
y  f  x  . f '  x  y2 f ' x 
dy
  where r   a 2  b2  ,   tan 1  b / a .
dx 1   f  x y . n f  x  f  x  1  y  n f  x 

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