Reading: March 11, 2016 17:10 WSPC/S0219-8878 IJGMMP-J043 1650055

2nd Reading
March 11, 2016 17:10 WSPC/S0219-8878 IJGMMP-J043 1650055
International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

Vol. 13 (2016) 1650055 (23 pages)
c World Scientific Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S0219887816500559
Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models
Binaya K. Bishi
Department of Mathematics
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
by WEIZMANN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE on 04/01/16. For personal use only.
Int. J. Geom. Methods Mod. Phys. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com
Nagpur 440010, India

binaybc@gmail.com
Received 20 January 2016

Accepted 2 February 2016
Published 15 March 2016
This paper deals with the Bianchi type-III dark energy model and equation of state
parameter in a first class of f (R, T ) gravity. Here, R and T represents the Ricci scalar and
trace of the energy momentum tensor, respectively. The exact solutions of the modified
field equations are obtained by using (i) linear relation between expansion scalar and
shear scalar, (ii) linear relation between state parameter and skewness parameter and
(iii) variable deceleration parameter. To obtain the physically plausible cosmological
models, the variable deceleration parameter with the suitable substitution leads to the
1
scale factor of the form a(t) = [sinh(αt)] n , where α and n > 0 are arbitrary constants.
It is observed that our models are accelerating for 0 < n < 1 and for n > 1, transition
phase from deceleration to acceleration. Further, we have discussed physical properties
of the models.
Keywords: Dark energy; f (R, T ) modified gravity; variable deceleration parameter.
1. Introduction
In late 1990s, the concept of dark energy came to the existence through the study
of brightness of distinct supernovas-exploding stars. The existence of dark energy is
confirmed by a survey of more than 200,000 galaxies but physics behind it remains
unknown [1]. The dark energy is again confirmed through the Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB) anisotropies [2–4], Large Scale Structure (LSS) [5–7], the Sloan
Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) [8, 9], the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
(WMAP) [10] and the Chandra X-ray observatory [11]. Our universe is dominated
by a scalar field with negative pressure, which is termed as dark energy. It con-
stitutes 34 of the critical density. The dark energy with negative pressure and
positive energy is responsible for accelerated expansion of the Universe [12–14]. It
violates the strong energy condition. This violation provides reverse gravitational
effect and due to reverse gravitational effect transition from the earlier deceleration
to recent acceleration phase takes place [15].
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B. K. Bishi
There are several candidates for dark energy like cosmological constant [16–19],
Quintessence [20], phantom [21], k-essence [22], tachyons [23] and Chaplygin gas
[24]. Cosmological constant is the simplest one among all. The addition of cosmolog-
ical constant to the Einstein’s field equation is the most efficient way of generating
accelerated expansion. However, it suffers from problems like cosmic coincidence
and fine-tuning in cosmology [17, 25]. Thus, in spite of these representatives of
dark energy, cosmic acceleration is a problem of discussion to modern cosmology
and modern astrophysics.
The dark energy model has been characterized through the equation of state
parameter ω(t) = ρp , where p is the fluid pressure and ρ is the energy density.
The equation of state parameter is not necessarily a constant quantity [26]. The
present data slightly support the dark energy with equation of state ω < −1 and
ω > −1 around the present epoch and near past, respectively. ω cannot cross −1
for quintessence or phantom alone. ω = −1 represents the simplest candidate of
dark energy i.e. vacuum energy, which is mathematically equivalent to cosmolog-
ical constant. The equation of state parameter ω > −1 and ω < −1 represents
quintessence [27] and phantom energy [28], respectively. Quintom can across from
phantom region to quintessence region as evolved and all above have time depen-
dent equation of state parameter. The other limits of equation of state parameter
are −1.67 < ω < −0.62, −1.33 < ω < −0.79 [5, 10] and −1.44 < ω < −0.92 [18, 29].
It is found from literature that equation of state parameter ω is used as a constant
and a variable due to lack of observational evidence. It is usually considered as
constant with the value ω = −1, 0, − 31 , 1 and represents vacuum, dust, radiation
and stiff dominated universe, respectively. In general, ω is a function of time or
redshift z or scale factor a [30–32]. Dark energy models with variable equation of
state have been studied by Ray et al. [33], Akarsu and Kilinc [34], Pradhan et al.
[35] and Amirhashchi [36].
Several researchers have tried to explore the possibility of late time acceleration
and dark energy by modifying general relativity. There are several modified theories
of gravity namely f (G), f (R), f (T ) and f (R, T ). f (R) and f (R, T ) theories of
gravity are treated most seriously during the last decade. f (R, T ) modified theory
of gravity was first introduced by Harko et al. [37], where R is a Ricci scalar and
T is the trace of the energy momentum tensor. The above modified theories are
supposed to provide natural gravitational alternatives to dark energy.
Some of the authors like Multamaki and Vilja [38, 39], Chiba et al. [40], Nojiri
and Odintsov [41, 42] and Shamir [43] have analyzed f (R) gravity in different con-
texts which show the unification of early time inflation and late time acceleration.
Yadav and Yadav [44] and Pradhan and Amirhashchi [45] have studied dark energy
models in different Bianchi type space-time geometry with or without constant
deceleration parameter, respectively. Bianchi type-II and III dark energy models in
Saez–Bellaster scalar-tensor theory of gravitation have been investigated by Naidu
et al. [46–48]. Anisotropic cosmological models with quintessence are investigated
by Kotambkar et al. [49]. Saha and Yadav [50] and Pradhan and Saha [51] have
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discussed dark energy cosmological model in general relativity in different contexts.

Bianchi Type-II and Bianchi Type-III dark energy models in f (R, T ) gravity are
studied by Singh and Sharma [52] and Reddy et al. [53], respectively. In paper [52],
first class of f (R, T ) gravity is explored in the presence of prefect fluid source. For
exact solution of the modified Einstein’s field equations is obtained through power
relation between the average Hubble and scale factor. Also, constant deceleration
parameter is considered there. Myrzakulov [54] has analyzed the several dark energy
models in f (R, T ) gravity. Rao and Rao [55] have investigated five dimensional
anisotropic dark energy model in f (R, T ) gravity. Bamba et al. [56] have studied
the number of dark energy models like ΛCDM model, Little Rip and Pseudo-Rip
scenarios, the phantom and quintessence cosmologies with the four types (I, II, III
and IV) of the finite-time future singularities and non-singular universes filled with
dark energy.
A lot of investigations have been carried out by several authors [57–63] in f (R, T )
modified gravity. Sahoo and Sivakumar [57] have discussed the “LRS Bianchi type-
I cosmological model in f (R, T ) theory of gravity with Λ(T ). In this paper, they
have presented the second class of f (R, T ) gravity for the LRS Bianchi type-I space
time and obtained the exact solutions of the Einstein’s field equations with the
help of linearly varying deceleration parameter. Also, perfect fluid form of energy
momentum tensor is considered there. Singh and Bishi [58, 59] have investigated
the first and second class of f (R, T ) gravity for the anisotropic Bianchi type-I
space time. Expansion law (polynomial and exponential) is used to solve the field
equations [59], where as generalized form of scale factor is used in [58]. Quadratic
form of energy momentum tensor is considered in both the papers. Singh and Bishi
[60] have focused on the study of FRW space time for a variable gravitational and
cosmological constant with the modified Chaplygin gas equation of state in f (R, T )
gravity. In this paper, hybrid exponential law is used to obtain the exact solutions of
the field equations. Sahoo and Mishra [61] have investigated the Kaluza–Klein dark
energy model in the form of wet dark fluid in f (R, T ) gravity. In this paper, they
have explored the first type of f (R, T ) gravity in the presence of wet dark fluid for
five dimensional Kaluza–Klein space time and also used expansion law (polynomial
and exponential) to solve the modified Einstein’s field equations. Bianchi type V I h
cosmological model for the first type of f (R, T ) gravity is analyzed by the same
authors [62]. They have used the Berman’s law i.e. expansion scalar is proportional
to the shear scalar to obtain the exact solutions of Einstein’s modified field equations
for h = 1 and h = −1 case. Sahoo et al. [63] have discussed the first type of f (R, T )
gravity for uniform, anisotropic and axially symmetric line element in presence
of prefect fluid. The variation law of mean Hubble parameter is used to obtain
the exact solutions of modified Einstein’s field equations and some physical and
kinematical properties of the model are also discussed. Ahmed and Pradhan [64]
have discussed the Bianchi type-V cosmology in f (R, T ) gravity with Λ(T ). In this
paper, they have tried to explore the second class of f (R, T ) gravity in presence of
cosmological constant by considering the time dependent deceleration parameter.
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B. K. Bishi
Reconstruction of modified f (R, T ) with Λ(T ) gravity in general class of Bianchi

cosmological models has been investigated by Pradhan et al. [65]. Here, second class
of f (R, T ) gravity is explored through the linearly varying deceleration parameter in
the presence of cosmological constant. It is hoped that the papers [57–65] and other
discussed papers in the above contribute to the investigation of f (R, T ) gravity,
which is useful for the astrophysicists and cosmologists of the different corner of
the world.
Motivated by the above mentioned research, we have investigated the Bianchi
type-III dark energy cosmological model for the first class of f (R, T ) gravity with
variable deceleration parameter. The exact solution of the modified Einstein’s field
equations is obtained for f (T ) = µT and f (T ) = µT 2 in first class of f (R, T )
gravity. The main difference between the past papers [57–65] and this paper is that
they differ from each other in terms of matter source and the solution procedure to
obtain the exact solution of the field equations.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 1 is introductory in nature, which
contains the brief introduction of dark energy and f (R, T ) modified gravity. Metric
and basic field equations of f (R, T ) modified gravity is discussed in Sec. 2. Section 3
is divided in to two sections namely Secs. 3.1 and 3.2. The cosmological solutions
for first class of f (R, T ) modified gravity with particular form of f (T ) = µT and
f (T ) = µT 2 is discussed in Secs. 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. Physical properties of
the models, discussion of results and concluding remarks of the paper is presented
in the Secs. 4–6 respectively.
2. Metric and Basic Field Equations of f (R, T ) Modified Gravity

Let us consider a spatially homogeneous and anisotropic Bianchi type-III line ele-
ment of the form
ds2 = dt2 − A2 dx2 − e−2mx B 2 dy 2 − C 2 dz 2 , (1)
where A, B and C are functions of cosmic time only. α is a positive constant
quantity. The energy momentum tensor for anisotropic dark energy is expressed as
Tji = diag[ρ, −px , −py , −pz ] = diag[1, −ωx , −ωy , −ωz ]ρ, (2)
here, ρ, px , py and pz represent the energy density of the fluid and pressure along
x, y, z axes, respectively. ω, ωx , ωy and ωz denote the equation of state parameter
of the fluid and equation of state parameters along x, y, z axes respectively. The
energy momentum tensor can be parameterized as
Tji = diag[1, −ω, −(ω + γ), −(ω + δ)]ρ. (3)
Now, we take ωx = ω. The skewness parameters γ and δ are deviation from ω on y
and z axes, respectively.
The action for the f (R, T ) modified gravity is given as

f (R, T ) √
S= + Lm −gd4 x, (4)
16πG
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where f (R, T ) is the arbitrary function of R and T , where R is the Ricci scalar,
T is the trace of the stress energy tensor of the matter Tij and Lm is the matter
Lagrangian density. If f (R, T ) ≡ f (R) and f (R, T ) ≡ R, then (4) represents the
action for f (R) gravity and general relativity, respectively. Different cosmological
models can be obtained for different choices of f (R, T ). Harko et al. [37], have
suggested three classes of f (R, T ) as


 R + 2f (T ),

f (R, T ) = f1 (R) + f2 (T ), (5)


f (R) + f (R)f (T ).
1 2 3
In this paper, only first class of f (R, T ) i.e. f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ) has been consid-
ered. The field equations of f (R, T ) modify gravity can be obtained by varying the
action S of the gravitational field with respect to the metric tensor components gij
(Harko et al. [37]). For the choice of f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ), the field equations take
the form
Gij = [8π + 2f (T )]Tij + [2pf (T ) + f (T )]gij . (6)
The overhead prime indicates derivative with respect to the argument and we
assumed that the stress energy tensor of matter in the following form
Tij = (ρ + p)ui uj + pgij . (7)
3. Cosmological Solution for First Class of f (R, T ) Gravity

i.e. f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T )
3.1. Model-I (f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ) with f (T ) = µT )
Now assuming comoving coordinate system, the field equations (6) for the metric (1)
with the help of (3) and f (T ) = µT (µ is a constant quantity) can be written as
ȦḂ ȦĊ Ḃ Ċ m2
+ + − 2 = [8π + 3µ − 3µω − γµ − µδ]ρ + 2pµ, (8)
AB AC BC A
B̈ C̈ Ḃ Ċ
+ + = [(8π + 2µ)ω − µ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)]ρ − 2pµ, (9)
B C BC
Ä C̈ ȦĊ
+ + = [(8π + 2µ)(ω + γ) − µ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)]ρ − 2pµ, (10)
A C AC
Ä B̈ ȦḂ m2
+ + − 2 = [(8π + 2µ)(ω + δ) − µ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)]ρ − 2pµ, (11)
A B AB A
Ȧ Ḃ
− = 0. (12)
A B
Here, an overhead dot represents differentiation with respect to t. From Eq. (12),
we obtain
A = A0 B
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B. K. Bishi
with a constant of integration A0 . For the choice of A0 = 1, it takes the form

A = B. (13)
By the use of (13), Eqs. (9) and (10) suggest
γ = 0. (14)
With the help of Eqs. (13) and (14) the field equations (8)–(11) take the form
2
Ȧ ȦĊ m2
+2 − 2 = [8π + 3µ − 3µω − µδ]ρ + 2pµ, (15)
A AC A
Ä C̈ ȦĊ
= [(8π + 2µ)ω − µ(1 − 3ω − δ)]ρ − 2pµ,

+ + (16)
A C AC
2
Ä Ȧ m2
2 + − 2 = [(8π + 2µ)(ω + δ) − µ(1 − 3ω − δ)]ρ − 2pµ. (17)
A A A
The average scale factor and volume of the Universe are related as
V = a3 = ABC = A2 C. (18)
2
The expansion scalar θ and shear scalar σ are defined as
3

θ= Hi , (19)
i=1
3
1
2 θ2
σ2 = H − , (20)
2 i=1 i 6
H1 = Ȧ Ḃ Ċ
A , H2 = B and H3 = C stands for the directional Hubble parameters along
x, y and z axes, respectively. Now we see that the field equations (15)–(17) are three
independent equations with six unknowns namely A, C, ρ, p, ω and δ. So to make
the system complete, we need three more physically plausible relations among the
variables. Thus, we consider the following three physically plausible relations as
follows:
• Expansion scalar θ is proportional to shear scalar σ, which gives
A = C l, (21)
where l is a positive constant.
• Linear relationship between state parameter ω and skewness parameter δ such
that (Reddy et al. [53])
ω + δ = 0. (22)
• We consider the time varying deceleration parameter of the form (Chawal et al.
[66])

d 1 Ḣ + H 2 1
q= −1=− 2
= b(t) with H = Hi . (23)
dt H H 3
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The main objective of considering such type of decelerating parameter is that Uni-
verse exhibits phase transition from decelerating to accelerating one, as revealed
by the recent observations like SNe Ia and CMB anisotropies. Our universe, which
shows decelerating to accelerating phase, the deceleration parameter must show
signature flipping [67–69]. At present, one may examine the variation of cosmic
acceleration, i.e. deceleration parameter with time instead of knowing only the
beginning of cosmic acceleration and the present value of q. Thus, this choice of q
is physically considerable.
Now Eq. (23) can be written as
ä ȧ2
+ b 2 = 0. (24)
a a
For solving (24), we consider b = b(a) as one can take b = b(t) = b(a(t)). The
general solution of (24) is given as
R
b
e a da da = t + c, (25)
where c is a constant
of integration. In order to solve (25), without loss of generality,
let us choose ab da = ln f (a). Now Eq. (25) yields

f (a)da = t + c. (26)
Again here we observe that integration involve arbitrary function f (a). So we have
to consider f (a) in such a way that, it provides physically viable models of the
Universe and consistent with observational data. Let us choose
nan−1
f (a) = √ , (27)
α 1 + a2n
where α is an arbitrary constant and n is a positive constant. Taking c = 0 and
using (27) in (26), we obtain the exact solution as
1
a(t) = [sinh(αt)] n , (28)
such type of scale factor generalizes the scale factor previously discussed by Pradhan
et al. [70]. By use of (21) and (28) in (18), we obtain the metric potentials as
3l
A = B = [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) , (29)
3
C = [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) . (30)
The line element (1), with the help of (29) and (30) takes the form
6l 6l
ds2 = dt2 − [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) dx2 − e−2αx [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) dy 2
3
− [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) dz 2 . (31)
Now using (29), (30) and (22) in the field equations (15)–(17), we get the following
physical parameters of the line element (31).
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B. K. Bishi
The energy density is expressed as

−6l
ρ1 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + ρ2 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)]
ρ= , (32)
[cosh2 (αt) − 1]
2 2
3lα
where ρ1 = − µ+4π
m
and ρ2 = − (µ+4π)(2l+1)n2 . The equation of state and skewness
parameters are obtained as

6l
δ1 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + δ2 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]
δ = −ω = 6l , (33)
δ3 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + 2δ2 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]
where δ1 = 3α2 (l − 1), δ2 = m2 n2 (2l + 1) and δ3 = 6lα2 . The pressure is expressed
as
−6l
p1 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + p2 cosh2 (αt) + p3
p= , (34)
[cosh2 (αt) − 1]
(3µ+4π)m2 2 2
9α [(7µ+12π)l −µ] 3α2 [(4µ+8π)l−µ]
where p1 = 2µ(µ+4π) , p2 = − 2n2 µ(µ+4π)(2l+1)2 and p3 = 2nµ(2l+1)(µ+4π) .
3.2. Model-II (f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ) with f (T ) = µT 2 )

In this case, the field equations (6) for the metric (1) with the help of (3) and
f (T ) = µT 2 (µ is a constant quantity) take the form
ȦḂ ȦĊ Ḃ Ċ m2
+ + − 2
AB AC BC A
= [8π + 4µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)]ρ + ρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)
× [4pµ + µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)], (35)
B̈ C̈ Ḃ Ċ
+ +
B C BC
= [8π + 4µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)]ωρ − ρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)
× [4pµ + µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)], (36)
Ä C̈ ȦĊ
+ +
A C AC
= [8π + 4µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)](ω + γ)ρ − ρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)
× [4pµ + µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)], (37)
Ä B̈ ȦḂ m2
+ + − 2
A B AB A
= [8π + 4µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)](ω + δ)ρ − ρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)
× [4pµ + µρ(1 − 3ω − γ − δ)], (38)
Ȧ Ḃ
− = 0, (39)
A B
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where an overhead dot represents differentiation with respect to t. Using the similar
procedure as in Sec. 3.1, we obtain the following independent equations from the
Eqs. (35)–(39)
2
Ȧ ȦĊ m2
+2 − 2 = [8π + 4µρ(1 + 2δ)]ρ + ρ(1 + 2δ)[4pµ + µρ(1 + 2δ)], (40)
A AC A
Ä C̈ ȦĊ
+ + = −[8π + 4µρ(1 + 2δ)]δρ − ρ(1 + 2δ)[4pµ + µρ(1 + 2δ)],
A C AC
(41)
2
Ä Ȧ m2
2 + − 2 = −ρ(1 + 2δ)[4pµ + µρ(1 + 2δ)]. (42)
A A A
Now our problem is to solve the above system of Eqs. (40)–(42). In this case, we
have obtained the same metric potential as in (29) and (30). Using (29) and (30)
in the field equations (40)–(42), the exact solutions are represented as follows:
The energy density is given as
ρ = (ρ+ , ρ− )
6l √
π[ρ3 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + ρ4 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]] 2
=− 6l ±
[ρ5 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) 2
+ 2ρ4 [cosh (αt) − 1]]µ 32
6l
× ρ6 [3 cosh2 (αt) − n][cosh2 (αt) − 1]2 [ρ7 cosh2 (αt) − ρ8 ][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1)
12l
+ [ρ9 cosh2 (αt) − ρ10 ][n − 3 cosh2 (αt)]2 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1)
18l
+ [ρ11 cosh2 (αt) − ρ12 ][n − 3 cosh2 (αt)]3 [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1)
−6l
− [ρ13 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + ρ14 cosh2 (αt) + ρ15 ]
× [cosh2 (αt) − 1]3 /ρ16 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][ρ17 [n − 3 cosh2 (αt)]
6l
12
× [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + ρ18 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]]3 ,
(43)
where
3 2 1
ρ3 = α l, ρ4 = n2 m2 (2l + 1),
2 2
3
ρ5 = (2l − 1)α2 , ρ6 = −144(2l + 1)2 n4 α2 m4 ,
2
1 2 2 3
ρ7 = π n (2l + 1)(6l − 1) + µα2 (24l2 − 12l + 1),
12 8

1 1
ρ8 = (2l + 1)(6l − 1)π 2 n + µα2 (24l2 − 12l + 1) n,
12 8
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B. K. Bishi
ρ9 = [72(2l + 1)π 2 (3l − 1)n2 + 324(4l − 1)µ(2l − 1)α2 ]l(2l + 1)n2 α4 m2 ,

ρ10 = [72(2l + 1)π 2 (3l − 1)n + 108(4l − 1)µ(2l − 1)α2 ]l(2l + 1)n3 α4 m2 ,
ρ11 = [108(2l + 1)π 2 n2 + 486µ(2l − 1)α2 ]l2 (2l − 1)α6 ,
ρ12 = [108(2l + 1)π 2 n + 162µ(2l − 1)α2 ]nl2 (2l − 1)α6 ,
ρ13 = 8µ(2l + 1)4 n8 m8 ,
ρ14 = −[8(2l + 1)π 2 n2 + 72(4l − 1)µα2 ](2l + 1)3 n6 m6 ,
ρ15 = [8(2l + 1)π 2 n + 24(4l − 1)µα2 ]n7 (2l + 1)3 m6 ,
1 2 3 1
ρ16 = n (2l + 1)µ2 , ρ17 = (2l − 1)α2 , ρ18 = n2 (2l + 1)m2 .
2 4 2
The pressure is obtained as
F (t)
p= + G(t)ρ, (44)
ρ
where
−6l
p4 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]2 [sinh(αt)] n(2l+1)
6l
+ [p5 cosh2 (αt) − p6 ][n − 3 cosh2 (αt)][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1)
+ [cosh2 (αt) − 1][p7 cosh2 (αt) + p8 ]
F (t) = 6l ,
p9 [cosh2 (αt) − 1][p10 [3 cosh2 (αt) − n][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + p11 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]]
6l
p12 [3 cosh2 (αt) − n][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + p13 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]
G(t) = 6l ,
p14 [3 cosh2 (αt) − n][sinh(αt)] n(2l+1) + p15 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]
p4 = (2l + 1)3 m4 n4 , p5 = −81l3α4 , p6 = 18n(2l + 1)l2 α4 ,
p7 = −9(5l + 1)(2l + 1)m2 n2 α2 l, p8 = 9n3 (2l + 1)2 m2 α2 l,
3 1 2 2
p9 = 16n2 µ(2l + 1)2 , p10 = − (2l − 1)α2 , p11 = n m (2l + 1),
4 2
p12 = 3(2l − 1)α2 , p13 = −2n2 (2l + 1)m2 , p14 = 12lα2 , p15 = 4n2 (2l + 1)m2 .
We can obtain p = p+ and p = p− by using ρ = ρ+ and ρ = ρ− in Eq. (44),
respectively. ρ = ρ+ and ρ = ρ− are the two roots of ρ. The equation of state and
skewness parameters in this case are same as (33).
4. Physical Parameters of the Models

• The directional Hubble parameters (Hi ) are expressed as
Ȧ 3lα cosh(αt)
H1 = H2 = = , (45)
A n(2l + 1) sinh(αt)
Ċ 3α cosh(αt)
H3 = = . (46)
C n(2l + 1) sinh(αt)
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• The expansion scalar θ and mean Hubble parameter H are defined and expressed
as
3α
θ = 3H = H1 + H2 + H3 = coth(αt). (47)
n
• The Shear scalar σ 2 is defined and obtained as
3
1
2 θ2
σ2 = H −
2 i=1 i 6
2
1 1 Ȧ Ċ
= (H2 − H3 )2 = −
3 3 A C
3α2 (l − 1)2 cosh2 (αt)

= . (48)
n2 (2l + 1)2 [cosh2 (αt) − 1]
• The anisotropy parameter Am is defined and expressed as

3 2
∆Hi 6(l − 1)2
Am = = , where ∆Hi = Hi − H. (49)
i=1
H (2l + 1)2
• The state finder parameter {r, s} is defined as
...
a r−1
r= and s = .
aH 3 3(q − 0.5)
The overhead dot represents the differentiation with respect to time. H and q
denote the Hubble and deceleration parameter, respectively. The state finder
parameter {r, s} is an important parameter to study the cosmological models,
which are helpful to characterize the properties of the dark energy. The trajec-
tories in the r − s plane represent different qualitative behaviors for different
cosmological models and state finder diagnostic along with SNAP (SuperNovae
Acceleration Probe)observations may discriminate between different dark energy
models (Sahni et al. [71]). In our case of study, the r and s are obtained as
cosh2 (αt) − 3n + 2n2
r=
cosh2 (αt)
and
2n(3 − 2n)
s= .
9 cosh2 (αt) − 6n
The relationship among r and s is expressed as
2n(3 − 2n)(r − 1)
s= .
9(2n2 − 3n) − 6n(r − 1)
Graphically, this relation is presented in Fig. 9.
• The deceleration parameter q is given as
aä
q = − 2 = n(1 − tanh2 (αt)) − 1. (50)
ȧ
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B. K. Bishi
Table 1. The value of α for different n.

n α n α
0.30 0.0237 1.10 0.0962
0.50 0.0598 1.30 0.1031
0.70 0.0765 2.00 0.1202
0.90 0.0877 2.50 0.1288

We have noticed that q > 0 for t < α1 tanh−1 ( 1 − n1 ) and q < 0 for t >

1 −1
α tanh ( 1 − n1 ). q > 0 and q < 0 (−1 ≤ q < 0) represent the decelerating and
accelerating universe, respectively. The relationship among n and α is given as


1 −1 1 + q0
α = tanh 1− ,
t0 n
where t0 and q0 denote the present age of Universe and present value of q, respec-
tively. The value of α depends on the value of n, t0 and q0 . Thus, for evaluating
α, we have used t0 = 13.8 GYr, q0 = −0.73 (Cunha and Lima [72]) and different
n. The value of α is presented in Table 1 for different n.
5. Discussion
In this section, we have discussed some physical and kinematical properties of our
models for n ∈ (0, 1] and n ∈ (1, ∞) as our models are accelerating for 0 < n < 1 and
show phase transition from deceleration to acceleration for n ∈ (1, ∞). Figures 1–4
represents the variation of metric potentials A = B and C against time for different
l with (n = 0.50, α = 0.0598) and (n = 2.00, α = 0.1202). Here, we noticed that
metric potentials A and C are increasing with the evolution of time and finally
they approach infinity i.e. A, C → ∞ as t → ∞. Also, it is observed that increasing
Fig. 1. Variation of metric potential A versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598 and different l.
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Fig. 2. Variation of metric potential A versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202 and different l.
Fig. 3. Variation of metric potential C versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598 and different l.
Fig. 4. Variation of metric potential C versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202 and different l.
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B. K. Bishi
Fig. 5. Variation of Hubble parameter H versus t for different pairs of n and α.
Fig. 6. Variation of expansion scalar θ versus t for different pairs of n and α.
rates of metric potentials are faster for n ∈ (1, ∞) as compared to n ∈ (0, 1].
Variation of Hubble parameter H and expansion scalar θ against time are depicted
in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. It is noticed that H and θ are decreasing function
of time and approaching towards zero with the evolution of time i.e. H, θ → 0
as t → ∞. Also, we have observed similar qualitative behavior for n ∈ (0, 1] and
n ∈ (1, ∞). Shear scalar σ 2 shows similar qualitative behavior as that of H and θ
and σ 2 → 0 as t → ∞. This can be noticed from Figs. 7 and 8. For our models
2 (l−1)2 σ2
limt→∞ σθ2 = 3(2l+1) 2 and here we observed that for l = 1, θ 2 → 0 as t → ∞ and
2
for l = 1, σθ2 0 as t → ∞, which means that for l = 1 our models becomes
isotropic and for l = 1 our models do not approch isotropy for t → ∞. Figure 10
shows the variation of deceleration parameter q against time for different n and
its corresponding α. Here, we saw that q is a decreasing function of time and with
the evolution of time, it is tending towards −1 i.e. q → −1 as t → ∞, which is in
fair agreement with the observational data. Also, it is noticed that our models are
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Fig. 7. Variation of shear scalar σ2 versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598 and different l.
Fig. 8. Variation of shear scalar σ2 versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202 and different l.
Fig. 9. Variation of r–s plane for different n.
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B. K. Bishi
Fig. 10. Variation of deceleration parameter q versus t for different n.
Fig. 11. Variation of equation of state parameter ω versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598, m = 1 and
different l.
purely accelerating for 0 < n < 1 and early deceleration to late acceleration for
n ∈ (1, ∞).
Figures 11 and 12 depict the variation of equation of state parameter against
time. From the figure, we saw that ω ≤ −0.5, which is in fair agreement with
the observational data and it may correspond to the quintessence era. Variation of
energy density against time for model-I is plotted in Figs. 13 and 14. It is observed
that ρ is a decreasing function of time and it approaches zero with the evolution
of time for n ∈ (0, 1] and n ∈ (1, ∞). It is noticed from the Figs. 15 and 16
that pressure is negative for n ∈ (0, 1] and n ∈ (1, ∞) and it is tending to zero
with the evolution of time i.e. p → 0 as t → ∞. Figures 17 and 18 represent the
energy density against time for model-II. From the figures, it is observed that for
n ∈ (0, 1], ρ has the similar qualitative behavior as that of model-I of ρ. ρ → 0
for n ∈ (1, ∞) but the approach is different i.e. initially ρ increases very fast and
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Fig. 12. Variation of equation of state parameter ω versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202, m = 1 and
different l.
Fig. 13. Variation of energy density ρ versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598, m = 1, µ = −13 and
different l.
Fig. 14. Variation of energy density ρ versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202, m = 1, µ = −13 and
different l.
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B. K. Bishi
Fig. 15. Variation of pressure p versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598, m = 1, µ = −13 and different l.
Fig. 16. Variation of pressure p versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202, m = 1, µ = −13 and different l.
Fig. 17. Variation of energy density ρ versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598, m = 1, µ = −0.1 and
different l (Eq. (43)).
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Fig. 18. Variation of energy density ρ versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202, m = 1, µ = −0.1 and
different l (Eq. (43)).
Fig. 19. Variation of pressure p versus t for n = 0.50, α = 0.0598, m = 1, µ = −0.1 and different
l (Eq. (44)).
Fig. 20. Variation of pressure p versus t for n = 2.00, α = 0.1202, m = 1, µ = −0.1 and different
l (Eq. (44)).
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B. K. Bishi
gradually decreases and tends towards zero with the evolution of time. In model-II,
pressure is an increasing function of time and p → 0 as t → ∞ for n ∈ (0, 1] but
p 0 as t → ∞ for n ∈ (1, ∞) (see Figs. 19 and 20)
6. Concluding Remarks
In this paper, we have studied the Bianchi type-III cosmological model for a simple
class of f (R, T ) gravity. The observations are as follows:
• In both the models, ρ is a decreasing function of time and ρ → 0 as t → ∞.
• In both the models, pressure is negative, which may responsible for the acceler-
ated expansion of the models.

• The equation of state parameter ω is negative for both the models and ω ≤ −0.5.
Hence, from the theoretical point of view, the presented models can be physically
viable models to explain the accelerated Universe.
Here, all the observations are in fair agreement with the observational data.
Acknowledgments
The author (BKB) would like to thank his academic supervisor Prof. G. P. Singh
for helpful discussions and constant encouragement for research. Author also thanks
the learned referee and editor for their valuable suggestions, which improved the
quality of the paper in terms of presentation.
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International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

Nagpur 440010, India

Received 20 January 2016

Keywords: Dark energy; f (R, T ) modiﬁed gravity; variable deceleration parameter.

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

discussed dark energy cosmological model in general relativity in diﬀerent contexts.

Reconstruction of modiﬁed f (R, T ) with Λ(T ) gravity in general class of Bianchi

2. Metric and Basic Field Equations of f (R, T ) Modified Gravity

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

3. Cosmological Solution for First Class of f (R, T ) Gravity

with a constant of integration A0 . For the choice of A0 = 1, it takes the form

= [(8π + 2µ)ω − µ(1 − 3ω − δ)]ρ − 2pµ,

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

The energy density is expressed as

parameters are obtained as

3.2. Model-II (f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ) with f (T ) = µT 2 )

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

The energy density is given as

ρ9 = [72(2l + 1)π 2 (3l − 1)n2 + 324(4l − 1)µ(2l − 1)α2 ]l(2l + 1)n2 α4 m2 ,

4. Physical Parameters of the Models

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

3α2 (l − 1)2 cosh2 (αt)

Table 1. The value of α for diﬀerent n.

accelerating universe, respectively. The relationship among n and α is given as

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

Fig. 5. Variation of Hubble parameter H versus t for diﬀerent pairs of n and α.

Fig. 6. Variation of expansion scalar θ versus t for diﬀerent pairs of n and α.

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

Fig. 9. Variation of r–s plane for diﬀerent n.

Fig. 10. Variation of deceleration parameter q versus t for diﬀerent n.

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

ated expansion of the models.

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

[10] R. K. Knop et al., New constraints on ΩM , ΩΛ and ω from an independent set of

[15] R. R. Caldwell, W. Komp, L. Parker and D. A. T. Vanzella, Sudden gravitational

[33] S. Ray, F. Rahaman, U. Mukhopadhyay and R. Sarkar, Variable equation of state

in f (R) theories of gravity, Phys. Rev. D 74 (2006) 064022.

Variable deceleration parameter and dark energy models

[56] K. Bamba, S. Capozziello, S. I. Nojiri and S. D. Odintsov, Dark energy cosmology:

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