MSA University

Faculty of Engineering
Industrial Engineering Department

Lectures Notes on

Stress Analysis

(DES 262: Mechatronics Eng. Students)

(DES 352: Industrial Eng. Students)

(Semester: Spring 2022)

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 Chapter 1
Introduction and Concept of Stress

Objectives:
1. Review statics needed to determine forces in members of
simple structures.
2. Introduce the concept of stress.
3. Define different stress types: axial normal stress, shearing
stress, and bearing stress.
4. Discuss an engineer’s two principal tasks: the analysis and
design of structures and machines.

References:

 Ferdinand P. Beer, E. Russell Johnston Jr., John T. DeWolf, David

F. Mazurek, “Mechanics of Materials”, 8th Edition-McGraw-Hill,
2020.
 Hibbeler, R. C – “Mechanics of materials” , Pearson, 10th ed.,
2018.

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 Introduction:
 The study of mechanics of materials provides future engineers with the means
of analyzing and designing various machines and load-bearing structures
involving the determination of stresses and deformations. This first chapter is
devoted to the concept of stress.

 Section 1.1: a short review of the basic methods of statics and their
application to determine the forces in the members of a simple structure consisting
of pin-connected members.

 Section 1.2: The concept of stress in a member of a structure. You will consider
the normal stresses in a member under axial loading, the shearing stresses caused
by the application of equal and opposite transverse forces, and the bearing stresses
created by bolts and pins in the members they connect.

 Section 1.3: the stresses on an oblique plane include both normal and shearing
stresses.

 Section 1.4: discusses that six components are required to describe the state of
stress at a point in a body under the most general loading conditions.

 Section 1.5 is devoted to the determination of the ultimate strength from

test specimens and the use of a factor of safety to compute the allowable load
for a structural component made of that material.

1.1 REVIEW OF THE METHODS OF STATICS:

Support Reactions: For bodies subjected to coplanar force systems,
the supports most commonly encountered are shown in the next Table. As a
general rule, if the support prevents translation in a given direction,
then a force must be developed on the member in that direction.
Likewise, if rotation is prevented, a couple moment must be exerted on
the member.

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 Example 1.1:
Consider the structure shown in Fig. 1.1, which
was designed to support a 30-kN load.
It consists of a boom AB with a 30 × 50-mm
rectangular cross section and a rod BC with a
20-mm-diameter circular cross section. These
are connected by a pin at B and are supported
by pins and brackets at A and C,
respectively.
• Perform a static analysis to determine the internal force in each structural member and
the reaction forces at the supports.

First draw a free-body diagram of the structure.. 1.2).

• Conditions for static equilibrium:

 M C  0  Ax 0.6 m   30 kN 0.8 m 
Ax  40 kN
 Fx  0 Ax  C x
C x   Ax  40 kN
 Fy  0  Ay  C y  30 kN  0
Ay  C y  30 kN

• Ay and Cy cannot be determined from these equations

Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:

 M B  0   Ay 0.8 m 
Ay  0
Substitute into the structure equilibrium equation

C y  30 kN
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 • Results:
A  40 kN  Cx  40 kN  C y  30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom and rod

Method of Joints:
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e., the
members are subjected to only two forces which are
applied at member ends
• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to to an
axis between the force application points, equal in
magnitude, and in opposite directions

Joints must satisfy the conditions for static equilibrium

which may be expressed in the form of a force triangle:

 FB  0
FAB F 30 kN
 BC 
4 5 3
FAB  40 kN FBC  50 kN

While the results obtained represent a first and necessary step in the analysis of the
given structure, they do not tell us whether the given load can be safely supported

1.2 STRESSES IN THE MEMBERS OF A STRUCTURE

A- Axial Stress:
In the preceding section, we found forces in individual members. This is the
first and necessary step in the analysis of a structure. However it does not
tell us whether the given load can be safely supported. It is necessary to
look at each individual member separately to determine if the structure is safe.

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 Rod BC, of the example, is a two-force member
and, therefore, the forces FBC and F′BC acting on its
ends B and C are directed along the axis of the
rod.
 Whether rod BC will break or not under this
loading depends upon the value found for the
internal force FBC, the cross-sectional area of the rod, and the material of
which the rod is made.
 Actually, the internal force FBC represents the
resultant of elementary forces distributed over the
entire area A of the cross section.
 The average intensity of these distributed forces is
equal to the force per unit area, FBC ∕A, on the
section.
 Whether or not the rod will break under the given
loading depends upon the ability of the material to
withstand the corresponding value FBC ∕A of the
intensity of the distributed internal forces.

 The force per unit area is called the stress and is denoted by the Greek letter

σ (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A

subjected to an axial load P is obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the
load by the area A: σ = P/A.

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 A positive sign indicates a tensile stress (member in tension), and a negative
sign indicates a compressive stress (member in compression).

 σ represents the average value of the stress over the cross section

The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A0 A A

 The corresponding stress is described as a normal stress

in a member under axial loading.
 In practice, it is assumed that the distribution of normal stresses
in an axially loaded member is uniform, except in the immediate
vicinity of the points of application of the loads. The value σ of

the stress is then equal to σave .

 The units associated with stresses are as follows:

When SI metric units are used, P is expressed in Newtons (N) and A in square meters
(m2), so the stress σ will be expressed in N/m2 , This unit is called a pascal (Pa). However,
the pascal is an exceedingly small quantity and often multiples of this unit
must be used: the kilopascal (kPa), the megapascal (MPa), and the gigapascal (GPa):
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2,
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2

Note: 1 MPa = 106 Pa = 1 N/mm2

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Centric & Eccentric Loading
 When we assume a uniform distribution of stresses in the section, it follows from
elementary statics, that the resultant P of the internal forces
must be applied at the centroid C of the section. This means
that a uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line
of action of the concentrated loads P and P′ passes through
the centroid of the section considered. This type of loading is
called centric loading and will take place in all straight two-force members.

 However, if a two-force member is loaded axially, but

eccentrically, the conditions of equilibrium of the portion
of member in the Figure show that the internal forces in a
given section must be equivalent to a force P applied at the
centroid of the section and a couple M of moment M = Pd.
This distribution of forces—the corresponding distribution
of stresses—cannot be uniform. Nor can the distribution of
stresses be symmetric. This point will be discussed in detail
in Chapter 4.

Concept Application 1.1 (stress analysis)

Considering the structure of Example 1.1, assume that rod
BC is made of a steel with a maximum allowable stress σall
= 165 MPa. Can rod BC safely support the load to which it
will be subjected? The magnitude of the force FBC in the
rod was 50 kN. Recalling that the diameter of the rod is 20
mm, then the stress in the rod BC is calculated as:

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 Since σ is smaller than σall of the allowable stress in the steel used, rod BC
can safely support the load.

Concept Application 1.2 (Design)

Design of new structures requires selection of appropriate materials and
component dimensions to meet performance requirements.
• As an example of design, let us return to the structure of Example 1.1 and For
reasons based on cost, weight, availability, etc., the choice is made to construct
the rod from aluminum with an allowable stress σall = 100 MPa is to be used,
what is an appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
Since the force in rod BC is still P = FBC = 50 kN under the given loading,
then:
P P 50 103 N
 all  A   500 10 6 m 2
A  all 100 10 Pa
6

d2
A
4
4A 4500 10 6 m 2 
d   2.52 10  2 m  25.2 mm
•  
• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is adequate

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B- Shearing Stress
 Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the member AB.
 Corresponding internal forces act in the plane of section C
and are called shearing forces.
 The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is
defined as the shear of the section and is equal to the load P.
 The corresponding average shear stress is:

P
 ave 
A
 Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the member
surfaces to maximum values that may be much larger than
the average value. The shear stress distribution cannot be
assumed to be uniform. (Will be discussed in chapter 6)
Examples of shear Stresses:

Single Shear Double Shear

P F
 ave 
P F
  ave  
A A A 2A

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C- Bearing Stress in Connections:
 Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points of contact or
bearing surfaces of the members they connect.
 The resultant of the force distribution on the surface is equal and
opposite to the force exerted on the pin.
 Corresponding average force intensity is called the bearing stress,

P P
b  
A td

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Sample Problem 1.1

Given: In the hanger shown, the upper portion of

link ABC is 10mm thick and the lower portions are
each 6mm thick. Epoxy resin is used to bond the
upper and lower portions together at B. The pin at A
has a 10mm diameter, while a 6mm-diameter pin is
used at C.

Determine: (a) The shearing stress in pin A,

(b) The shearing stress in pin C,
(c) The largest normal stress in link ABC,
(d) The average shearing stress on the bonded
surfaces at B, and
(e) The bearing stress in the link at C.

Solution:
Strategy: Consider the free body of the hanger to determine the internal
force for member AB and then proceed to determine the shearing and bearing
forces applicable to the pins.

Free Body: Entire Hanger. Since the link ABC is

a two-force member, the reaction at A is vertical;
the reaction at D is represented by its components
Dx and Dy, thus: 125 250 mm

∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 (200𝑁)(375𝑚𝑚) − 𝐹𝐴𝐶 (250𝑚𝑚) = 0

𝐹𝐴𝐶 = +3000𝑁 𝑭𝑨𝑪 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 … … . . 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 2000 N

a. Shearing Stress in Pin A. Since this 10-mm-diameter pin is in single shear,

then:
𝐹𝐴𝐶 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝝉𝑨 = = = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂 3000 N
= 3000
𝑨 𝟏
𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎)𝟐 N
𝟒
10mm - diameter
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b. Shearing Stress in Pin C. Since this 6-mm-diameter pin is in double shear,
then:
FAC = 3000 N

𝟏
𝑭𝑨𝑪 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝝉𝑪 = 𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑨 𝟏 𝟐
½ FAC= 1500 N
𝝅(𝟔𝒎𝒎)
𝟒
10mm - diameter ½ FAC= 1500 N

c. Largest Normal Stress in Link ABC. The largest stress is found where the
area is smallest; this occurs at the cross section at A, where the 10-mm hole
is located, we have:
FAC = 3000 N

10mm 30mm
30mm

45mm

10mm - diameter
F1=F2 =½ FAC= 1500 N

𝑭𝑨𝑪 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝝈𝒂𝒕 𝑨 = = = 𝟏𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑨 (𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎)(𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎 − 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒎)

d. Average Shearing Stress at B.

We note that bonding exists on both sides of the upper portion of the link and
that the shear force on each side is: F1 = (3000N)/2 = 1500-N. The average
shearing stress on each surface is:
𝐹1 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝝉𝑩 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑨 (𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎)(𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒎)

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e. Bearing Stress in Link at C.
For each portion of the link, F1 = 1500 N, and the nominal bearing area is
(6mm)x(6mm)=36 mm2 , then: F1 = 1500 N
F1 = 1500 N F2 = 1500 N
F2 = 1500 N
6mm

6mm - diameter

𝐹1 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵
𝝈𝒃 = = = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑨 (𝟑𝟔𝒎𝒎𝟐 )

REFLECT and THINK:

 This sample problem demonstrates the need to draw free-body diagrams of
the separate components, carefully considering the behavior in each one.
 As an example, based on visual inspection of the hanger it is apparent that
member AC should be in tension for the given load, and the analysis
confirms this. Had a compression result been obtained instead, a thorough
reexamination of the analysis would have been required.

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Sample Problem 1.2
Given:
The steel tie bar shown is to be designed to carry a tension force of magnitude
P = 120 kN when bolted between double brackets at A and B.
The bar will be fabricated from 20-mm-thick plate stock. For the grade of
steel to be used, the maximum allowable stresses are σ = 175 MPa, τ = 100
MPa, and σb = 350 MPa.
Determine: Design the tie bar by determining the required values of:
(a) The diameter d of the bolt,
(b) The dimension b at each end of the bar, and
(c) The dimension h of the bar.
Solution:
a. Diameter of the Bolt.
Since the bolt is in double shear: F1 = 60 kN

𝐹1 𝟔𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 𝟔𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝝉𝑩 = = 𝝅 ∴ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝝅
𝑨 𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝟐
𝟒 𝟒
d =27.6 mm ⟾ Use d = 28 mm

At this point, check the bearing stress between the 20-mm-thick

plate, and the 28-mm-diameter bolt.

𝑃 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝝈𝒃 = = = 𝟐𝟏𝟒. 𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂 < 𝟑𝟓𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂. … . 𝑶𝑲
𝒕. 𝒅 (𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟐𝟖)
b. Dimension b at Each End of the Bar:
Consider one of the end portions of the bar, Recalling that the
thickness of the steel plate is t = 20 mm and that the average
tensile stress must not exceed 175 MPa,
𝑃 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝝈= ∴ 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝑴𝑷𝒂 = ∴ 𝒃 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟑𝒎𝒎
𝒕(𝒃 − 𝒅) 𝟐𝟎(𝒃 − 𝟐𝟖)

c. Dimension h of the Bar.

Consider a section in the central portion of the bar (subjected to
tensile stress), recalling that the thickness of the steel plate is t = 20
mm, we have:

𝑃 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵
𝝈= ∴ 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝑴𝑷𝒂 = ∴ 𝒉 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑𝒎𝒎 Choose h=35mm
𝒕𝒉 𝟐𝟎𝒉
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1.5 Allowable Load and Allowable Stress:

Factor of Safety
 The maximum load that a structural member or a machine component
will be allowed to carry under normal conditions is considerably
smaller than the ultimate load. This smaller load is the allowable load.
(Working or design load).
 Thus, only a fraction of the ultimate-load capacity of the member is used
when the allowable load is applied.
 The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is
kept in reserve to assure its safe performance.
 The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load is the factor of safety:

An alternative definition of the factor of safety is based on the use of

stresses:

Factor of Safety Selection

 The selection of the factor of safety to be used is one of the most important
engineering tasks. If a factor of safety is too small, the possibility of failure
becomes unacceptably large.
 The choice of the factor of safety for a given design application requires
engineering judgment based on many considerations:

1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member. The composition, strength,
and dimensions of the member are all subject to small variations during manufacture.
In addition, material properties may be altered and residual stresses introduced through
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 heating or deformation that may occur during manufacture, storage, transportation, or
construction.

2. The number of loadings expected during the life of the structure or machine. This
phenomenon is known as fatigue and can result in sudden failure if ignored.
3. The type of loadings planned for in the design or that may occur in the future.
Alterations or changes in usage may introduce changes in the actual loading. Larger
factors of safety are also required for dynamic, cyclic, or impulsive loadings.

4. Type of failure. Brittle materials fail suddenly, usually with no prior indication ,
However, ductile materials, such as structural steel, normally undergo a substantial
deformation called yielding before failing, providing a warning that overloading exists.

5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis. All design methods are based on certain
simplifying assumptions that result in calculated stresses being approximations of actual
stresses.

6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or

unpreventable natural causes. A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where
conditions such as corrosion and decay are difficult to control or even to discover.

7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure.

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Sample Problem 1.3
Given:
Two loads are applied to the bracket BCD as shown.
(a) Knowing that the control rod AB is to be made of a
steel having an ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa,
determine the diameter of the rod for which the
factor of safety with respect to failure will be 3.3.
(b) The pin at C is to be made of a steel having an
ultimate shearing stress of 350 MPa. Determine the diameter of the pin C for which
the factor of safety with respect to shear will also be 3.3.
(c) Determine the required thickness of the bracket supports at C, knowing that the
allowable bearing stress of the steel used is 300 MPa.
Solution:
Free Body: Entire Bracket.
The reaction at C is represented by its components Cx and Cy.
ΣMC = 0: P(0.6) − (50)(0.3) − (15)(0.6) = 0 , then P = 40 kN
ΣFx = 0: Cx = 40 kN.
ΣFy = 0: Cy = 65 kN. , then FC = 76.3 kN

a. Control Rod AB:

Since the factor of safety is 3.3, the allowable stress is:

The rod AB is subjected to normal stress, then for P = 40 kN, the diameter of the rod is:
𝑃
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝅
. 𝒅𝟐
𝟒
40𝑥103 𝑁
∴ 𝟏𝟖𝟏. 𝟖𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝝅 𝟐 ⇛ ∴ 𝒅 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟒𝒎𝒎
.𝒅
𝟒

b. Shear in Pin C :

For a factor of safety of 3.3, we have:

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 As shown, the pin is in double shear. We write
𝐹𝑐
𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝅
𝟐𝒙( . 𝒅𝟐 )
𝟒
76.3𝑥103 𝑁
∴ 106.1𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 𝜋 ⇛ 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏: 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝒎𝒎
2𝑥( . 𝑑 2 )
4
Use d=22mm

c. Bearing at C:

Using d = 22 mm, the bearing area of each bracket is dxt.

From the Figure, the force carried by the two brackets is FC
and the allowable bearing stress is 300 MPa. We write:
𝐹𝑐
𝝈𝒃 =
𝟐𝒙𝒅𝒙𝒕

76.3𝑥103 𝑁
∴ 300𝑀𝑃𝑎 = ⇛ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝑡 =5.78mm
2𝑥22𝑥𝑡

Use: t = 6 mm

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Sample Problem 1.4

Given:
 The rigid beam BCD is attached by bolts to a control rod
at B, to a hydraulic cylinder at C, and to a fixed support
at D.
 The diameters of the bolts used are: dB = dD = 10mm,
dC = 12mm, each bolt acts in double shear and is made
from a steel for which the ultimate shearing stress is τU =
200 mm
280 MPa.
 The control rod AB has a diameter dA = 11mm and is 150 mm

made of a steel for which the ultimate tensile stress is σU

= 420 MPa.
Determine:
The largest upward force that may be applied by the hydraulic cylinder at C, if the
minimum factor of safety is to be 3.0 for the entire unit, determine.

Solution:
The factor of safety with respect to failure must be 3.0 or more in each of the
three bolts and in the control rod. These four independent criteria need to be
considered separately.
FC
Free Body: Beam BCD:
First determine the force at C in terms of the force at B and D.

∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 ; 𝐹𝐵 𝑥350 − 𝐹𝐶 𝑥200 = 0 ;
FB FD
Then: FC =1.75FB ………………………………..(1)

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0 −𝐹𝐷 𝑥350 + 𝐹𝐶 𝑥150 = 0 ; 150 mm 200 mm

Then: FC =2.33FD …………………………….…(2)

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 Control Rod AB:
For a factor of safety of 3.0, we have:
𝜎𝑢 𝟒𝟐𝟎
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝑭. 𝑺 𝟑
𝐹𝐵 𝐹𝐵
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝅 ; ∴ 𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝝅 ; 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑭𝑩 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑 𝒌𝑵.
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝒅 𝒙 (𝟏𝟏)
𝟒 𝟒

From equation (1), Then the larges permitted force FC =1.75x13.3 = 23.28 kN

Bolt at B:
10 mm
𝜏𝑢 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝑭𝑩
𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝑭.𝑺 = = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝟐𝒙𝑨
𝟑
𝐹𝐵
∴ 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝝅
;
𝟐𝒙 ( 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐 ) FB = 2 F1 FB
Then the allowable force FB exerted on the bolt is: 𝑭𝑩 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑵.
Then from equation (1), FC =1.75x14.66 = 25.66 kN
Bolt at D:
Since this bolt is the same as bolt B, the allowable force is FD = FB = 14.66 kN.
From Eq. (2), FC=2.33x14.66= 34.16 kN
Bolt at C:
𝑢 𝜏 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝑪 𝑭
We again have: 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝑭.𝑺 = = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝟐𝒙𝑨
𝟑
𝐹𝐶
∴ 𝟗𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂 = 𝝅 ; FC
𝟐𝒙( 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟐𝟐 )
12 mm
Then FC = 21.11 kN.

Summary.
We have found separately four maximum allowable
FC=2F2
values of the force FC. To satisfy all these criteria, choose
the smallest value, FC = 21.11 kN.

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