CHAPTER III

The Axial and

Appendicular Skeleton
I. Module Overview/Introduction

The human skeleton has two main divisions, axial and appendicular. The axial
skeleton, the bones of the head and trunk, forms the longitudinal axis of the body.
The appendicular skeleton includes the bones that support and form the limbs.

In this chapter also we consider the ways bones interact wherever they meet at
joints, or articulations. Movements can occur only at joints because the bones of
the skeleton are fairly inflexible. The characteristic structure of a joint determines
the type and amount of movement that may take place. Each joint reflects a
compromise between the need for strength and stability and the need for mobility.
In this chapter we compare the relationships between articular form and function.
We consider several examples that range from relatively immobile but very strong
joints (the intervertebral joints) to a highly mobile but relatively weak joint (the
shoulder).

II. Desired Learning Outcomes

In this module the students will be able to apply scientific and evidence-
based practices crucial to teaching and learning. The students with 60%
passing rate are expected to:

A. Name the major parts of the axial and appendicular skeletons and
describe their relative functions.
B. Identify the bones, foramina, and fissures of the cranium and face, and
explain the significance of the markings on the individual bones.
C. Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdles, upper and lower limbs,
their functions, and their surface features.
D. Compare and discuss the differences of male and female skeleton.
1
 III. Learning Contents and Tasks

The axial skeleton has 80 bones, about 40 percent

of the bones in the human body: (Figure 3-1)
■ the skull (8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones),
■ the bones associated with the skull (6 auditory The 80 bones of the
ossicles and the hyoid bone), head and trunk
■ the thoracic cage (the sternum and 24 ribs), and make up the axial
■ the vertebral column (24 vertebrae, the sacrum, skeleton
and the coccyx).

2
 Figure 3-1. The Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton provides a framework that supports and protects the brain,
the spinal cord, and the thoracic and abdominal organs. It also provides an extensive
surface area for the attachment of muscles that

(1) adjust the positions of the head, neck, and trunk;

(2) perform breathing movements; and
(3) stabilize or position parts of the appendicular skeleton.

Note that the axial skeleton does not include the clavicles (collar bones) or
scapulae (shoulder blades), or the bones of the pelvic girdle (hip bones). The joints of
the axial skeleton allow limited movement, but they are very strong and heavily
reinforced with ligaments.

The skull’s 8 cranial

The skull contains 22 bones: 8 form the bones protect the
cranium, and 14 are associated with the face. brain, and its 14 facial
bones form the mouth,
nose, and orbits

Cranial, Facial, and Associated Bones

The eight cranial bones enclose the cranial cavity, a chamber that supports the
brain (Figure 3–2). The occipital (ok-SIP-e-tul), right and left parietal (pa-Ri . -e-tul),
and frontal bones form the calvaria (kal-VA-re . -uh), or skullcap. Blood vessels,
nerves, and membranes that stabilize the brain’s position are attached to the inner
surface of the cranium. Its outer surface provides an extensive area for the attachment
of muscles that move the eyes, jaws, and head.

If you think of the cranium as the house where the brain resides, then the facial
bones are the front porch (Figure 3–2). Muscles that control facial expressions and
manipulate food are attached to the nine superficial facial bones. The five deeper facial
bones help separate the oral and nasal cavities, increase the surface area of the nasal
cavities, or help form the nasal septum (septum, wall) that divides the nasal cavity into
left and right halves.

In addition, seven other bones are associated with the skull: six auditory
ossicles, involved with hearing, and the hyoid bone, which supports the voice box
(Figure 3–2). Joints, or articulations, form where two or more bones connect.
A joint between the occipital bone of the skull and the first vertebra of the neck
stabilizes the positions of the brain and spinal cord. The joints between the vertebrae
of the neck permit a wide range of head movements.

3
 Figure 3-2. Cranial and Facial Subdivisions of the Skull

Sutures

The connections between most of the skull bones of adults are immovable joints
called sutures (SU . -cherz). (An exception is the freely movable joint where the
mandible contacts the cranium.) At a suture, bones are tied firmly together with dense
fibrous connective tissue.
The four major sutures are as follows:

Lambdoid Suture. The lambdoid (LAM-doyd) suture arches across the posterior
surface of the skull (Figure 3–3a). This suture connects the occipital bone with
the two parietal bones. One or more sutural bones (Wormian bones) may be
present along the lambdoid suture.
Coronal Suture. The coronal suture attaches the frontal bone to the parietal
bones of either side (Figure 3–3b). A cut through the body that parallels the
coronal suture produces a frontal, or coronal, section
Sagittal Suture. The sagittal suture extends from the lambdoid suture to the
coronal suture, between the parietal bones (see Figure 3–3b).

4
Figure 3-3. The Adult Skull

5
Figure 3-4. Sectional Anatomy of the Skull

6
 Cranial Bones

The Occipital Bone (Figure 3–5a)

GENERAL The occipital bone forms much of the posterior and

FUNCTIONS inferior surfaces of the cranium.

The occipital bone articulates with the parietal bones,

JOINTS the temporal bones, the sphenoid, and the first
cervical vertebra

The external occipital protuberance is a small bump at

the midline on the inferior surface. The external
occipital crest begins at the external occipital
protuberance. This crest marks the attachment of a
ligament (ligamentum nuchae) that helps stabilize the
REGIONS/
vertebrae of the neck.
MARKINGS
The occipital condyles are the sites of
articulation between the skull and the first vertebra of
the neck.
The inferior and superior nuchal lines are
ridges that intersect the external occipital crest. They
mark the attachment sites of muscles and ligaments
that stabilize the joints at the occipital condyles and
balance the weight of the head over the vertebrae of
the neck.

The foramen magnum connects the cranial cavity

with the vertebral canal, which is enclosed by the
FORAMINA vertebral column. This foramen surrounds the
connection between the brain and spinal cord.

7
The Parietal Bones (Figure 3–5b)

GENERAL The paired parietal bones form part of the superior and
FUNCTIONS lateral surfaces of the cranium.

The parietal bones articulate with one another and

JOINTS with the occipital, temporal, frontal, and sphenoid
bones

The superior and inferior temporal lines are low ridges

that mark the attachment sites of the temporalis, a
REGIONS/ large muscle that closes the mouth.
MARKINGS Grooves on the inner surface of the parietal bones
mark the paths of cranial blood vessels.

Figure 3-5. The Occipital and Parietal Bones

The Frontal Bone (Figure 3–6)

The frontal bone forms the anterior portion of the

cranium and the roof of the orbits (eye sockets).
GENERAL
Mucus from the frontal sinuses within this bone helps
FUNCTIONS
to flush the surfaces of the nasal cavities.

8
 JOINTS The frontal bone articulates with the parietal,
sphenoid, ethmoid, nasal, lacrimal, maxillary, and
zygomatic bones.

The forehead forms the anterior, superior portion of

the cranium. It provides surface area for the
REGIONS/ attachment of facial muscles. The superior temporal
MARKINGS line is continuous with the superior temporal line of the
parietal bone.

The supra-orbital foramen provides passage for

blood vessels that supply the eyebrow, eyelids, and
FORAMINA frontal sinuses. In some cases, this foramen is
incomplete. The blood vessels then cross the orbital
rim within a supra-orbital notch.

During development, the bones of the cranium form by

the fusion of separate centers of ossification. At birth,
REMARKS these fusion processes are not yet complete: Two
frontal bones articulate along the frontal suture. The
suture generally disappears by age 8 as the bones
fuse. In rare cases, it persists as the metopic suture
and runs through the midline of the forehead. It is
sometimes mistaken for a frontal bone fracture.

Figure 3-6. The Frontal Bone

9
The Temporal Bones (Figure 3–7)

The paired temporal bones

(1) form part of both the lateral walls of the
cranium and the zygomatic arches,
(2) form the only joints with the mandible,
GENERAL
(3) surround and protect the sense organs of
FUNCTIONS
the internal ear, and
(4) are attachment sites for muscles that close
the jaws and move the head.

The temporal bones articulate with the zygomatic,

JOINTS sphenoid, parietal, and occipital bones of the cranium
and with the mandible

REGIONS/ The squamous part of the temporal bone is the lateral

MARKINGS portion that borders the squamous suture.

Figure 3-7. The Temporal Bones

10
 Facial Bones
The Maxillae (Figure 3–8)

The paired maxillae, or upper jawbones, support the

upper teeth and form the inferior orbital rims, the
lateral margins of the external nares, the upper jaw,
GENERAL and most of the hard palate. The maxillary sinuses in
FUNCTIONS these bones produce mucus that flushes the inferior
surfaces of the nasal cavities. The maxillae are the
largest facial bones, and the maxillary sinuses are
the largest sinuses.

The maxillae articulate with the frontal bones and

JOINTS
ethmoid, with one another, and with all the other
facial bones except the mandible.

The orbital rim protects the eye and other structures

in the orbit. The anterior nasal spine is found at the
REGIONS/ anterior portion of the maxilla, at its articulation with
MARKINGS the maxilla of the other side. It is an attachment point
for the cartilaginous anterior portion of the nasal
septum

Figure 3-8. The Maxillae and Palatine Bones.

11
The Palatine Bones (Figure 3–8)

The paired palatine bones form the posterior portions

GENERAL of the hard palate. They also contribute to the floor of
FUNCTIONS each orbit.

JOINTS The palatine bones articulate with one another, with

the maxillae, with the sphenoid and ethmoid, with the
inferior nasal conchae, and with the

The palatine bones are shaped like an L. The

horizontal plate forms the posterior part of the hard
REGIONS/ palate. The perpendicular plate extends from the
MARKINGS horizontal plate to the orbital process, which forms
part of the floor of the orbit. This process contains a
small sinus that usually opens into the sphenoidal
sinus.

Figure 3-9. The Smaller Bones of the Face.

12
The Nasal Bones (Figure 3–9)

The paired nasal bones support the superior portions

of the bridge of the nose. They are connected to
GENERAL cartilages that support the distal portions of the nose.
FUNCTIONS These flexible cartilages, and associated soft tissues,
extend to the superior border of the external nares ,
the entrances to the nasal cavity.

The paired nasal bones articulate with one another,

JOINTS with the ethmoid, and with the frontal bone and
maxillae.

The Vomer (Figure 3–9)

GENERAL The vomer forms the inferior portion of the bony

FUNCTIONS nasal septum.

The vomer articulates with the maxillae, sphenoid,

ethmoid, and palatine bones, and with the
JOINTS cartilaginous part of the nasal septum, which extends
into the fleshy part of the nose.

The Inferior Nasal Conchae (Figure 3–9)

The paired inferior nasal conchae slow inhaled air

GENERAL and create turbulence as the air passes through the
FUNCTIONS nasal cavity. They also increase the epithelial surface
area to warm and humidify inhaled air.

The inferior nasal conchae articulate with the

JOINTS
maxillae, ethmoid, palatine, and lacrimal bones.

13
The Zygomatic Bones (Figure 3–9)

The paired zygomatic bones contribute to the rims and

GENERAL lateral walls of the orbits and form the prominent
FUNCTIONS cheekbones and parts of the zygomatic arches.

JOINTS The zygomatic bones articulate with the maxillae, and

the sphenoid, frontal, and temporal bones.

REGIONS/ The temporal process curves posteriorly to meet the

MARKINGS zygomatic process of the temporal bone.

FORAMINA The zygomaticofacial foramen on the anterior surface

of each zygomatic bone carries a sensory nerve that
innervates the cheek.

The Lacrimal Bones (Figure 3–9)

GENERAL The paired lacrimal bones form parts of the medial

FUNCTIONS walls of the orbits.

The lacrimal bones are the smallest facial bones.

JOINTS They articulate with the frontal bone and maxillae,
and with the ethmoid.

REGIONS/ The lacrimal sulcus, a groove along the anterior,

MARKINGS lateral surface of the lacrimal bone, marks the
location of the lacrimal sac. The lacrimal sulcus leads
to the nasolacrimal canal, which begins at the orbit
and opens into the nasal cavity. As noted earlier, the
lacrimal bone and the maxilla form this canal.

14
 Figure 3-10. The Mandible

The Mandible (Figure 3–10)

GENERAL The mandible forms the lower jaw.

FUNCTIONS

The mandible articulates with the mandibular fossae

JOINTS
of the temporal bones

REGIONS/ The body of the mandible is the horizontal portion of

MARKINGS that bone.

15
The Mandible (Figure 3–10)

The hyoid bone supports the larynx (voicebox) and is

GENERAL the attachment site for muscles of the larynx, pharynx,
FUNCTIONS and tongue.

Stylohyoid ligaments connect the lesser horns to the

styloid processes of the temporal bones.
JOINTS
Regions/Processes: The body of the hyoid is an
attachment site for muscles of the larynx, pharynx,
and tongue.

Figure 3-11. A Superior View of the Hyoid Bone

16
Vertebral Anatomy
The five vertebral
regions—cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
and coccygeal—each have
characteristic vertebrae

As Figure 3-12
shows, the vertebral column
is divided into cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
and coccygeal regions. The
cervical, thoracic, and
lumbar regions consist of
individual vertebrae
(singular, vertebra). Seven
cervical vertebrae (C1–C7
or CI–CVII) make up the
neck and extend inferiorly to
the trunk. Twelve thoracic
vertebrae (T1–T12 or TI–
TXII) form the superior
portion of the back. Each
articulates with one or more
pairs of ribs. Five lumbar
vertebrae (L1–L5 or LI–LV)
form the inferior portion of
the back. The fifth
articulates with the sacrum,
which in turn articulates with
the coccyx.

Figure 3-12. The Vertebral Column

Each vertebra consists of three basic parts:

1 a vertebral body 2 a vertebral arch 3 articular processes

Most vertebrae also have several types of processes that do not articulate with other
bones.
The vertebral body is the part of a vertebra that transfers weight along the axis of the
vertebral column. The body forms the anterior margin of each vertebral foramen,
while the vertebral arch forms the posterior margin. The vertebral arch has walls,
called pedicles, and a roof, formed by flat layers called laminae. The pedicles arise
along the posterior and lateral margins of the body. The laminae on either side extend
dorsally and medially to complete the roof.

17
 Cervical Vertebrae

Most mammals—whether giraffes, whales, mice, or humans— have seven

cervical vertebrae. The cervical vertebrae extend from the occipital bone of the skull
to the thorax. These vertebrae are the smallest in the vertebral column. In addition,
the body of a cervical vertebra is small compared with the size of its vertebral foramen.
Because cervical vertebrae support only the weight of the head, the vertebral body
can be relatively small and light.

Laterally, the transverse processes are fused to the costal processes, which
originate near the ventrolateral portion of the vertebral body. The costal and transverse
processes encircle prominent, round transverse foramina. These passageways
protect the vertebral arteries and vertebral veins, important blood vessels that service
the brain.

Thoracic Vertebrae

There are 12 thoracic vertebrae. A typical thoracic vertebra has a distinctive

heart-shaped body that is more massive than that of a cervical vertebra. The vertebral
foramen is smaller in relation to the vertebral body than in the cervical vertebrae. The
long, slender spinous process projects posteriorly and inferiorly.

Each thoracic vertebra articulates with ribs along the dorsolateral surfaces of
the body. The costal facets on the vertebral bodies articulate with the heads of the
ribs. The location and structure of the joints vary somewhat among thoracic vertebrae

Lumbar Vertebrae

The body of a typical lumbar vertebra is thicker than that of a thoracic vertebra,
and the superior and inferior surfaces are oval rather than heart shaped. Also note
that lumbar vertebrae do not have costal facets or transverse costal facets. The
slender transverse processes project dorsolaterally, while the stumpy spinous
processes project dorsally. The vertebral foramen is triangular.

The Sacrum

The sacrum consists of the fused components of five sacral vertebrae. These
vertebrae begin fusing shortly after puberty, and are generally completely fused at
ages 25–30. The sacrum protects the reproductive, digestive, and urinary organs.
Through paired joints, it attaches the axial skeleton to the paired hip bones, or pelvic
girdle, of the appendicular skeleton.

18
 The Coccyx

The small coccyx consists of four (in some cases three or five) coccygeal.
Ossification of the distal coccygeal vertebrae is not complete before puberty. These
vertebrae generally begin fusing by age 26, and fusion takes place thereafter a
variable pace. The coccygeal vertebrae do not fuse completely until late in adulthood.
In very old persons, the coccyx may fuse with the sacrum.

The Ribs

Ribs are long, curved, flattened bones that originate on or between the thoracic
vertebrae and end in the wall of the thoracic cavity. Each of us, regardless of sex, has
12 pairs of ribs.

The first seven pairs (ribs 1–7; I–VII) are called true ribs, or vertebrosternal ribs.
Ribs 8–12 (VIII–XII) are called false ribs, because they do not attach directly to the
sternum. The costal cartilages of ribs 8–10, the vertebrochondral ribs, fuse together
and merge with the cartilages of rib pair 7 before they reach the sternum.
The last two pairs of ribs (11–12; XI–XII) are called floating ribs because they have
no connection with the sternum. They are also called vertebral ribs because they are
attached only to the vertebrae and muscles of the body wall.

The Sternum

The adult sternum, or breastbone, is a flat bone that forms in the anterior midline
of the thoracic wall. The sternum has the following three parts

The broad, triangular manubrium articulates with the clavicles (collarbones)

and the cartilages of the first pair of ribs.

The tongue-shaped body attaches to the inferior surface of the manubrium and
extends inferiorly along the midline.

The xiphoid process is the smallest part of the sternum. It is attached to the
inferior surface of the body.

19
The appendicular skeleton is
dominated by the long bones that
form the limbs. The upper limbs
allow us to move freely, and the
lower limbs are adapted for
movement and support.
resorption

Figure 3-13. An Anterior View of the Appendicular Skeleton

The Clavicles (Figure 3-13)

The paired clavicles are S-shaped bones that originate at the superior, lateral
border of the manubrium of the sternum, lateral to the jugular notch. From this pyramid
shaped sternal end, each clavicle curves laterally and posteriorly for about half its
length.

20
 The Scapulae (Figure 3-13)

The paired scapulae are flat bones found on the posterior side of the rib cage.
Each triangular-shaped scapula is made up of two large processes for muscular
attachment and the glenoid cavity for articulation with an arm bone.

Arm Bone: The Humerus (Figure 3-13)

The arm, or brachium, contains only one long bone, the humerus, which
extends from the scapula to the elbow. From proximal to distal, the main parts of the
humerus are the head, shaft, and condyle, where it articulates with the forearm bones.

Bones of the Forearm

The ulna and radius are parallel long bones that support the forearm, or
antebrachium. In the anatomical position, the ulna lies medial to the radius. The
interosseous membrane, a fibrous sheet, connects the lateral margin of the ulna to
the radius.
From proximal to distal, the ulna is
made up of the olecranon, the shaft,
The Ulna (Figure 3-13) and the ulnar head. The olecranon, the
proximal end of the ulna, is the point of
the elbow.
The radius, the lateral bone of the
forearm, is made up of three main parts
The Radius (Figure 3-13) from proximal to distal: the head of
radius, shaft, and radial styloid
process.

Bones of the Wrist and Hand

The wrist, or carpus, contains eight carpal bones

Bones The carpal bones in the wrist

form two rows, one with four proximal
The Carpal (Wrist) carpal bones and the other with four
distal carpal bones

The 5 metacarpals of the hand,

The Metacarpals (Palm) beginning with the lateral metacarpal,
and Phalanges (Fingers) which articulates with the trapezium

21
 The Pelvic Girdle (Hip Bones)

The pelvic girdle is made up of the paired hip bones, also called the coxal
bones, or pelvic bones. Each hip bone forms by the fusion of three bones: an ilium (IL-
e . -um; plural, ilia), an ischium (IS-ke . -um; plural, ischia), and a pubis

The Pelvis (Pelvic Girdle, Sacrum, and Coccyx)

The Femur (Thighbone)

The femur is the longest and heaviest bone in the body. It is made up of three
major parts (from proximal to distal): the femoral head, the shaft, and the condyles

The Patella (Kneecap)

The patella, or kneecap, is a large sesamoid bone that forms within the tendon
of the quadriceps femoris, a group of muscles that extends (straightens) the knee.

Bones of the Leg

2. The Tibia 1. The Fibula

The tibia, or shinbone, is the
large medial bone of the leg;
its main parts (from proximal
to distal) are the condyles,
the shaft, and a process
called the medial malleolus
From proximal to distal, the
fibula is made up of a head,
shaft, and lateral malleolus
process.

Bones of the Ankle and Foot

The ankle, or tarsus, consists of seven tarsal bones

1. The Tarsal Bones

The tarsal bones make up the ankle. The large talus
transfers the weight of the body from the tibia toward the toes. The
articulation between the talus and the tibia occurs across the
superior and medial surfaces of the trochlea, a spool- or pulley-
shaped articular process.

2. The Metatarsals and Phalanges 3. Arches of the Foot

22
 A comprehensive study of a human skeleton
can reveal important information about a person.
We can estimate a person’s muscular
Differences in sex development and muscle mass from the
and age account for appearance of various ridges and from the
individual skeletal general bone mass. Two important facts, sex and
variation age, can be determined or closely estimated on
the basis of known measurements. In some
cases, the skeleton may provide clues about a
person’s nutritional state, handedness, and even
occupation.

Figure 3-14. Sex Differences in the Human Skeleton

23
 IV. Learning Outcomes Assessment

A. Give the name of the parts of the human skeleton. Write your answer beside
the corresponding number.

Scapula

Zygomatic bon
Humerus

Clavicle
Ribs
Sternum

Ulna
Radius

Vertebrae

Femur

hip bone
Patella

Fibula

Tibia
Phalanges

B. True or False Test. Write True if the statement is correct and write the correct
word/s if the statement is False.

____________16.
True The fibula parallels the tibia laterally.
____________
True 17.The pelvic girdle consists of the hip bones, the sacrum, and the
coccyx.
____________
True 18. The facial bones protect and support the entrances to the
digestive and respiratory tracts.
B. Identify
Femurand
____________
The label the
19..The pictures
patilla below with
is the longest the bones
and heaviest involve
bone in the the particular
body. It
movement
articulates or pose.
with the tibia at the knee joint.
_____________20.
The 80 bones The 90 bones of the head and trunk make up the axial skeleton.

24
 1 Humerus
2 Radius

Ulna
3
5 Femur

4 Femur
6 Fibula

6 Tibia

7 Tarsal Bones

Scapula
1
2 Humerus
3 Ulna

4 Femoral bone
5 Condyles

7 Femur

6 Tibia
8 Fibula

9 Patella

25
 frontal
phalanges 2
1 bone

Radius 3

Humerus
4
6 vertebrae
Scapula 5

Scapula 1
Radius
3 Thoracic Head 2
vertebrae

5 Femur Sacral 4
6
Metacarpal Bones

Fibula
7

1 Thoracic vertebrae
Sacral
2

Humerus
3

Ulna 4
Tibia
6 Femur 5
26
 V. Learning Enhancement/Extension

Fill out the chart below by simply writing the similarities and differences
the male and female skeleton.

Both skeleton are

made up of 206 bones.
They mainly contain a
skull, rib cage, pelvis, and limbs.
The main function of both skeletons
are they provide
support to the body while moving.

The male's skull are heaver and The female's skull are generally
rougher lighter and smoother. The
in general appearance. The Cranium is 10% smaller.
cranium is 10% larger.
The forehead is more slope The forehead is more vertical

The male's sinuses are larger and

have larger teeth. Their mandible The female's sinuses are smaller.
are larger, squarer, and more robust The teeth are malleable.
The mandible is smaller, narrow, and less robust

General structure of male's pelvis are General structure of female's pelvis

thicker and heavy one. are thinner and less dense.
It shape like a heart with narrow The true pelvis is wide and shallow

A male's pelvis has V-shaped pubic The pubic arch is usually wider in
arch that is approximately <70 the female pelvis
The coccyx in the male pelvis is at about <80. A female pelvis has a flexible
projected inwards and immovable and straighter coccyx

27
VI. References

Book:
E. Bartolomew, F. Martini, F. Nath: Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology,
11th Edition, Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings, 2018.

Internet Sources:

https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/
https://www.britannica.com/browse/Anatomy-Physiology
https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/169
https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiologyopenstax/chapter/overview-of-anatomy-
and-physiology/
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/anatomy-and-physiology/anatomy-and-
chemistry-basics/what-is-anatomy-and-physiology
https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/nursing
_students/ln_human_anat_final.pdf
https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology
https://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html
https://nurseslabs.com/category/nursing-notes/anatomy-physiology/

Link of the Images:

https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Axial+Skeleton&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiN
z7-67PX4AhV6U_UHHcUxCrkQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Axial+Skeleton&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQgAQyBQgAE
IAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAE
MgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQ6BAgAEBg6BAgAEEM6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOggIABC
ABBCxA1D9EVikHGDuImgAcAB4AIAB2gSIAbwGkgEHMC4yLjUtMZgBAKABAaoBC
2d3cy13aXotaW1nsAEAwAEB&sclient=img&ei=A7jOYs3BEPqm1e8PxeOoyAs&bih=
657&biw=1366#imgrc=piXF5C1wnjbRhM&imgdii=tF2R0k6DQCQqKM

https://www.google.com/search?q=Cranial+and+Facial+Subdivisions+of+the+Skull&t
bm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwia0LGR7fX4AhUMUN4KHVvLBFIQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Cranial+and+Facial+Subdivisions+of+the+Skull&gs_lcp=CgNpbW
cQAzoECAAQQzoFCAAQgARQ1BRY1BRgqhtoAHAAeACAAaYBiAGTApIBAzAuMp
gBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=ubjOYtqPHoyg-
QbblpOQBQ&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=jGsLFaaWiCmowM

https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Adult+Skull&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwja9vv
n7fX4AhWDEKYKHSpBAkQQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Adult+Skull&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1D9GVj9GWDvIGgAcAB4
AIABuwSIAe4IkgEDNS0ymAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei
=b7nOYpqDBIOhmAWqgomgBA&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=Zqli4uvVzocgGM
https://www.google.com/search?q=Sectional+Anatomy+of+the+Skull&tbm=isch&ved
=2ahUKEwjP8tyP7vX4AhUNYZQKHfCRDtkQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Sectional+Anatomy+of+the+Skull&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQ
GFCPDViPDWCRFGgAcAB4AIABsASIAeQFkgEHMC4xLjUtMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3c
y13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=wrnOYs-
JG43C0QTwo7rIDQ&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=hfB0GfCbZBBkYM

28
https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Occipital+and+Parietal+Bones&tbm=isch&v
ed=2ahUKEwjev5Gw7vX4AhVpRvUHHa-xCZgQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Occipital+and+Parietal+Bones&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1C2C1i
2C2C6EWgAcAB4AIABAIgBAJIBAJgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclien
t=img&ei=BrrOYt6kGemM1e8Pr-
OmwAk&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=F272A3n5dAztmM

https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Frontal+Bone.&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiXo
avD7vX4AhURxpQKHZhlDvMQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Frontal+Bone.&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQHjIECAAQHjo
GCAAQHhAIUOgOWOgOYPQUaABwAHgAgAG8BIgBuQWSAQcwLjEuNS0xmAEA
oAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=LrrOYpfSKZGM0wSYy7mYDw
&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=010S4DKUClv4cM

https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Maxillae+and+Palatine+Bones.&tbm=isch&v
ed=2ahUKEwibhpOF7_X4AhUSh5QKHcnHBVgQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Maxillae+and+Palatine+Bones.&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoGC
AAQHhAHOgYIABAeEAhQ-wpY-
wpgxBFoAHAAeACAAdwEiAHYBZIBBzAuMS41LTGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LW
ltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=uLrOYpvKKpKO0gTJj5fABQ&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=
kxoEtZUjpZamGM

https://www.google.com/search?q=The+Vertebral+Column&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKE
wjTzd2X7_X4AhWHz4sBHfgjBD8Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=The+Vertebral+Column&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQgAQyBQg
AEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIA
EMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQ6BggAEB4QB1CaDViaDWCgEWgAcAB4AIAB0wKIAcc
DkgEHMC4xLjAuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=37rO
YpPiKIefr7wP-MeQ-AM&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=6fg2hTlqg69kuM

https://www.google.com/search?q=An+Anterior+View+of+the+Appendicular+Skeleto
n&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjFjom47_X4AhUORvUHHY_jC5YQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=An+Anterior+View+of+the+Appendicular+Skeleton&gs_lcp=CgNp
bWcQAzIECAAQQzIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIA
EMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABFCPC1iPC2DxEGgAcAB4AIA
BrASIAawEkgEDNS0xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=I7
vOYoXxHY6M1e8Pj8evsAk&bih=657&biw=1366#imgrc=syf0iRMk-mmv4M
https://www.google.com/search?q=Sex+Differences+in+the+Human+Skeleton&tbm=i
sch&ved=2ahUKEwjtrbzO7_X4AhVUTPUHHaWQBm4Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Sex+Differences+in+the+Human+Skeleton&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA
zIFCAAQgARQ7xBY7xBg2xdoAHAAeACAAdIEiAHBBZIBBzAuMS41LTGYAQCgAQ
GqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=UrvOYu28HNSY1e8PpaGa8AY&bih
=657&biw=1366#imgrc=4Tp3CBrloOYtMM

https://www.google.com/search?q=exercise+the+bones&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKE
wikqLjX7vf4AhVJx5QKHbxJCiUQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=exercise+the+bones&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECCMQJzoFCA
AQgAQ6BggAEB4QBzoECAAQQzoICAAQsQMQgwE6CAgAEIAEELEDOgQIAB
ADOgcIABCxAxBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToGCAAQHhAIOgQIABAYULYKWPI
uYNsxaAFwAHgBgAH4BIgBhhqSAQwxMy4zLjEuMC4xLjKYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3
Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=yMbPYqSkE8mO0wS8k6moAg&bih=657&b
iw=1349&hl=en#imgrc=LpG6-AtuIpC8lM&imgdii=jgju8YP4Hi38LM

29