Unit 1: MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1 Objective
This lesson will enable the students to understand the key definitions associated
with the environment. The students will learn how the environment and its surroundings
influence the sustenance. The lesson also describes the various fields related to it.

1.2 Introduction
The existence of life depends on the physical and chemical parameters that are
present in the environment. The word environment is derived from the French word
‘environner’ which means to surround or encircle. The general definition of Environment
is the “sum of abiotic and biotic components surrounding an organism”. As per the
Environment (protection) Act 1986, environment includes all the physical, chemical and
biological surrounding of an organism along with their interactions. Environment can be
defined as ‘the sum total of water, air, and land area the inter relationships that exist
among them and with the human beings, other living organisms and materials.
AIR

WATER HUMAN SOIL

MATERIALS

It can be drawn from the above figure that the air, water, soil and materials of
environment will influence the existence of human beings. Similarly the anthropogenic
activity will also influence the environment. The flora, fauna and micro-organisms have
constant interaction with each other and with the non-living components of the
environment. Depending on the existence of the species, there is a wide difference like
rural and urban environments. The urban environment is influenced by various
developmental activities like modification of land scope, construction of multi storied
structures, commercial complexes, industries, transport etc. Moreover, due to heavy
population including migrants from rural sectors, the urban areas nurture slum
development where amenities are bleak and become centers of epidemics.

1.3 Multi Disciplinary Nature

The environmental studies need a knowledge in science, social science, law and
engineering as it deals with various aspects – life sciences like zoology, botany, genetics,
bio chemistry help in understanding the biotic components and their interactions. It also
helps in the study of variation of genes and the allies and their impact on the
environment. Basic concepts from chemistry, physics, geology, atmospheric science,
oceanography & geography are essential to understand the energy and mass transport
between biotic components and the environment. Mathematics, statistics and computer
applications will help in environmental modeling, and research documentation. The
social subjects like economics, management and sociology provide the inputs to study the
socio-economic aspects related to various developmental activities. Knowledge in civil
engineering, hydraulic, chemical engineering provides the technical solutions to
environmental pollution control and waste treatment which are important for
environmental protection. Nano technologies help in terms of better pollution sensors and
clean up systems. Environmental law provides the platform to fight for the environmental
protection. Environmental education and mass communication are instruments in
spreading environmental awareness.

1.4 Scope
Environmental studies has a wide scope in pursuing different aspects of
environment such as protection of environment, exploitation of natural sources and
management, pollution abatement, anthropogenic activities and environmental protection.
Environmental studies can also be broadly divided based on specialized technical aspects
like environmental engineering, environmental management and environmental
economics. For any industry clearances an environmental impact assessment studies are
made and report is prepared. In that report if any adverse effects are expected then a plan
is made to mitigate such effects to protect the environment from degradation. Further
there are many areas to pursue research.

1.4.1R & D in Environment

The environmental scientists are involved in the development of cleaner
technologies to protect environment by manufacturing sensors and other gadgets. The
monitoring of environment in residential and industrial areas requires well trained
personnel to develop data base.
Environmental management and environmental engineering are emerging new
areas of career in industries and institution. The pollution control management gaining its
importance as the pro activists and environmental activists try to protect the interest of
people. Market for pollution control technologies and experts in this field is increasing in
the recent years. In India Ministry of Environment and Forest at the centre and the state
pollution control boards at the state level are implementing the standards fixed by central
pollution control board. Now even the industries are also having an environmental cell to
mitigate pollution in their units.
The trend is now turning towards eco-centric thinking by adopting many pollution
abating methods at local levels. To begin with various products which are eco-friendly in
nature are given green label encouraging the sale. The quality of product is labeled ISO
mark and if they are eco-friendly certification of ISO14000 is accorded. Environmental
auditors and environmental managers will be of great demand in the mere future. The
information will percolate through media and the journalists are also turning green. Some
television channels are transmitting information on pollution of air and water.
Newspapers publish the details of SPM and concentration of gases in the cities. The non-
governmental organizations are engaged as ‘watch dogs’, raising objections in their areas
when projects are degrading the environment and to unhealthy practices.

1.5 Importance of Environment

The human body requires air and water on day to day basis. If the surrounding
environment is unhealthy with polluted air and water the consumer will have to suffer.
This may lead to different types of diseases ultimately to certain dreadful disease like
cancer. The United Nations has identified certain days and declared the environment
calendar. Worldwide the days are observed and various programmes are conducted to
discuss the problems and solutions.
Environmental Calendar
a) World Wetland Day – February 2nd
b) World Forest Day -- March 21st
c) World Water Day – March 22nd
d) World Meteorological Day – March 23rd
e) Earth day – April 22nd
f) International Day for Biological Diversity – May 22nd
g) World No-Tobacco day – May 31st
h) World Environmental Day – June 5th
i) World Ocean Day -- June 8th
j) World Population Day – July 11th
k) Ozone week – September 16th-23rd
l) World Car Free Day – September 22nd
m) Green Consumer Day – September 28th
n) World Day for Farmed Animals – October 2nd
o) World Animal Day – October 4th
p) World Habitat Day – October 7th
q) Wild life Week -- October 1-7
r) World Conservation Day -- October 24th
s) International day for natural disaster reduction – October 13th
t) International Mountain Day – December 11th

The local activities will have an influence globally such as global warming ozone
depletion, reduction of forest resources.

1.6 Need for Public awareness

In the recent past due to scientific and industrial revolution, there has been immense
impact of man on his environment. Man has realized lately that any new thing upsets the
balance of the whole ecosystem or the environment. Huge installations of industries
every year, introducing faster mode of transportation, budding of large crowded cities,
change in the food habits, decreasing agricultural lands, increase in deforestation, the
main outcomes of the modern civilization: over usage of insecticides, pesticides,
synthetic fertilizers in the environment are challenging the life of man animals, birds and
other organisms. It is very much important to make the public aware of the alarming
consequences of the environmental degradation, if not retorted and improvement
measures are not taken then it results in the extinction of all the species. The
environmental movement began in the West and it has spread to the other developing
nations too. In the last few years, there has been a tremendous growth in public and
government interest in environmental issues in India.

1.6.1 International Efforts

 International attention regarding environmental issues was received during the
first conference held on 5th June 1972 in Stockholm, since then we celebrate
World Environment Day.
  In 3rd June to 14th June 1992 another conference was held on environment and
development at Rio de Janerio known as Earth Summit. In this summit there were
discussions on better transport with less emission of pollutants, to solve the
problems of water scarcity, alternate sources of energy which replaces fossil fuels.

 After ten years a summit held at Johannesberg in 2002 from 24th August to 8th
September on Sustainable development. Here key issues of global environmental
concerns were discussed.

 In 2009 Copenhagen summit was held at Bella center in Denmark on 7 th to 18th

December. The issues that were discussed are Climate change, global risks,
challenges and decisions. In this summit 138 nations were participated and they
signed the agreement that was passed by the summit.

 There was a conference on 26th November to 8th December 2012 at Doha in Qatar.
The main issue was to extent the life of Kyoto Protocol to 2020.

 For the first time an award of the Nobel peace prize was given to an
environmentalist Wangari Maathai for her contribution to sustainable
development, democracy, peace and green belt movement in Kenya.
1.6.2 National Efforts
 Environment awareness in our country has been initiated and several
environmental issues were solved. Justice Kuldeep Singh known as green judge
and M.C. Mehta green advocate, who have contributed in spreading awareness
among people through education and initiated to incorporate as a compulsory
course to all students at graduation level.

 Sunderlal Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhatt for Chipko Movement.

 Medha Patkar, Arundhati Roy for Narmada Bachao Andolan. Megasaysay

Awardee Rajender Singh known for water conservation. Renowed Ornithologist
Salim Ali for his work on Indian birds. Indira Gandhi and Maneka Gandhi for
their contribution in environment protection.

 The goals of sustainable development cannot be achieved by any government at

its own level until the public has a participatory role in it. Public participation is
possible only when the public in aware about the ecological and environmental
issues.

 To increase the consumer awareness about the environment, the government of

India has introduced a scheme of eco-labeling of consumer products as ‘Ecomark’
in 1991. It is an Earthen Pitcher a symbol of eco-friendliness and our traditional
heritage.

 The government has introduced Eco-Clubs and Eco-Task force to create

environmental awareness in public.
The active co-operation of every one, at every level of social organizations, scientist-
educationists, social workers, politicians, administrators and public is needed for issues
regarding environment. Each individual collectively make a society or a state.
Movements, which begin at gram root levels, effects the ideologies and policies of a
country or the nation as a whole more effectively than the policies introduced from top to
downwards. When the opinion of the public will change, it will affect the government
policies, which transform into actions. Therefore little efforts on the part of each
individual shall add up to introduce significant improvements of the environment.
Now a day’s everybody talks about environment but how many of us are serious about it.
How many of us have clear concepts of environment. There must be planning about the
sources and effects and control measures of environmental pollution. Government has
initiated many campaign and awareness programmes to save environment, people should
participate in it.
People should opt some programmes like discouraging to use fuel vehicles, until it is not
necessary, for short routes, opting of bicycle or on foot. Rainwater harvesting is another
example for using rain water and storing it instead of flowing out into seas. The goals of
sustainable development cannot be achieved by any government until the public has a
crucial role in it. It is only possible only when ecological and environmental issues are
known by the public. The best example is the ban on the polythene bags usage, which
cannot be successful until public does have a participatory role in it. Public should
understand about the fact that if we degrading our environment, we are harming
ourselves. This is the duty of we educated people to educated the others about the adverse
effect of environment.
Just only celebrating “World Environmental Day” we cannot get rid of this concern.
Government along cannot do anything until unless every citizen is aware of environment
and issues related to it. This is the time to make aware and motivate each every individual
for environmental consciousness.

Questions

1. Define environment. Explain multidisciplinary nature of environmental.

2. Why is social awareness about the environment necessary?

3. What is the importance of environment and how is it achieved?

NATURAL RESOURCES

2.1 Objective
After studying this unit students will know about types of natural resources. They
will be able to describe forest resources, water resources, mineral resources, food
resources, energy resources and land resources. They can identify uses and cause for over
exploitation of natural resources. They will be aware of how individual can take steps in
conservation of natural resources. It also enables to identify the equitable use of natural
resources as s way towards sustainable lifestyle.
2.2 Introduction
A resource is a material or an element which is required as life-support system for
the living organisms on Earth. The materials which are required by the human beings
may be called as resource. Everything that human begins use is drawn from the natural
resources. Thus water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests. Crops and wildlife are all
examples of natural resources. Those resources which are available naturally are called
natural resources. Depending on the origin, natural resources are either biotic or abiotic.
Similarly, basing of the availability and utility it can be classified as renewable and non-
renewable resources.

2.2.1 Renewable Resources

These resources which are in exhaustive and can be regenerated within a given
span of time e.g.: forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal energy, hydro
power etc. Solar energy is also a type of renewable energy resource as it is an
inexhaustible source of energy.

2.2.2 Non-Renewable Resources

The resources which cannot be regenerated eg: fossil fuel like coal, petroleum
minerals etc… once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot be replenished. Even our
renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that
their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of production. For example, if a species is
exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level then it is not
able to sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct.

2.3 Forest resources

Forest is called as ‘Lungs of the Earth’ as they are instrumental as they function as lungs
cleaning up the environment. Basically the trees that co-exist use the CO 2 in the
atmosphere and absorb maximum sunlight. India has predominant Tropical rain forests.
The forest resources play vital role in the economy of India. Forest is a highly complex
system supporting the wildlife and high productive environment. Trees are the dominant
community.
Forest is a highly complex ecosystem in which various bio-geo chemical cycles
are operative. The forest soil is the most fertilizer soil. Forest covers the maximum extent
of planets land area. They are extremely important ecosystem as abundance in resources
which are extremely useful to human beings. The forests service as aesthetic,
recreational, economic, historical, cultural and religious value. Timber, medicinal plants,
minerals and major resources while honey, gum, lac, bamboo, tamarind etc. are several
minor resources which forest provide. There are several people who live and depend on
forest produces. The forest environment provides opportunity for ecotourism which
includes living camping, bird watching and other adventures and sports.

2.3.1 Advantages
u) Healthy environment: Forests provide a clean and healthy environment which is
oxygen rich and thermo regulated environment
 v) Pure water provider: The rainfalls on the top layer of trees and drips down
reducing the velocity of rain drops. Trees intercept the rain and facilitate water to
drip into the soil reducing the soil erosion. In addition the ground water enriches.
It also controls flooding.
w) Bio diversity: forest environment provides the ecolinks and food links which
enable a congenial environment to many varieties of species. The forest
environment supports certain tree species and most animals exclusively are found
in the forest such as Tiger, Lion, Wolf, Jackal etc.
x) Improvement in economy: In some countries use their wood resources to get
foreign exchange such as Burma. The timber and timber products such as veneer,
plywood etc are forest dependent industries which help the economic progress.
y) Ecological benefits:
1. Forests provide healthy atmosphere providing clean air filled with oxygen
which produced while performing photosynthesis
2. The old trees give us aesthetic enjoyment, absorb noise, reduce stress and
gives relaxation.
3. Trees being soil binders provide erosion free terrestrial environment and
prevents landslides and flash floods.
4. The transpiration is a process by which the trees release the excess water into
the atmosphere through stomata.
5. Forests attract the rainfall and precipitation helps in filling reservoirs and
water sources enrich.
6. Forest consists of high humus content which enhances soil fertility.
7. Forest act as natural dams.
8. It reduces sedimentation and siltation of dams.

2.3.2 Deforestation
The forest cover of 33% on earth only can provide a sustainable and congenial
environment. The estimates by NRSA (national Remote Sensing Agency) and FRI (forest
research institutes) in 1992 concluded that forest cover was only 16% in India. Further in
2002 it was revised that due to afforestration and compensatory afforestration of the
developmental projects increased the forest cover to 21% in a decade. The increase in
population and increasing demand for timber and timber products. The clearing of forests
a cross the earth has been occurring on a large scale for many centuries. The cutting
down and burning and damaging the forests for wood and coal as fire wood is a common
reason for deforestation. The loss of forest due to natural phenomenon like forest fires is
common during summer. If the current rate of deforestation continues in another 100
years the forest vanishes and results in affecting the global climate.
The major forest resources are lost in India due to several developmental projects
such as irrigation, mining and multipurpose projects, the demand for land resources lead
to illegal feeling off, followed by turning it into an agricultural land. In most hilly areas
the forest are slashed, burned and filled in order to cultivate which is called the podu
cultivation. The dry crops are raised by native tribes in the area.

2.3.3 Effects of deforestation

 The deforestation will have many social, economic and ecological effects.
Deforesting leads to many negative consequences. These are as follows
1. Disturbs the ecological balance.
2. The precipitation, oxygen balance gets disturbed.
3. The area turns into hotter increasing the temperature to 2-30C.
4. The litter fauna will be lost.
5. The soil erosion takes place.
6. The tribal’s habitat will be lost.
7. The existing wild life and bio diversity will be lost.
8. The insects and micro fauna’s disturbance in habitat will lead to epidemics in the
vicinity due to attack on human and other living beings.
9. Logging of trees will interfere with the fisheries in the area as the breeding
grounds may be disturbed due to streams and rivers impediment.

2.3.3.1 Environmental effects of deforestation

2.3.3.1.1 Destruction of bio-diversity

Bio diversity is wealth of forest in which various plants and animals co-exist
leading to congenial atmosphere. Rain forests are the most bio-diverse areas. The
deforestation lead to destruction of micro and macro fauna will lead to loss of food links
leading to destruction or migration of the defendant wild life. Further forests possess the
planet any gene pools which may be lost in the process of destruction. The regeneration
of forests is slow and once destroyed the habitat is lost, it will be very difficult to
establish.

2.3.4 Solutions to protect forest resources

Deforestation is a serious problem as it destroys the ecological balance, the forest
protection programmes have evolved.
1. Reduction in forest produces like the extensive use of wood for furniture and
other home needs is replaced with suitable materials like plastic.
2. Evolve programmes to afforest the areas to compensate the lost areas in the
developmental projects. The compensatory afforestration is one such facility in
forest conservation act 1982 in which double the area of forest loss in
compensated in projects like river valley.
3. The movements like CHIPCO to prohibit the deforestation.
4. Create awareness of about the forests and their benefits.
5. The development of Joint Forest Management movement to raise the forest in the
vicinity of villages where the villages get economic benefits and healthy
atmosphere.
6. The paper industry is a maximum consumer of wood. The industries will develop
their own lands or promote the fast growing trees in leased lands in order to
process their raw materials.
7. The recycling of paper by establishing industries to manufacture paper for
different purposes like packaging or hand made papers.
8. Promoting the use of alternate materials like jute, plastic, foam etc to avoid wood.
 Thus a concrete effort should be made to avoid the wood and wood products in order
to protect the destruction of forests.

2.3.5 Timber extraction

Extraction of timber results in deforestation. It harms valuable species of trees, birds
and wild animals, it is some times necessary to meet the needs of the developing nations.
Timber extraction might be useful for several commercial and industrial purposes. Due to
timber extraction most of the nutrients in the soil will be lost. Large scale timber
extraction promotes soil erosion. Under normal circumstances, trees and bushes and the
forest floor act as a sponge for rainfall slowing its overland and under ground flow and
releasing it back into the atmosphere through transpiration. Without buffering effect of
forest cover, rain impacting bare soil runs off, often causing flooding. Timber extraction
causes the destruction of the habitats that support biological diversity.

2.3.6 Case Study

2.3.6.1 Chipko movement

It was born in a small hilly village of the upper reaches of Himalays. The illiterate
tribal women commenced this unique movement in December 1972 that became the
famous Chipko (means to embrace) movement. The movement commenced in the Tehri-
Garhwal district of UP that actually gathered momentum in 1978 when the women faced
police firing. It looked as if the movement aimed at saving trees on the Himalayan slopes
from the axes of greedy contractors but its objectives were broad based. It questioned the
development based ruthless butchery of nature to achieve short-term gains. It challenged
the old belief that forest means only timber and emphasized their role in making soil,
water and pure air, which are the basis of life. It was this philosophy which popularized
this movement in many countries. The movement continued under the leadership of shri.
Sundirlal Bahuguna in various villages like Advani and Budhekar of Tehri-Garwal. Mr.
Bahuguna presented the plan of this movement for protection of soil and water through
ban on tree falling the Himalayas at the UNEP meeting held in London in June 1982.
The Chipko plan is in fact a slogan of planning five Fs-Food, Fodder, fuel, fiber
and fertilizer. Trees make several communities self sufficient in all their basic needs. It
should generate a decentralized, self-renewing and long-term prosperity it will protect the
environment and bring permanent peace prosperity and happiness to making.
Mr. Bahuguna along with a team of dedicated workers later undertook marches of
300km from Srinagar to Siliguri.
The Chipko movement became very popular and people from various countries
like France, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland etc., have visited Mr. Bahuguna to have
accounts and experiences of his marches in different parts of the country. In an exhibition
organized on June 5, in Stockholm to mark the world Environment Day, following lines
was written about Chipko movement.
“A powerful environment movement has grown up on the slopes of mountains of
Himalayas”. Villages have created an effective non-violent way to step the devastation by
forest industries. When the axe men come, the people from ring (circle) around the trees
they may embrace the trees. This has given the movement its name Chipko Andolan the
tree hugging movement.
 Soon it gained international recognition and crossed geographical boundaries to
be observed as Chipko Day at New York. USA in April 1983. A group of school children
assembled and hugged a big tree in Union Square Park, followed by some adults.
Recently the Chipko movement in the Garhwal kumaon hills has caught the eye
and imagination of the public. Living as they do, so close to the land, the hill people are
very conscious of the direct and indirect importance of trees. So, when large timber
contractors moved in, to cut down trees often cutting far more than were ear marked for
them, the women and men organized themselves to protect the trees. They did this by
clinging to the trees, putting their bodies between the tree and contractors axe. The people
knew that the water supply, the fuel and but indeed most things which support life are
dependent on trees, they also aware that if you destroy the tree cover on a mountain side
it may never be able to grow again.

2.4 Water Resources

Water is one of the inorganic component of the earth which is very important
factor of life. History proved that human civilization was well established wherever water
was available in abundance. The fact that 97% of total available water on earth is saline
and 3% is the fresh water. In this 3% of fresh water 2% is blocked in polar ice caps and
1% is flowing in both surface and ground water.

As the years are passing rising population, increasing industrialization and

expanding agriculture have raised the demand for water. Therefore to reach the demands
many efforts were made like construction of dams and reservoirs and making structures
such as wells, tube wells, bore wells etc. Hydrological cycle helps to maintain the
precipitation uniformly. This natural recycling and purification process provides plenty of
fresh water as long as we don’t overload it with slowly degradable and non-degradable
water or withdraw water from underground supplies faster than it is replenished.

2.4.1 Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water

Water is used for many purposes like domestic, industrial and agricultural
activities. Due to increase in population the use of water for these activities are
increasing. Water is primarily used for irrigation of food crops, fodder crops medicinal
herbs, etc. Water is consumed in exhaustive quantities for domestic purposes such as
drinking, cooking, washing, etc. Water finds its application in almost all the processes in
industries, starting from the manufacturing process to house keeping activities.

Water withdrawal is taking water from a groundwater or surface-water source to a

place of use. Consumption occurs when water that has been withdrawn is not returned to
the surface water or ground water from which it came so that it may be used again in that
area. This usually occurs because the water has evaporated or transpired into the
atmosphere.

The demand for more water has forced human beings to use and overuse of
natural water storage systems. This resulted in the decrease in the water table, further
leads to the loss of natural reservoirs and natural vegetation.
 Due to increase in population water is over used in household chores, agricultural
fields and industries. The situation worsens when untreated water is released by these
industries into nearby water bodies, leading to water pollution.

2.4.2 Floods
Floods are usually called as a natural disaster, but human activities have
contributed to the sharp rise in flood deaths and damages since the 1960s. Heavy rainfall
is the major cause for floods to occur. Some times unseasonal rainfall also results in
floods. As the density of population has increased, the need for more land has risen. To
create more space, the catchment areas are deforested and wetlands filled . The
advancement of science and technology has strangled the rivers with bunds, dams and so
on. As a result, the wetlands of the flood plains which were natural flood controllers have
been lost. No longer can they act as sponges to hold the excess water from the rivers.
Deforestation of hills and mountains, which are the sources of rivers, has added to the
problem. Water does not percolate under ground but due to deforestation it runs
downward, carrying with it a great load of top soil making rivers shallower. This not only
washes away fertile soils but the river swells and due to the lack of flood plains and
wetland the water overflows, submerging cities, towns, villages, and agricultural land.

2.4.2.1 Mitigation measures for floods

1. Afforestation
2. Establishment of check dams and embankments
3. Construction of flood pathways
4. Construct flood proof buildings
5. Proper medical facilities during flood

2.4.3 Drought
The areas are considered as drought whose annual rainfall is less than 25 cm.
Many countries in the world are lying in the arid and semiarid regions which experience
frequent spells of droughts, very often extending up to year long duration. In India also
few states experiences drought or desert. These include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and
Andhra Pradesh. Many reasons are behind the drought those are deforestation,
overgrazing, mining, unseasonal rainfall, uneven rainfall, abuse of water, population
stress, lowering of water table. During a drought, water scarcity becomes so acute that
there is no water for farms, industries, household activities, or even drinking. Moreover
the intensity of the drought depends on how long the drought lasts in that area. A
prolonged drought may result in famine. Excessive irrigation increases drawing of ground
water from wells and canals. This also one reason for drought hit area.

2.4.3.1 Mitigation measures for drought

1. Economic use of water
2. Waste land reclamation practices
3. Dry land farming
4. Afforestation
5. Increase in drought resistance seeds
2.4.4 Conflicts of water

2.4.4.1 Krishna Water Treaty

To resolve the dispute between the states of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh over sharing of the water of Krishna river a tribunal set up by the government of
India in 1969 under the Inter State Water Dispute Act of 1956. The river the second
biggest river in peninsular India. It originates in Maharashtra covers 303 km, passes
through north Karnataka of about 480 km and the rest of its 1300 km journey in Andhra
Pradesh before it empties into the Bay of Bengal. A tribunal was set for the share of the
river water in three different states. Tribunal has allowed the States to utilize their
allocated share of water for any project as per their plans. The tribunal in its report, has
determined that the surplus water available in the river basin totaled 330 TMC. It was
decided that this would be divided among the riparian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka
and Andhra Pradesh in the ratio of 25%, 50% and 25% respectively.
2.4.4.2 Cauvery Water Treaty
The Cauvery River was flowing between two different states i.e. Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu. The dispute has arisen when 50 years old agreement was expired. According
to Karnataka, the 1924 agreement entailed a discontinuation of the water supply to Tamil
Nadu after 50 years. In 1991, the Supreme Court reassigned a tribunal to settle the
dispute. According to the tribunal Karnataka has to release 205 TMC of water from
Cauvery basin to Tamil Nadu on a monthly basis. The government of Karnataka has
argued that if they release more than 100 TMC it would cause distress to its people.
2.4.4.3 Indus Water Treaty
The water sharing between India and Pakistan, the treaty was signed in Karachi
in 1960, the Indus basin has three western rivers the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab was
allocated to Pakistan and three eastern rivers the Sutlej, Ravi and Beas were allotted to
India. The agreement set up a commission to adjudicate any future disputes arising over
the allocation of waters. The Commission is required to meet regularly to discuss
potential disputes as well as cooperative arrangements for the development of the basin.
While neither side has initiated projects that could cause the kind of conflict that the
Commission was created to resolve, the annual inspections and exchange of data
continue, unperturbed by tensions on the subcontinent.

2.4.5 Dams

2.4.5.1 Benefits
1. River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to play a key role in
the development process to their multiple uses.
2. India has the distinction of having the largest number of river valley projects.
3. The tribal living in the area pin big hopes on these projects as they aim at providing the
employment and raising the standard and quality of life.
4. The dams have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth.
5. They can help in checking flood and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and
power shortage, provide irrigation water to lower areas, providing water for drinking in
remote area and promote navigation, fishery etc.

2.4.5.2 Problems
Various environmental impacts of big dams are too many due to which very often the big
dams become a subject of controversy.
1. Displacement of tribal people.
2. Loss of forests, flora and fauna.
3. Changes in fisheries and the pawing grounds.
4. Siltation and sediments of reservoirs.
5. Stagnation and water logging near reservoir.
6. Breeding of vector and spread of vector-borne disease.
7. Growth of aquatic weeds..
8. Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation.
9. Reduced water flow and silt deposition in river.
10. Flash floods.
Thus, although dams are built to serve the society with multiple uses, but it has
several serious side effects. Hence there is a shift towards construction of small dams or
mini-hydel projects.

2.4.6 Case study

2.4.6.1 Sardar Sarovar And Indira Sagar Dams And Implications

The minimum reservoir level of the Sardar Sarovar dam purely from the point of
supplying water to the northern end of Gujarat works out to +370ft with a dead storage of
1.68 MAF. The river bed is 59ft. above mean sea level and canal full sill level is +600ft.
With 4.5MAF capacity regulation and carry-over storage, the height of the dam if fixed at
FRL of +436ft. will provide for supply 9.5 MAF to Gujarat and Rajasthan. The tribunal
however, did not take into consideration the ecological and environmental factors
including the scientific aspects of seismicity and geological faults and the consequential
high vulnerability for risks of the dam burst, disaster management and their social costs
and fixed the height of the dam with FRL +455ft. The installed power generation
capacity at the Sarda Sarovar project is 1450 MW and the firm power is anticipated to be
about 300 MW. Installed generating capacity at Indira Sagar is 1000 MW and the firm
power is expected to vary from 140 to 256 MW.
According to official estimates the Sardar Sarovar dam provides water for
irrigating 18.7 lakh hectares but submerges 34,867 hectares of land including 10,719
hectares of forests and displaces 66,675 people including 48,250 tribal’s and weaker
sections. But according to a World Bank Commission report, besides one lakh people in
245 villages in the area which will be submerged; about 1.5 lakh farmers will be affected
by the canal and irrigation systems. Finally there are thousands of people living
downstream below the dam who will be displaced. In case of a mishap several lakhs of
people and cattle will be killed and these hidden environmental hazards would have come
out if a public debate is held on the environmental impact assessment reports of the
project.
On the basis of water allocation the Narmada tribunal considered a storage
capacity of 6.18 MAF as ideal capacity for the Sardar Sarovar dam with the
corresponding height of +436ft. But the tribunal considered the two national power dams
proposed by Madhya Pradesh at Jalasindhi and Harinphal and to compensate for the
consequent loss of power from these imaginary dams, the height of the Sarda Sarovar
dam was increased to +455ft. This increase by 19ft. will submerge 25,000 acres of fertile
agriculture land in 82 villages. If the height of the dam is reduced by 19ft the reduction of
head for power generation will be only 12ft. on the average which will mean 20MW less
of power after 10 years and 6MW less 30 years later. Hence many ask whether the
temporary gain of 20MW is worth the sacrifice of 25,000 acres fertile land. This question
becomes relevant for disaster management also.
The Indira Sagar project provides water for irrigating 1.23 lakh hectares of land
but submerges 91,348 hectares, including 40,332 hectares of forests and displaces 1.30
lakh people, 31,000 of them tribals. The Indira Sagar FRL is fixed at +814ft. the
irrigation potential will not be significantly affected. Such a reduction would submerge
just 8,600 hectares of forest and save 35,000 hectares of other land. Only 77 villages with
a population of 20,200 will be lost. Hence reduction in the height of both the Sardar
Sarovar and Indira Sagar dams will be in the overall interests of safety, economy,
ecology, displacement and sustainable development.

2.5 Mineral Resources

Mineral resources are broadly defined as elements, chemical compounds that are
extracted to obtain a usable commodity. Most of the minerals that are present in earth is
non-renewable. The most commonly used minerals are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, etc.
The ocean covering nearly 71% of the earth is another reservoir for many
materials. Most of the elements in oceans have been weathered from crustal rocks and
transported to the oceans by rivers. Other elements are transported through wind or
glaciers.

2.5.1 Uses
Minerals are used for the following purposes
 Transportation
 Communication
 Signals and systems
 Development of industrial plants
 Constructional activities
 Jewellery or ornaments
 Agricultural activities
 Various medicinal purposes
2.5.2 Types of mining
Mining is done to extract minerals from deep deposits in soil by using sub-surface
mining or from shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method is more
destructive, dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards and
accidents.
Surface mining can make use of any of the following three types:-
a) Open-pit Mining: In these machines dig holes and removes the ores (e.g.: copper,
iron, gravel, limestone, sandstone, marble, granite).
b) Dredging: In this chained buckets and drag lines are used which are used to scrap up
the minerals under water mineral deposits.
c) Strip Mining: In this the ore is stripped off by using bulldozers, power shovels and
stripping wheels. (Ex: Phosphate rocks).

2.5.3 Environmental damage caused by mining activities

a) Devegatation and defacing of landscape:
The top soils as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area to get
access to the deposit. While large scale deforestation or devegatation leads to several
ecological losses, the landscape also gets badly affected

b) Subsidence of land:
This is mainly associated with underground. Subsidence of mining areas often results
in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads, gas from cracking pipe lines
leading to serious disaster.

c) Ground water conservation:

Mining disturbs the natural hydrological process and also pollutes the ground level.
Sulphur, usually present as an impurity in many ores is known to get converted into
sulphuric acid through microbial action, thereby making the water acidic.

d) Surface water pollution:

The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby streams and lakes. The acidic
water is determined to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radioactive substances like
uranium also contaminate the water bodies.

e) Air pollution;
In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore. Something
is done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation nearby
and has a serious environmental health impacts.

f) Occupational health hazards:

Most of the mine workers suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due to
constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic substances. Minerals
working in different types of mines suffer from asbestos-silicosis, back lung diseases
etc…

2.5.4 Adverse impact of mining

Following is a list of adverse impacts of mining on forests and the environment.
 Mining’s, especially open-pit mining, generates enormous quantities of waste
compared to any other natural resource extraction activity. Water interacts with
these wastes to generate contaminated fluids that can pollute soils, rivers and
ground water. These fluids can be highly acidic and metal laden or highly alkaline
and they often contain various forms of cyanide, depending on the waste source.
Acid mine drainage can occur when water and air come into contact with geologic
material containing iron sulphide, as in abandoned waste pills. Such drainage can
be contaminating nearby streams and ground water for centuries after a mine is
closed. The tendency to form acid mine drainage can be aggravated by high
rainfall and high temperatures.
 Erosion and sedimentation present another environmental issue for mine sites.
When material is disturbed in significant quantities, as it is in the mining process,
large quantities of sediment are transported by water erosion. The sediment
eventually settles at some point downstream from the erosion source.
 Damage to forest cover is smaller in scale and more localized for mining locations
than for logging locations. However, both increase access to otherwise remote
forest areas and provide an opportunity for further activities especially in places
where population pressure already exist
 Mining activities consume enormous activities of timber for their construction in
the case of underground mines and as a source of energy for mines with charcoal-
fuelled casting ovens. Also, where carried out in remote zone, mining activities
imply major work such as road building, ports, mining villages, the deviation of
rivers, construction of dams and energy generating plants.
 Noise is another major problem from mining operations. The deafening sound of
the machinery used in mining and the blasting create condition that may become
unbearable for the local population and the forest wildlife
 The large disturbances caused by mining can disrupt environments, adversely
affecting aquatic habitats (i.e. deserts, grasslands, forests) and wet lands that may
organisms rely on for survival. The disruption of site hydrology by large
consumption or release of water, manipulation of topography and the release of
particulates and chemicals can all have indirect imparts on various habitats.

2.5.5 Adverse impacts of dams

The following are the adverse impacts of dams:
 Most of the world’s large dams have been unable to achieve the technical,
economic and social objectives for which they were designed. Many of them have
typically fallen short of physical targets, did not recover their costs and have been
less profitable in economic terms than expected. Large dams built for municipal
and industrial water supply have generally fallen short of intended targets for
timing and delivery of bulk water supply and have exhibited poor financial cost
recovery and economic performance.
 The impacts of large dams on ecosystems are more negative than positive and in
many cases; this has led to serious irrecoverable loss of species and ecosystem.
  Large dams have serious consequences on the living conditions and culture of
populations, especially indigenous people. They have displaced large number of
people, who when resettled have been unable to recover acceptable condition of
existence. People affected by the negative impacts have not always enjoyed the
benefits from the dam.
 The loss of aquatic biodiversity, of upstream and downstream fisheries and of the
services of downstream flood plains, wet lands, and rivers estuarine and adjacent
marine ecosystems.
 Cumulative impacts on water quantity, natural flooding and species composition
where a number of dams are sited on the same river.
 Sedimentation and the consequent long-term loss of storage is an serious concern
globally, and the effects will be particularly felt by basins with high geological or
human-induced erosion rates, dams in the lower reaches of rivers and dams with
smaller storage volumes. Poorly managed involuntary displacement and loss of
livelihood.

2.6 Food Resources

For the survival of all living beings on earth food is essential, therefore it is
necessary for the equilibrium of the food chain and sustenance of the environment. It is
estimated that starvation and malnutrition take the lives of 18 million people annually.
Most of the victims are children and women and those who survive suffer from hunger
and dietary deficiencies.

2.6.1 World Food Problems

“The World Food Problem” is a phrase familiar from the 1970s, but one that has
largely lain dormant for the last decade: throughout the 1980s, concern was less with
world food supplies and prices than with the problem of hunger and with individual
access to food. The International Conference on Nutrition in 1992 was a high-water mark
for this perspective. Now, although hunger and malnutrition remain grave problems
throughout the world, issues to do with world food supplies have re-emerged on the
international agenda. There are several reasons for this: the slowdown in the rate of
increase in yields of the main cereal staples gives cause for concern that the Green
Revolution is running out of steam; the problems of environmental damage and pesticide
resistance associated with industrial agriculture are receiving more attention; there are
worries about the food prices and food aid; and, of course, population continues to
increase relentlessly, by over 100 million people a year.

These entire factors have sparked a new interest in the future ability of the world
to feed itself. Many organizations are now thinking about the future of the world food
system: FAO to 2010, the International Food Policy Research Institute to 2020, a group
of American researchers to 2050. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research has also commissioned a “vision paper” for the next century.

2.6.2 Effect of Modern agricultural practices

 From 1960 the food production has improved considerably. The agriculture sector has
rapt in mind the population growth to catch the needs of people. This is an increase of
18% in production due to the adoption of modern agriculture systems including
mechanization. In 1990’s the global grain yields per hector were nearly 2.5 times than
the 1.15 ton per hectare yield during 1930’s. The slogan more crop per drop raised by the
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage explain the objective of achieving
the crop yield by using judiciously the water resources. The introduction of the modern
agriculture is to achieve the food security, nutritional availability to increasing population
and price stability. However the growing needs has introduced modern methods like
using artificial or chemical fertilizer, use of genetically engineer species, use of chemicals
to control the pests, mechanization of agriculture etc. have impacts on environment. The
following are some of the negative impacts.
a) Damage to soil: the erosion of soil affects the agriculture. The top soil formation
take long years (300) to form ½ inch stabilization, the modern tilling will cause
problems. Erosion as discussed affects the agriculture and productivity. The sub
soils that remain have low in nutrients less absorbent, less able to retain pesticides
fertilizers and other plant nutrients. The reduction in water holding capacity and
loss in fertility. To improve these conditions the use of chemical fertilization
extensively created further problem in aquatic systems.
b) Contamination of water: agricultural practices are the main sources of
contamination of water as the drains receive the excess waters containing
fertilizers, pesticides. The organic chemical compounds in soluble and insoluble
form will enter the ecosystems causing eutrophication. Surface runoff carries the
manure, fertilizers, and pesticides into streams, lakes and reservoirs. These
substances enter the food chains and food webs entering the different trophic
levels. The concentration through. Very low at the producer level, it gets
concentrated and as it reaches higher trophic levels the concentration reaches
beyond threshold limits leading to cancers. This phenomenon is called ‘Bio
magnification’.
c) Water scarcity: the heavy use of water resources for agriculture through surface
and ground water sometimes to over use and causes water scarcity. However in
the recent post the drip irrigation technique has enhanced production while using
water resources judiciously.
d) Global climate change: the indirect effects of agricultural activity are conversion
of forest lands to agriculture leads to climate change. The deforestation as already
discussed leads to carbon dioxide increase in atmosphere and other GHG’s (Green
House Gasses).
e) Water logging: the agriculture lands hold water for more than 9 months and due
to the soil conditions leads to water logging in the surrounding areas. The water
logging occurs in clayey soils or impermeable layers in which water will not
move and cannot be drained. The soil root zone becomes saturated with water and
the roots get damaged due to non availability of oxygen.
f) Soil salinity: the increased water supply to irrigable lands often increases the salt
content, often evaporation. Increased soil salinity prevents the nutrient up take.
Fruit and vegetable crops are sensitive to such soils. The water which enters the
surface runoffs causes problems in the down stream.
 The major problem with over use of fertilizer is contamination of water with nitrates,
phosphate, Potassium and sulphates. The nitrates of agric waste can also percolate
through soils reaching ground water. The nitrates increase in concentrations beyond
25mg/l will cause ‘Blue baby syndrome’ or ‘Methamoglobanemia’. The phosphorous in
surface water will cause the ‘algal blooms’ leading to the toxicity of water and fish kills
also due to oxygen unavailability.
g) Pesticides: the pesticides used indiscriminately are insoluble in water but soluble
in fats. Though they target the pests, often they enter the food links of aquatic
organisms and gets concentrated in the organisms and reach in higher trophic
level organisms. The concentration accumulates in the fat tissue and later
boomerangs in the top carnivores causing cancers. The chlorinated Hydrocarbons
(e.g. DOT, Dieldrimatic) and Organo- phosphates (e.g. Parathion, Malathion)
remain in the environment for several years as they are not biodegradable.
Since 1945 DDT was extensively used to eradicate the malaria causing mosquitoes
(female anopheles). Each year 2.3 million metric tons of pesticides are used which is
approximately 0.45kgs/cap. The other predators of insects also are affected and their
population depleted thus enhancing the occurrence of diseases. They help in increase in
productivity as they kill the worms that destroy the crop yield. They work faster and give
results immediately.
The continuous use of pesticides result in the gene mutation in the pests and the
pesticide resistant insects grow. The succeeding generations develop resistance to the
type of pesticide and to its sprayed concentration. This will lead to attack by insects with
increased vigor. The surrounding weeds and plants also develop the resistance. In the last
50 years around 500 major insect pesticides were developed and around 20 species of
insects are variants which are resistant to pesticides. Around 80 species of weeds are
resistant to the herbicides.

2.6.2.1 Alternatives
1. Crop rotation.
2. To grow hedges as insect barrves.
3. Introducing modern crop methods like inter cropping, agro forestry and poly
culture.
4. Encourage the growth of natural enemies to insects like birds.
5. To use natural pesticides like Neem leaf preparations or tobacco extracts.

2.7 Energy Resources

Energy consumption of a state is an indication of its development. The
developmental activities use extensively energy for production. There is a wide disparity
in per capita energy use between the developed and the developing nation. The energy
use form natural resources could be possible only after production of fire. The early man
used the fire for cooking and heating purpose. The wind mills are in use for the past 5-6
thousand years. The invention of steam engines is a land mark in which coal is used
replacing the wood. Further the coal is slowly replaced by oil. Now the increasing
pollution of burning fossil fuels is compelling the population to use alternative energy
resources.
 The energy is used in not only in industries but also in various sectors like
agriculture, mining, transport, lighting, cooling and heating in the residential areas. The
glowing population demands increased the energy requirements leading to heavy deficit
in energy production. The change in life styles and improvement quality of life multiplied
the consumption of energy.
In the developed countries like USA and Canada having 5% of population of the
world will consume 25% of global energy produced. An average person consumes energy
equivalent to 60 barrels of oil per year while in countries like Nepal and Bhutan less than
5 barrels of oil in consumed per annum. This clearly shows that the life-style and
standards of living one closely related to energy needs.
Renewable and non-renewable energy resources:
The energy sources are of two types.
1. Renewable resources: these are also called as non-conventional sources of
energy which are natural sources eg. Wood, solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, hydropower, biomass energy, bio-fuels, geo-thermal energy and hydrogen.
2. Non-renewable resources: the energy which is accumulated in nature over a long
span of time and cannot be replaced and are also called as non-renewable
resources. Eg. coal, crude oil, natural gas, nuclear fuels like Uranium and thorium.

2.7.1 Renewable energy resources:

2.7.1.1 Solar energy
The sun energy is transmitted in the form of photons is the ultimate energy useful
for plant photo synthesis and existence of whole world. The nuclear reactions occurring
in sun produce heat and as it reaches earth it will be 1.4 Kilo joules/second/m 2. The solar
energy is being used in India for drying clothes, grains, food products. Now the
technology is developed to harness solar energy effectively. The solar cookers, solar
water heaters, solar lamps are some examples. The large scale harnessing of solar energy
is done through photo voltaic cells. The solar radiation falls on PV cells, the potential
difference produced causes flow of electrons and produces electricity. The PV cells of
4cm2 size can produce 0.4 to 0.5 volts and produce on current of 60 mille amperes. Solar
panels help in capturing pioneer and charge the batteries which can light a lamp after dark
automatically. The solar cells are extensively used in watches, calculators, traffic signals
etc., the rural energy and electrification is mostly based on solar energy.

2.7.1.2 Wind energy

The blowing winds have high kinetic energy due to their motion. The wind energy
is harnessed by erecting the wind mills. The blades of the windmill will move and the
energy derived will drive number of machines to pump water from bore wells, to charge
the generators and to run the flour mills. In India ‘Wind Farms’ are established in Tamil
Nadu(Chennai), Maharashtra (Pune) etc. these work when the wind speeds are
15km/hr.The potential of wind energy in India is 20,000 MW while at present the
harnessed energy is 1020mw. The largest wind farm in India is near Kanya Kumari
(Tamil Nadu) generates 380MW electricity. The wind energy is pollution free.

2.7.1.3 Hydropower
 The river has kinetic energy in flowing water and a dam is constructed regulate
and harness the energy in the form a Hydropower. This is most economical, long term
plan, long lasting but sometimes ecologically degrading due to their presence in the
forests. The up stream areas get inundated and some times the villagers and the
monuments are to be rehabilitated. The water flowing under pressure generates power by
driving the water turbines. Hydro power is a clear, non-polluting source of energy. The
hydel power needs high investment and produces 30% of world’s power needs. In
European countries like Norway 99% of the power is produced by hydropower where as
in India 24% of the power approximately 22,450MW is from hydel power. In Andhra
Pradesh the major multipurpose projects are Srisailam and Nagarjuna Sagar which
produce 2000 MW of power.
The following are some of the advantages.
 Cheapest energy produced.
 Sustainable and renewable.
 Depends purely on precipitation.
 Long life.
 Efficient.

2.7.1.4 Bio-energy
The energy that is available in bio-mass which is organic mass in plant residues
wastes, algae, forest residues, agro-wastes (like bagasse, corn cobs, animals excreta (cow
dung) etc. which are biodegradable. These can be generated at two sources.
1. Waste materials generated in agriculture forestry municipal and industrial
waste.
2. Growing village forests or energy afforestration.
The bio-mass generation is useful for the industries like paper and sugar where the inputs
mainly come from the plant sources. The energy is also derived from the waste products
like (e.g. Husk or wood scrap etc.). The most important conversion of biomass into
energy producing methane gas using anaerobic bacteria. The methane can be generated
using wild plants weeds farm wastes etc after appropriate treatment. Bio-gas is a mixture
of methane 60% and CO2, 40%. It has a calorific value of 5,000 k cal/m3 depending on its
content. This gas liquefies at 350kg/cm2 pressure. Biogas is generated in an enclosed
water tight compartment. The waste organic matter is fed into the digester from an inlet,
and gas formed is trapped by an inverted drum which raises as it is filled with gas. The
CO2 dissolve readily in it. This type of energy production is very popular in rural areas.

2.7.1.5 Geothermal Energy

The energy harnessed from the hot rocks present in the core of the earth is called
geo-thermal energy. The inner layers of earth contain high pressure and temperature due
to the ionic and radioactive fission present in rocks. The water comes out and it is called
‘Geysers’. These are in Orissa and Haryana. The water with high pressure is sent through
pipes to turn turbines of a generator to produce electricity. Such power plants are in USA
and New Zealand.

2.7.1.6 Bio fuels

 Biomass can be fermented to alcohols like ethanol and methanol which is used as
additives in fuels like petroleum. Ethanol is produced from corn, sugar cane and jowar
which is rich in carbohydrates. The calorific value is less and the combustion is almost
similar to LPG. The biofuels are also manufactured from plan sources like Jatropha,
castor etc.

2.7.1.7 Gasohol
It is commonly used in Africa and Southern American countries and in India also
in introduced as premium petrol for extra mileage. The mixture of ethanol and petrol
release or reduce pollutant gasses generated in a carburetor.

2.7.1.8 Hydrogen as a fuel

As an alternative to meet the crisis of depletion of oil resources, hydrogen is
identified to run the automobiles. When burnt, hydrogen combines with O2 to form water
releasing approximately 150 kilojoules per gram. Production of Hydrogen is possible by
thermal dissociation, photolysis or electrolysis of water at high temperatures. Hydrogen is
highly inflammable and explosive in nature. It is difficult to transport store and handle
Hydrogen. Liquid Hydrogen is used as fuel and also as electricity generator using in fuel
cell.

2.7.2 Use of alternate energy resources impact of energy use on environment

The energy utilization using alternate resources usually the non-conventional
sources like solar, wind and hydel energy, will certainly a positive note where in the non-
renewable resources will be preserved. The available solar radiation is trapped through
photovoltaic cells and the wind energy using the windmills. The gadgets which produce
these alternate sources of energy like solar cookers, solar lamps, solar heating are
available in the market. But the initial costs are high. The sources of energy are available
in country like India for 365 days in any year.

2.8 Land Resources

Land is the basic resource and as such its availability is linked with all sectors
wither directly or indirectly. The uppermost shell of the earth, it is a three-dimensional.
There is a surface of land, the ground beneath the surface and the airspace above.

2.8.1 Land degradation

Land degradation can be defined as any change in the land that reduces its
condition or quality and hence its productivity or productive potential. It occurs whenever
the natural balances in the landscape are changed by human activity, through misuse or
overuse. It is the result of using land and other resources beyond their capability.

2.8.1.1 Various causes of Land Degradation

Soil Degradation involves a number of physical, chemical and biological
processes, which may act singly or jointly. Soil Erosion by water due to storms and soil
with poor surface structural stability is the most obvious form of land degradation. The
other forms of degradation are salinization, irrigation-induced salinity, water logging and
soil acidity. Land degradation may be due to the natural factors like occurrence of floods,
tsunamis and consequent wind erosion.

2.8.1.2 The effects of land degradation

 Reduction in agricultural yield due to loss of soil
 Causes imbalance hydrological cycle and change in regional climate
 Occurrence of floods
 Increases desertification and formation of waste lands
 Loss of biodiversity.

Land degradation is also altering hydrological conditions where vegetative cover is

removed, the soil surface is exposed to the impact of raindrops that causes a sealing of
the soil surface. Less rain then infiltrates the soil runoff increases, stream flows fluctuate
more than before, flooding becomes more frequent and extensive and streams and springs
become ephemeral. These conditions encourage erosion, as a result, sediment loads in
rivers are increasing, dams are filling with silt, hydro-electric schemes are being
damaged, navigable waterways are being blocked and water quality is deteriorating. In
several parts of India, the potential life of reservoirs has been more than halved by
sedimentation rates that are ten times higher shall those assumed by the designers.

2.8.1.3 Control measures

 Restoring forest and grass cover to check erosion and floods.
 Shifting cultivation can be replaced by crop rotation, mixed cropping, plantation
cropping to improve fertility and meet larger demands.
 Shifting sand can be controlled by mulching i.e. use of artificial protective
covering or by planting trees as windbreaks.
 Salt affected lands can be recovered by leaching them with water.Sand fences can
be used to control drifting of soil and sand and soil erosion.

2.9 Role of an individual in conservation of Natural Resources

In the last few decades, it has become increasingly evident that the global ecosystem
has the capacity to sustain only a limited level of utilization, At a critical point, increasing
pressure destabilizes their natural balance. In general acquisitiveness has become a way
of life for a majority of people in the developed world. Population growth and the
resulting shortage of resources most severely affect people in the developing countries, it
also resulted in the environmental degradation.
 Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave the room.
 Arrest the leakage of water pipe line.
 Plant more number of trees.
 Create awareness about the environment among the neighbours.
 Switch off the television and personal systems as soon as the program of interest
is over.
 Keeping the vessel covered with a lid during cooking, helps to cook faster, thus
saving energy.
 Use bicycles for shorter distances.
  Increase in the usage of cloth bags instead of plastic bags.
 A pressure cooker can save up to 75% of the energy required for cooking. It is
also faster.
 Maximum usage of daylight instead of artificial lights at work place.

Questions
1. Explain various impacts of deforestation.
2. Write about chipko movement
3. Write the causes, effects and preventive measures of floods.
4. What is the future threat to the availability of fresh water?
5. Write a note on the conflicts over water around us.
6. Write briefly about various impacts of environment due to mining.
7. Describe the impact of modern agricultural practice on the environment.
8. Define renewable energy resources and explain tidal energy, geothermal energy,
wind energy, biogas energy.
9. How does land degradation occur? Explain.
10. What is conservation of natural resources? Explain the role of an individual for
the same.