Ventilation in Buildings

Means of exchange of indoor air and

outdoor air in a built space is called
ventilation.
Types of Ventilation

Natural

Mechanical
 Natural Ventilation
• Process of supplying and removing air through a space
using natural means, i.e. openable windows and
ventilators.
• Does not require any external means of installations other
than design interventions at planning stage.
 Natural Ventilation

• Most common methods of ventilation

• Allows achievement of human comfort by using natural
resources.
• Uncontrolled air movement through windows , cracks,
infiltrations in a building.
• Ventilation rate becomes unpredictable.
• Not uniform.
• Depends on the other factors of the climate.
 Factors

 Opening Types
 Size of opening
 Position of openings
 Orientation of buildings
( elaborate on this while studying
for sessionals )
 Techniques

 Stack Effect
 Courtyard Planning
 Wind Towers
 Stack Effect
 Depends upon the temperature differences and thermal
forces in a building.
 Pressure difference due to the temperature difference in
the outside air and inside air causes the stack effect.
 Wind Towers

 Traditional architectural
element to provide natural
ventilation in a building.
 Generally used in hot and dry
climates.
 Air enters the wind tower and
cools down as it travels.
 Courtyard
 Used as a passive cooling strategy.
 Provides ventilation majorly to the ground floor.
 The courtyard acts as a vertical shaft to create the pressure
difference between the inner spaces and outdoor spaces.
Mechanical Ventilation in
Buildings
 HVAC
Heating , Ventilation and Air- Conditioning

• Provision of healthy and comfortable indoor

conditions for the occupants.

• Achieve energy efficiency within the buildings.

• Alters the properties of air , majorly temperature

and humidity.

• HVAC cools, cleans, circulates and regulates the

moisture content in a built space.
Types of HVAC Systems
• Air cooled chiller System
• Water cooled Chiller systems
• Air handling Systems
Air Cooled Chiller systems
 Air Cooled Chiller systems
• Air-cooled chillers actively absorb heat from process water, they
then transfer this heat into the air around the chiller unit. This
type of unit is typically used in areas where additional heat
discharge is not an issue.
• The cycle starts with the Compressor, which has a liquid
refrigerant that flows over the compressor tube bundle where it
evaporates.
• The compressor is then pumps the refrigerant vapor to the
condenser, which increases temperature and pressure.
 Air Cooled Chiller systems
• The refrigerant condenses when it’s in the condenser tubes,
releasing its internal heat to the air or cooling water.
• The high-pressure liquid then moves through the expansion
device and into the evaporator; in the process the refrigerant
pressure is reduced along with the temperature.
• To complete the continuous cycle, the refrigerant flows back
over the chilled water coils and absorbs more heat.
 Air Cooled Chiller systems
• Stationary air-cooled chillers: These are used when excess heat is
not an issue.
• Portable air-cooled chillers: These units are portable and just as
functional as stationary chillers.
• Air cooled chillers are typically located in mechanical equipment
rooms.
 Air Handling Units

A factory-made encased assembly consisting of a fan or fans and

other necessary equipment to perform one or more of the functions
of circulating, cleaning, heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidifying
and mixing of air.
Components of Air Handling Units
 Components of Air Handling Units
•Housing : contains all the other components of an AHU is usually make of
metal, some are painted to prevent corrosion.
•Fan : Centrifugal fan is used to circulate the air to the various parts of the
sections in the building. The typical types of fan available are Backward
Inclined, Backward Curved, Forward Curved and Airfoil.
•Cooling Coil : Cooling Coil is used to cool and dehumidify the air. These
coils are arranged in rows with different fin spacing. Aluminium fins and
copper tubes are used in the design of the coils.
 Components of Air Handling Units
•Mixing Box : This box has air inlets that is attached to the dampers. This is
the place where the outside air and the return air are mixed to provide
the correct proportion of air to be distributed to the space that is to be
conditioned.
•Sound Attenuator : are a proven and effective method for reducing the
noise generated by fans and other equipment.
•Air Damper : a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside
a duct
 Types of Filters
•Filters : to remove particles and contaminants of various sizes from the air. The type
of air filter being used will very much depend on the application of the system.
• Panel Filter is a flat and rectangular in shape and provides a minimum low
efficiency filtration.
• HEPA Filter is very efficient and is able to achieve efficiencies up to 99.97%,
removing minute particles and airborne bacteria from the air.
• Electrostatic Filter is used to remove particles from the air by using highly charged
electrodes that ionized the air.
• Bag Filter is able to remove dust particles and is thrown away after use.
• Roll Filter is used for high velocity filtration where the used part is rolled up
automatically/manually.
 Types of Humidifiers
•Humidifiers : The humidity of the air is increased by using the
humidifiers.
•Spray Type has a header and spray nozzles that spray water with a
pressure of 15 psi or more.
•Steam Pan Type has a pan and a heating coil to heat up the water of the
pan. The evaporation of water caused by the heating will increase the
humidity level of the surrounding air.
•Steam Grid Type has tiny holes on the pipe to distribute the steam that
flows through it. In this case, the water that is heated up to produce the
steam to be supplied to the grid is conditioned to prevent odor being
discharged to the room.
Components of Air Handling Units
Fans Used in HVAC
•Fans are used to establish airflow whenever it is
required and does not occur naturally.
•Fans have an impact over the :
a) system efficiency
b) Comfort level
c) Air quality of a space
 Types of Fans

Axial Fans

Centrifugal Fans

Special Type Fans

 Axial Fans
•Also referred as Propeller fans.
•Have low static pressure capacity.
•In HVAC applications, they are used as condenser
fans.
•Blade types : Disc Blades , Propeller blades.
• Tube axial fans:
Moves air against moderate pressures
Blade type: propeller type with no straightening vanes
• Vane axial fans:
Moves air against high static pressures
Limited to clean air applications
Blade types: air foil blades with straightening vanes
 Centrifugal Fans
• Forward curved impellers:
• Blades curve towards the direction
of rotation.
• Fans have low space requirements
and low tip speeds.
• Used against low to moderate static
pressures.
• Not recommended for dust or
particulate that would adhere to
blades.
 Centrifugal Fans
• Radial impellers:
Blades are in a radial direction from the hub.
Fan have medium tip speeds.
Radial blade shape resist material build up.
Can handle either clean or dirty air.
• Backward inclined/curved impellers:
Blades are inclined opposite to the direction of fan rotation.
High fan efficiency and relatively low noise levels.
Blade shape is conducive to material buildup.
 Special Fans
• Power roof ventilators:
Packaged units that can be either axial flow or centrifugal type.
Centrifugal type discharges around the periphery of the
ventilator.
• Fan and dust collector combination:
Fans and dust collectors are packaged in a unit.
 Fan selection Criteria

Capacity

Material

Limitations

Drive Arrangements

Noise

Safety
 Fan selection Criteria
• Capacity:
Flow rate based on system requirements. Expressed as actual cubic feet per
minute (acfm).
Pressure requirement based on system pressure requirements. Expressed as
FSP or FTP in inches of water gauge.
• Material handled through fan.
• Small amount of smoke or dust - backward inclined centrifugal or axial fan
is selected.
• Light dust fume or moisture - backward inclined or radial fan is preferred.
• Heavy particulate loading - radial fan is selected.
• Explosion proof motor is used.
 Fan selection Criteria
• Physical Limitations:
Fan size is determined by
Performance requirements, Inlet size and location ,Fan weight.
• Drive Arrangements :
Direct drive:
Offers more compact assembly and assures constant fan speed.
Fan speeds are limited to available motor speeds.
Belt drive:
Offers flexibility in changing the fan speed.
Important in applications where changes in system capacity or pressure
requirements are needed.
 Fan selection Criteria
• Noise
Generated by turbulence within the fan housing.
“White” noise which is a mixture of all frequencies is mostly produced.
• Safety and accessories:
Safety guards are required at inlet, outlet, shaft, drive and cleanout doors.
Accessories help in future maintenance requirements.
Flow control can be done using dampers.
 Fan selection Criteria
• Noise
Generated by turbulence within the fan housing.
“White” noise which is a mixture of all frequencies is mostly produced.
• Safety and accessories:
Safety guards are required at inlet, outlet, shaft, drive and cleanout doors.
Accessories help in future maintenance requirements.
Flow control can be done using dampers.
 Factors Effecting Fan selection Criteria
• Volume required (cfm)
• Fan static pressure
• Type of material handled
• Explosive or inflammable material
• Direct driven vs belt driven
• Space limitations
• Noise
• Operating temperature
• Efficiency
• Corrosive applications
Psychrometrics
• Psychrometrics is the thermodynamic study of the air and
water vapor mixture. Proficiency in the use of the
psychrometric chart is an important tool for designers of air
conditioning systems.
• Psychrometrics is required to properly calculate heating and
cooling loads, select equipment, and design air distribution
systems.
 Uses of Psychrometrics
• Determine the temperature at which condensation will occur in
walls or on a duct.
• Find all the properties of moist air by knowing any two conditions.
• Calculate the required airflow to the space and the equipment to
satisfy the loads.
• Determine the sensible and total cooling load the unit needs to
provide.
• Determine the coil depth and temperature to meet the design load
conditions.
Composition of Air
 Properties of Psychrometrics
• Mass
• Force
• Weight
• Density
• Specific Volume
• Pressure
 Properties of Moist Air
• Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperatures : dry-bulb temperature (DBT) is
the temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely exposed to
the air, but shielded from radiation and moisture.
The wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is the temperature read by a
thermometer covered in water-soaked cloth over which air is passed.
• Dewpoint : the temperature to which air must be cooled to become
saturated with water vapor. When further cooled, the airborne water
vapour will condense to form liquid water (dew).
 Properties of Moist Air
• Humidity Ratio and Relative Humidity : the amount of water vapor in
the air, expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount that the
air could hold at the given temperature
• Specific Volume and Density : the specific volume of a substance is
the ratio of the substance's volume to its mass. Specific volume is
inversely proportional to density.
• Specific Enthalpy : Enthalpy, a property of a thermodynamic system, is
equal to the system's internal energy plus the product of its pressure
and volume.
 Reaction of Air and Water Vapour
• Ideal Gas Law : if two properties of either pressure, temperature, or
volume, are known, the other one may be calculated.

• Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure : air and the water vapor in the air
occupy the same volume and are at the same pressure as if one alone
were in the space, and the total pressure is the sum of the air and
vapor pressures.
Air Conditioning Processes
 Temperature Control
Temperature control is achieved by passing the air through the cooling or
heating coil, which may use any of the following approaches:
1. Vary the temperature of air supplied while keeping the airflow rate
constant. This is the basic constant volume, variable temperature.
2. Vary the airflow rate while keeping the temperature constant for air
supplied to the space. This is the variable volume, constant temperature.
3. Vary the airflow rate and change the temperature for air supplied to the
space. This is the variable volume and temperature approach.
4. Vary both the supply air temperature and flow rate where the airflow rate
is varied down to a minimum value.
 Humidity Control
Humidity control is done by controlling the amount of water vapor present in
the air in the space. Commonly used dehumidification methods include:
1. Surface dehumidification on cooling coils simultaneous with sensible
cooling.
2. Direct dehumidification with desiccant based dehumidifiers.
Humidification is not always required in an HVAC system but, when required,
it is provided by a humidifier. Commonly used humidification methods
include:
• Water spray humidifier
• Steam pan humidifier
 Estimating Cooling and Heating loads
Load estimates are the summation of heat transfer elements into or out of
the spaces of a building. Each heat transfer element is called load
components, which can be assembled into one of three groups, external
space loads,internal space loads and system loads. Following Points need to
be taken care of :
• Building square-footage and volume and Orientation of the building
• Year round weather data (design conditions, heat transfer)
• Use of the spaces within the building
• Hours of operation (occupied and unoccupied)
 Estimating Cooling and Heating loads
• Dimensions of walls, roofs, windows and doors and Construction materials
• People occupancy and activity, and when they are present
• Lighting intensity and hours used, Ventilation needs
The total cooling load is than determined in kW or tons* by the summation of
all of the calculated heat gains. Along with psychrometrics, load estimating
establishes the foundation upon which HVAC system design and operation
occur.
Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric Processes

Dry Bulb Temperature

Psychrometric Processes

Wet Bulb Temperature

Psychrometric Processes

Enthalpy
Psychrometric Processes

Relative Humidity
Psychrometric Processes

Humidity Ratio
 Psychrometric Processes

Dew Point Lines Vapour Pressure

Psychrometric Processes

Specific Volume Lines

Cooling and Heating

Humidification

Cooling & Dehumidifying

Heating & Dehumidification

Evaporative Cooling

Adiabatic Process

Mixing ( Steady Flow )

 Cooling and Heating
• Air is cooled by passing it over a cooling coil.
• Cooling coils are heat exchangers in which cool water or refrigerant
flows through tubes.
• If the air is cooled below the dewpoint temperature, water will
condense and must be drained from the bottom of the cooling coil.
 Sensible Cooling
• When warm wet air is cooled as it passes over a cooling coil, the temperature
begins to decrease. If the air leaves the coil at a temperature above its dew
point temperature, then no condensation occurs.
• On a psychrometric chart, the exiting air is at a lower temperature than the
incoming air while the humidity ratio remains constant since no moisture is
condensed from the air. Reducing the temperature of air without changing
the quantity of water in the air is called sensible cooling and the relative
humidity increases with sensible cooling.
Observable features of a sensible cooling process
• the dry bulb temperature decreases
• the relative humidity increases
• the enthalpy decreases
• the wet bulb temperature decreases
• the specific volume decreases
• the humidity ratio, vapor pressure and dew
point remains constant
 Sensible Heating
• Air is heated by passing it over a heating coil or use of electrical strip
heaters.
• The process of sensible heating is represented on the psychrometric chart
by straight horizontal lines parallel to the abscissa.
• Since the humidity ratio remains unchanged, and so we use a
horizontal line on the psychrometric chart to represent this process.
Heating will result in lower relative humidity.
• Sensible cooling or heating processes include space heating loads,
sensible cooling loads, heating coils, space heating devices.
Observable features of a sensible heating
process
• The dry bulb temperature increases
• the relative humidity decreases
• the enthalpy increases
• the wet bulb temperature increases
• the specific volume increases
• the humidity ratio, vapor pressure and dew
point remains constant
Governing Equation

1) Sensible Cooling :- Qs = Ma x (h2 - h1)

2) Sensible Heating :- qs = ma*(h2 - h1)
Where:
• Qs = sensible heat added, Btu
• Ma = Mass of dry air - lb [= (volume of air)/(specific volume of moist air in
ft3/lbd.a)]
• h = Enthalpy of air, Btu/lb of dry air
• qs = Rate of sensible heat transfer, Btu/min
• ma = Mass airflow, lb/min [= (volume of moist airflow per min)/(specific
volume of moist air in ft3/lb d.a)]
 Humidification
• This is the process of introducing moisture into the airstream. Heating and
Humidifying is the process of simultaneously increasing both the dry-bulb
temperature and humidity ratio of the air.
• Governing Equation for Heating and Humidification
Qs = Ma*(h0 - h1) and qs = ma*(h0 - h1) ---------------Eq- 1
QL = Ma*(h2 – h0) and qs = ma*(h2 – h0) --------------Eq- 2
• Qs = sensible heat added, Btu
• QL = latent heat added, Btu
• Ma = Mass of dry air, lb [= (volume of air)/(specific volume of moist air in ft3/lbd.a)]
• h = Enthalpy of air, Btu/lb of dry air
• qs = Rate of sensible heat transfer, Btu/min
• ma = Mass airflow, lb/min [= (volume of moist airflow per min)/(specific volume
of moist air in ft3/lb d.a)]
 Humidification
The rate of moisture addition to the air, Mwater, is determined by a water
vapor mass
balance:
3) Mwater = Ma (w2 – w0) or mw = ma (w2 – w0) --------------------Eq-3
Where:
• w2= humidity ratio of the moist air upstream of the humidifier
• w0= humidity ratio of the moist air downstream of the humidifier
 Cooling and Humidification
• When air is cooled below the dew point temperature, Tdewpoint,
condensation occurs and moisture is removed from the air stream. The
exiting air stream is at a lower temperature and humidity ratio than the
incoming air stream. The cooling to condense water from the air is called
latent cooling or dehumidification.
• this process includes both sensibleand latent cooling. The total cooling is
the sum of the latent and sensible cooling.
• This process is assumed to occur as simple cooling first and
thencondensation.
• While the moisture is condensing the air is assumed to remain
saturated.This process is used in air-conditioning systems operating in hot,
humid climates
 Cooling and Humidification

Observable characteristics :
1. dry bulb temperature decreases
2. humidity ratio decreases
3. vapor pressure decreases
4. dew point temperature decreases
5. wet bulb temperature decreases
6. enthalpy decreases (there is a decrease in
the energy level and with the loss ofenergy,
condensation occurs)
7. relative humidity increases.
 Evaporative Cooling
• Evaporative cooling is an adiabatic process, that is, there is no net heat loss
or gain.
• Observable features of the evaporative cooling process are:
1. Constant wet bulb temperature
2. Decreasing dry bulb temperature
3. Increasing humidity ratio
4. Increasing dew point temperature
5. Increasing vapor pressure
6. Essentially constant enthalpy
7. Decreasing specific volume
Evaporative cooling process is the direct conditioning of air for human comfort
conditions in hot-dry climates and other applications where sensible cooling
effects are desired and increasing humidity ratios can be tolerated.
 Mixing Process
When two streams of air with different properties and flow rates are mixed, the
properties of the resulting mixture (enthalpy, dry bulb temperature and
saturation ratio)can be determined by simple proportional mass and energy
balances.
 PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES FOR DIFFERENT
CLIMATES

1.Hot and Humid : Here the air-conditioning system can achieve cooling and
dehumidification.
2. Hot and Dry : the evaporative coolers will be most advantageous.
3. Cold and Dry : the air-conditioning system usually is composed of a heating
coil and a humidifying
device,
4. Cold and Humid : the air-conditioning system typically is composed of a
heating coil only.
Air Conditioning Units
Window AC

Split AC

Cassette AC

Tower AC

Cube AC
 Window AC
• Single unit air conditioners.
• Fitted on Window sills.
• Components : compressor, condenser, expansion valve, cooling coil, evaporator.
• Easier installation and maintenance.
• Cheaper than other varieties.
 Window AC
• Assembly can be divided into 2 components : room side, outdoor side.
• The sides are separated by a insulated partition to maximize the efficiency.
• Supply and return air grills are fitted on the room side component .
• Louvers are adjustable to direct the air flow in the desired direction.
 Window AC

• The working can be divided into different systems :

 Refrigeration
 Air circulation
 Ventilation
 Control
 Electrical protection
 Window AC
• Air Circulation system :
 Blower : Fitted behind the cooling coil, inside the assembly, blower sucks the
air from the room, allowing it to pass over air filters. the air then passes over
the cooling coil and gets chilled. The blower passes this chilled air through the
supply air compartment. The air is delivered back to the room using the front
grills.
 Propeller : the fan is forced draft type of fan that sucks atmospheric air .
 Fan Motor: the motor is located between the condenser and the evaporator
coil thus making the entire assembly compact.
 Split AC
• Consists of two units : internal and
external .
• The internal unit is responsible for
drawing in hot air from the room and
returning the cold air.
• The outdoor unit contains the compressor
and is connected to the indoor unit via a
drain pipe.
• Makes lesser noise compared to the
window air conditioning systems.
 Split AC
• Indoor Unit: is responsible for the cooling effect inside the room.
• The assembly consists of a cooling coil, filter and a blower.
• As the air passes over a cooling coil its temperature reduces and the
relative humidity inside the room decreases.
• The comfortable range of temperatures is from 24-27 degrees celcius.
• Outdoor Unit: houses the compressor, condenser and the expansion
coil.
• Can be installed outside as it makes a substantial amount of noise.
• Has a fan that blows air over the condenser to keep the condenser from
overheating in case of excessive use.
 Cassette AC
• Installed in ceilings and thus work toward space saving design of HVAC Systems.
• Require no extra ducting , but need false ceiling and catwalk area.
• Applicable for large spaces where a series of window or spilt AC are recommended.
• Availability in market : 1-4 ton
• Does not make noise .
• Comes with excellent humidity controls.
 Principles of Pychrometrics Tutorial
1. Calculate the amount of sensible heat that must be added to 100lb of air at 85°F dry
bulb and 75°F wet bulb to raise the temperature of air to 100°F dry bulb. Assume h2 = 39 Btu’s/lb dry air and h1= 43.5
Btu’s/lb dry air, mass of dry air = 10lbs . Draw the Chart for the process.
1. Determine the amount of sensible heat needed to increase the temperature of air from
50°F and 50% RH to 90°F.
1. Ninety cubic-ft of lumber is dried at 60°C (140°F) dry bulb temperature and 52°C
(125.6°F) wet bulb temperature. The drying rate of the lumber is 5.68 lb of water per
hour. If outside air is at 27°C (80.6°F) dry bulb temperature and 80% relative humidity,
how much outside air is needed per minute to carry away the evaporated moisture? Assume Relative Humidity = 39.6%
, w1 = 0.0185 lb/lb dry air , w2 = 0.092 lb/lb dry air.

1. How much moisture is added to 20 lb of air going from 50°F, 50% RH to 80°F, 60%
RH?
Mechanical floors in Buildings
 Mechanical Floor
• A mechanical floor is a floor in a high rise building that provides space for building
systems.
• Present in high rise buildings and could be multiple mechanical floors to accommodate all
of the needs of a building .
• These floors are usually not accessible via regular elevators and stairwells, because they
contain sensitive service systems.
• They require service elevators or stairs to get to the mechanical floor. This limits access to
authorized personnel only.
• High rise buildings need extensive climate control systems, phone relays, electrical panels,
elevator controls, and other systems to support their operations.
• The mechanical floor offers a centralized location for all these systems, which can facilitate
access and maintenance.
• This location can reduce losses to floor space in other area of the building. It also allows
the architect to design ventilation systems appropriate to the environment, a concern with
electrical systems, which can get extremely hot while in operation.
• Mechanical floors can also include storage of supplies that might be needed by
maintenance personnel, especially for operations on the floor itself.
• Mechanical floors are generally counted in the building's floor numbering.
• As a rule of thumb, skyscrapers require a mechanical floor for every 10 tenant floors (10%)
this percentage can vary widely as per the building codes.
 Structural Concerns
• In Narrow building cores that require stabilization to prevent collapse this is accomplished
by joining the core to the external super columns at regular intervals using outrigger
trusses.
• Elevators that reach the top tenant floor require overhead machine rooms; those are
sometimes put into full-size mechanical floors but most often into a mechanical
penthouse.
• the primary purpose of mechanical floors is heating, ventilation and air-conditioning, and
other services. They contain electrical generators, chiller plants, water pumps, and so on.
• Water is necessary for tenant use, air conditioning, equipment cooling, and basic
firefighting through sprinklers (especially important since ground-based firefighting
equipment usually cannot reach higher than a dozen floors or so). It is inefficient, and
seldom feasible, for water pumps to send water directly to a height of several hundred
meters, so intermediate pumps and water tanks are used.
• The pumps on each group of mechanical floors act as a relay to the next one up, while the
tanks hold water in reserve for normal and emergency use. Usually the pumps have
enough power to bypass a level if the pumps there have failed, and send water two levels
up.
• Mechanical floors also contain communication and control systems that service the
building and sometimes outbound communications, such as through a large rooftop
antenna.