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Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and
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Wood, L. J., 2004, Predicting tidal sand reservoir architecture using data from
modern and ancient depositional systems, in Integration of outcrop and
modern analogs in reservoir modeling: AAPG Memoir 80, p. 45 – 66.

Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir

Architecture Using Data from Modern
and Ancient Depositional Systems
Lesli J. Wood
Bureau of Economic Geology, John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of Geosciences,
University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

T
idal sandbanks make up most reservoir-quality rock volume in hydrocarbon
fields characterized by tidally influenced deposits. Predicting the three-
dimensional architecture and petrophysical character of these elements is crit-
ical to a proper assessment of a field’s recoverable hydrocarbon potential. Most of
these fields are under development or even in stages of secondary or tertiary recovery
that require accurate flow-simulation and resource-distribution models.
Modern tidal settings and ancient tidal deposits provide dimensional and ar-
chitectural data that can significantly reduce our uncertainty in constructing realistic
reservoir models of these tidal-bank systems, improve our ability to estimate probability
of exploration success, and help us evaluate correlation lengths between subsurface
wells and lower-resolution seismic data. Modern tidal banks can be found in many
depositional settings, from shallow estuaries to the outer continental shelf. Deep sub-
marine canyons on the outer shelf strongly influence the shelf tidal processes by
establishing a geomorphic link between deep-ocean and shallow-ocean currents. These
interacting processes, in turn, influence the distribution of tidal banks. Banks that
develop in shelf locations are thick, broad, and asymmetric, with linear forms dis-
tributed radially around the current or sediment source. Banks that develop in estuaries
are thin, narrow, and symmetric, with parabolic forms or bar chains lying parallel to the
estuary walls.
Ancient tidal banks from the Sego Sandstone (upper Campanian) in eastern Utah
show a distinct organization of different dimensions between systems tracts and se-
quences. Falling-stage tidal bars and ridges are shorter and wider than transgressive tidal
bars and ridges, a difference attributed to increased sediment supplies, decreased water
depths, and increased energy conditions associated with base-level fall.
Cumulative-probability curves provide the format for using modern and ancient
systems’ architectural data on tidal-bank dimensions to estimate the probability that
certain bank dimensions may occur in ancient deposits. Cumulative-probability curves
show that the P50 for worldwide tidal-bank length is 12,000 m, width is 1600 m, and
height is 9.2 m. These curves provide the means to assess the probability of correlation

45
46 Wood
between wells of varying distances as well as the likelihood of resolving tidal banks in
seismic data at varying resolutions.
INTRODUCTION
Tidally influenced shoreline and deltaic deposits
form some of the largest and most architecturally com-
plicated hydrocarbon fields in the world (Verdier et al.,
1980; Carneiro de Castro, 1983; Marjanac and Steel,
1997; Higley, 1994; Ambrose et al., 1995; White et al.,
1995; White and Barton, 1999; Martinius et al., 2000).
Despite the highly prolific nature of reservoirs in these
types of deposits, few well-documented, ancient sub-
surface examples exist. In addition, although 8 of the
12 largest deltas in the modern world either are tide
dominated or show strong tidal influence (Middleton,
1991, after Milliman and Meade, 1983), surprisingly
little attention has been paid to characterizing tidally
influenced deltas or shorelines in the modern record.
Hydrocarbons are notoriously difficult to produce from
reservoirs in fluvial and deltaic deposits, leaving be-
hind, on average, 60% of the resources in place (Tyler
and Finley, 1991). Recent advances in 3-D computer
modeling of flow through subsurface reservoirs, how-
ever, have increased engineers’ understanding of how
to design successful secondary recovery programs to
enhance production, yet building rigorous 3-D geo-
logic models requires knowledge of the geometries and
material properties of reservoir bodies (Weiler, 1988;
Conreaux et al., 1998; Lu et al., 1998). Improved 3-D
fluid-flow models of heterogeneous and complex tid-
ally influenced reservoirs are critical for proper devel-
opment planning and secondary recovery design and
implementation.
Much of the uncertainty in flow simulations is
related to uncertainty about the geologic model. To
increase our ability to construct geologically realistic
models of tidal sand reservoirs, we must improve our
ability to predict the architecture of tidal bars/ridges,
their facies, distribution, and orientation. In addition,
to improve our ability to predict the occurrence and
maturity of tidal banks in subsurface data, we must
assess the effect that changing conditions of sediment
supply, water depth, and energy conditions have on
their formation.
Two different scales of tidal shelf barforms describ-
ed in literature are commonly lumped together under
the term ‘‘tidal sand ridge’’ or ‘‘tidal sandbank’’ (Dyer
and Huntley, 1999). We will refer to these two types as
tidal sand bars and tidal sand ridges. Tidal sand bars are
single-cycle, upward-coarsening sand features, typi-
cally bioturbated in their upper meter, with dimensions
on the order of less than 4 m thick, less than 1500 m
wide, and less than 10 km long. Mallet et al. (2000)
described a single, elongate tidal bar at the mouth of
the Gironde Estuary in France, noting it to be approx-
imately 1 m high, asymmetric with an orientation ap-
proximately 168 anticlockwise to the main channel
orientation and tidal-flow direction. Composed of small,
medium, and large subaqueous sandy dunes, this fea-
ture is an excellent example of a tidal sand bar. In con-
trast, numerous authors have documented much larger
features— ‘‘tidal sand ridges’’ (Off, 1963; Amos and King,
1984). Study of modern tidal sand ridges in the North
Sea has shown them to be composed of several upward-
coarsening successions of fine to medium, well-sorted
sand with small to large multidirectional cross-stratifi-
cation (Davis and Balson, 1992). Each of these succes-
sions represents the architectural building blocks of
tidal sand ridges. Workers commonly do not discrimi-
nate between bars and ridges, although the quantita-
tive morphology data contained herein will show
clearly distinct size differences in these features. For
purposes of our general discussion, we will refer to both
bars and ridges as tidal sands, unless specifically dis-
cussing one or the other.
Objectives
This paper synthesizes a large data set from liter-
ature on the dimensions and distribution of siliciclastic
tidal sands and examines the utility of that data set for
predicting trends in sand-body dimension, orientation,
and distribution. In addition, this paper presents a com-
prehensive data set on the dimensions of tidal sand bars
and tidal sand ridges from ancient tidal-deltaic and
estuarine deposits of the Sego Sandstone in the Book
Cliffs area of eastern Utah. Relationships between bar/
ridge dimensions and systems tracts (cf. Van Wagoner
et al., 1988) are examined, and an approach is present-
ed for using cumulative-probability curves (CPC) to
assess the probability of occurrence for tidal-bar and
-ridge forms of certain dimensions that can be used to
predict correlation lengths between wells.
MODERN TIDAL
SAND SYSTEMS
Tidal sands were described by Hulscher et al. (1993)
as being relatively stable, having characteristic wave-
lengths of hundreds of times the undisturbed water
depth and crests oriented slightly counterclockwise
(angles between 5 and 308) with respect to the principal
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems
tidal-current direction. Their heights range between
4 and 10 m, but some have been documented with as
much relief as 30 m (see Off, 1963). They can be ex-
tremely long (several tens of kilometers) and may lie
either tightly clustered or be separated by well over 10
km distance. Amos and King (1984) defined tidal sand
ridges as having length/width ratios exceeding 40.
For a more comprehensive treatment of the subject
of modern tidal sands formation, see Dyer and Hunt-
ley (1999).
Tidal sands can be found worldwide in many tidal
coastal settings (Figure 1). Off (1963) compiled a com-
prehensive, and to this date unequaled, database from
bathymetric charts of what he referred to as modern
‘‘tidal-current ridge’’ geometries by measuring dimen-
sions of some 225 tidal sand ridges in 4 different geo-
morphic settings at 30 worldwide localities. For pur-
poses of this review, additional measurements have
been added to this compilation from recent work by
other researchers; however, most of the modern sys-
tems data discussed in this manuscript were compiled
by Off (1963).
Sand ridges were measured by Off (1963) from
bathymetric charts of varying scales, yet his examina-
tion of variously detailed charts yielded no variation in
the accuracy of his measurement. Spacing was com-
puted by measuring the width of a ‘‘set’’ of ridges along a
line drawn approximately perpendicular to the ridges at
their midpoint, then dividing this figure by the number
of spaces between the ridges. Height was taken as an
FIGURE 1. World map of tidal shelves and localities of tidal sandbank occurrence used by Off (1963).
47
average of the relief of each ridge above the adjacent sea
floor, and length was measured at the long axis. Width
was measured at the maximum perpendicular to the
long axis. Off (1963) often reported ranges of heights,
widths, and lengths for a suite of ridges. In these in-
stances, to arrive at a single, representative median for
the cluster of tidal-ridge or tidal-bar elements, the
numbers were averaged. A data set of representative
element dimensions from 30 locations worldwide (Fig-
ure 1) is the result.
Importance of Geographic Setting in
Tidal Sand Formation
Mean sea level and tidal and sedimentological
conditions determine tidal sand bar/ridge orientation,
spacing, and lithologic composition (Huthnance, 1982).
Numerous authors have noted the relationship be-
tween coastal and offshore morphology (for a review,
see Dyer and Huntley, 1999). In a study of five areas off
the eastern United States, McBride and Moslow (1991)
showed that a coupling could be established between
certain coastal morphologies and shelf sand bodies,
noting that the same major physical processes respon-
sible for shaping and controlling coastal geomorphol-
ogy also dictate the morphology and type of sand body
on the adjacent shelf floor. Off (1963) noted that tidal
ridges occur in four geographic settings: open oceans,
river mouths, heads of bays, and tidal coasts (Figure 2).
48 Wood

FIGURE 2. Examples of the four geomorphic classes for tidal sandbanks as defined by Off (1963): (A) river-mouth
example showing the morphology of the mouth of the Delaware River, U.S.A.; (B) open-ocean example showing the
Tongue of the Ocean area in the Bahamas; (C) head-of-bays example showing the Ganges Delta, India; and (D) tidal-
coast example showing the coast of west Africa near the Senegal and Guinea-Bissau border. FA = fathoms.
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems
Examining Off’s data in the context of his defined geo-
graphic locations of occurrence should yield a tighter
grouping among architectural elements because those
deposits under similar geographic conditions should
exhibit similar characteristics. Several authors since Off
have proposed tidal sand classification systems, includ-
ing Swift (1975), Amos and King (1984), Pattiaratchi
and Collins (1987), and most recently, Dyer and Hunt-
ley (1999). However, Off’s data will not be reclassified
into any more recent classification scheme herein
because details are sparse regarding the original lo-
calities. Three of the four geographic tidal-system class-
es defined by Off (1963) show little difference among
them in average tidal velocity. All have average ve-
locities of 0.6 – 0.75 m/s. The exception is the river-
mouth class, which shows averages of closer to 1 – 1.25
m/s (Figure 3). Rivers, such as the Amazon in Brazil, are
known to have tidal velocities of 2.5 m/s or more.
River Mouths
Well-formed tidal bars and ridges are commonly
present at the mouths of rivers, such as the Amazon and
other South American rivers, as well as many Alaskan
and eastern United States rivers. The Bay of the Dela-
ware River, United States, provides an excellent example
of the river-mouth setting in which tidal sands are
deposited (Figure 1, location 21; Figure 2A). The Dela-
ware River empties into the Atlantic Ocean off the
coasts of Delaware and Maryland. Twelve tidal sand
forms are mappable that parallel the sides of this bay, a
distribution typical of tidal sands found in the confines
of the valley/bay mouth. The size and distribution of
these sands varies from long, narrow, high relief and
tightly spaced (20 km long, 1.6 km wide, 12 m high, and
3.2 km apart) to short, narrow, low relief and very
tightly spaced (5.6 km long, 0.9 km wide, 4.6 m high,
and 1.3 km apart). The origin of these tidal sand forms
has been attributed to evolving tidal processes asso-
ciated with the last rise in sea level (Weil et al., 1973;
Kraft et al., 1974).
Open Ocean
Tidal currents interact with open-ocean processes
in many shallow shelf areas of the world to form tidal
sand bars and ridges. An excellent example of open-
ocean, tidal-ridge development is found in the south-
ern end of the North Sea off the regions known as The
Wash and The Fens located off east-central Great Bri-
tain (Figure 1, location 16; Figure 2B). In this region,
tidal currents average 75 cm/s on the open shelf. Off
(1963) measured numerous sand ridges scattered about
in the vicinity of The Wash. Many of these features were
imaged using echo-sound technology in the late 1950s
(Stride, 1959a, b) and are described as being topped with
49
FIGURE 3. Graph of tidal velocity for several localities
around the world classed according to Off’s (1963) locality
classes for tidal-ridge deposition. There is minor variation
in average tidal velocity among locality types except
in river-mouth settings, where average tidal velocity
nearly doubles, in some localities reaching as much
as 5 m/s.
sand waves. Tidal sand ridges in the area are some of the
tallest in the world, being as much as 24 m high and
averaging more than 44 km in length. These ridges are
also some of the narrowest of the open-ocean examples,
averaging 1200 m wide. Although they seem widely
spaced (9 km), their height-to-spacing ratio is right at
the median for open-ocean tidal sand ridge systems. Few
to no rivers drain the upland areas surrounding The
Wash, and it is believed that the sands in the offshore
tidal ridges are reworked from previously deposited gla-
cial sands (Off, 1963).
Heads of Bays
Tidal ridges are profusely developed at the heads of
bays, such as the Gulf of Korea in South Korea, the head
of the Arabian Gulf in the Middle East, and as shown in
Figure 1, the head of the Bay of Bengal, near the mouth
of India’s Ganges River (Figure 1, location 7; Figure 2C).
This location also is the site of the world’s aerially larg-
est delta, the Ganges Delta, whose delta plain is some
350 km (220 mi) wide. Ridge orientation in this locale is
influenced by a submarine canyon that impinges on
the coast and significantly influences the shape and
orientation of offshore tidal ridges that curve toward
the canyon (Off, 1963). More than 20 ridges were mea-
sured by Off at this locale. Their dimensions average
32 km in length, 3.6 km in width, and 8.2 km in height.
They are spaced approximately 11.6 km apart, more
widely than ridges found at similar water depths in
other localities. Off (1963) attributed this wide spacing
to the heavy silt and mud content of the Ganges River,
50 Wood

which promoted bar aggradation instead of prograda-

tion and widening.

Tidal Coasts
Tidal coasts are extensively developed around the
world where large gulfs or inlets are absent but large
tidal ranges and strong tidal currents are present. In
many areas, such as the west coast of Africa near the
Senegal and Guinea-Bissau border (Figure 1, location 8;
Figure 2D), there is no specific coastline orientation
that enhances tidal currents. The countries of Senegal
and Guinea have low-lying coastal plains with many
rivers and some broad, swampy estuaries. Deep Atlantic
Ocean currents concentrate high tidal energy on the
shelf areas. Numerous tidal sand ridges are found
offshore that average 24 km in length, 2 km in width,
7.2 km in height, and are spaced approximately 6.7 km
apart.

Dimensional Trends in Modern

Tidal Sandbanks
The width of modern tidal sand ridges that had
been documented by Off (1963) was plotted against the
length, regardless of geographic class. This process yield-
ed a widely scattered but somewhat simple linear re-
lationship between the two parameters (Figure 4A).
Most tidal sandbanks are less than 30 km long and less
than 3 km wide, with less than 15 m of relief (not shown
in Figure 4A). However, several tidal sandbanks have
lengths of greater than 35 km, while maintaining
widths and heights that are in line with the norm for
the overall data set. Grouping the data according to FIGURE 4. (A) Graph of tidal-ridge length versus width
geomorphic setting shows that some of these longer undifferentiated by geographic setting, showing an ob-
elements are found proximal to river-mouth or head- servable relationship between length and width of tidal
of-bay settings (Figure 4B). These unusually long fea- ridges. (B) Graph of tidal-ridge length versus width dif-
tures may represent bar/ridge chains (Dalrymple and ferentiated by geographic setting.
Rhodes, 1995) instead of individual bars or ridges, a fact
that would explain why they appear abnormally long
for their normal height and width. Ratios of width/
length increase as one moves from river mouth to heads present-day high interglacial water depths and the
of bays to open oceans and finally to tidal coastal insufficient sand in deep water that was necessary for
settings. ridges to build to sea level. Reexamined in the context
Off (1963) focused on the relationship between of coastal type, the ridge height/spacing ratio decreases
ridge height and ridge spacing, thinking there was a slightly from open oceans (average 0.0034) to river
constant ratio between the two. Allen (1968) found that mouths (average 0.0032), to heads of bays (average
Off’s ridge heights increased roughly as (spacing)1/2. 0.0030), and finally, to tidal coasts (average 0.0026).
Huthance’s (1982) model predicted that ridge spacing Considerably more scatter exists in the spacing of ridges
was roughly equivalent to 250
mean water depth. in river-mouth and head-of-bay systems than in open-
Huthance also examined Off’s data and acknowledged ocean settings (Figure 5). Separation distances between
the relationship between ridge height and spacing (ridge ridges in river-mouth settings can range from less than
height/spacing = 0.0038 ± 0.0020 [standard deviation]). 1 km to nearly 10 km. In comparison, open-ocean ridges
Huthnance also noted, however, that much scatter tend to form between 2 and 5 km apart. Excluding a few
existed in the data. He attributed this scatter to the specific anomalous localities, tidal coasts also tend to
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems 51

show consistently more tightly packed tidal ridges that

tend to be spaced 1–4 km apart. The inconsistency in
ridge separation distances associated with river-mouth
and head-of-bay systems is to be expected where ebb-
and-flow tidal processes are active in rapidly migrating
channels (Dalrymple and Rhodes, 1995). Spacings are
more consistent in open-ocean or tidal-coast settings,
where currents and ebb-and-flow channels are less sub-
jected to seasonal continental processes.
Even when examined in the context of coastal type,
measures of tidal-ridge length/height show a large scat-
ter and no discernable trend associated with coastal
type. However, measures of tidal-ridge width/height
reveal much more tightly clustered relationships (Fig-
ure 6). The range of width/height ratios increases from
open ocean to river mouth, to head of bay, and to tidal- FIGURE 5. Graph of tidal-ridge height/spacing differen-
coast settings. Although a greater density of tidal sand- tiated by geographic setting. Data in geographic setting
banks commonly are found along tidal coasts, they also classes is scattered; there is a slight decrease in the ratio as
tend to show a larger range of ridge widths than areas one moves progressively from open oceans to river mouth,
to heads of bays, and to tidal-coast settings. If not for a few
such as river mouths. Some of the scatter in width/
specific localities, tidal coasts would exhibit significantly
height is because of the inclusion in the data set of a reduced ratios over the other three settings.
large number of very low-relief (<4 m) and wide tidal
sand features, which may actually be tidal bars. Their
height may be limited by the meager sand supply along
tidal coasts that are not serviced by large rivers. In heads
of bays and river mouths, where currents are focused seaway. Geometric constrictions along the seaway will
and sediment tends to be more plentiful, tidal-ridge/bar likewise cause reduction in current velocity in parts of
height is more proportional to width. the seaway, although very high current velocities will
be present along the constriction itself. Any change in
water level along a shallow seaway would theoretically
THE EFFECT OF SEA LEVEL have a dramatic effect on tidal-current strength, extent
of tidal influence, and orientation of tidal currents. A
CHANGE ON TIDES AND rise in seaway water level has two effects: (1) increasing
TIDAL DEPOSITS water depth, which typically decreases tidal velocity,
and (2) increasing the cross-sectional area and dimen-
The manner in which changes in relative or long- sions of the seaway, which can also decrease velocity.
term sea level influences tide regime across a body of
water is complex and varies according to water depth,
bank and bottom topography, and water-body shape,
all variables that change throughout a cycle of sea level CONTROLS ON TIDAL
fluctuation. Broad, shallow, lowstand epicontinental SANDBANK CHARACTER
seas are likely to have wider areas that are susceptible to
tidal reworking and perhaps faster tidal currents (John- Tidal-bar and -ridge architecture, dimension, and
son and Belderson, 1969; Willis and Gabel, 2001). Tidal sedimentology are intimately linked to tidal regime
resonance depends on basin width relative to tidal (Huthnance, 1982; Hulscher et al., 1993). Numerous au-
wavelength (Pugh, 1987). The width of a seaway (or thors have addressed the impact that different factors,
gulf) affects the ‘‘mouth correction’’ to the seaway’s such as sediment amount and type, water depth, tidal
length, which gives the effective length for tidal oscil- velocity, and the nature of bar nuclei have on tidal-bar/
lations. Any variations in the cross-sectional area across ridge orientation and distribution, bar/ridge shape, and
the seaway tend to give a proportionate change of dimensions.
velocity in that part of the seaway. A decrease in the
cross-sectional area of the seaway, such as by lowering Orientation and Distribution
sea level, will yield a proportionate increase in tidal ve-
locity in parts of the seaway. Tidal velocity at a constant Tidal sandbanks (bars and ridges) are typically ori-
water depth depends both on the distance from the ented at small, oblique angles of 7 – 158 counterclock-
opening of the seaway and the effective length of the wise to flow, although extreme values ranging from 0 to
52 Wood
FIGURE 6. Graph of tidal-ridge width/height ratios
showing a higher ratio in tidal coastal areas.
208 do occur (Kenyon et al., 1981). Tidal sandbanks will
grow wherever an initial irregularity occurs on a sandy
bed, including transgressive drowned barrier islands,
older eroded outcrop remnants, abandoned ebb-tidal
delta deposits, or remolded previous shelf deposits (see
Snedden and Dalrymple, 1998, or Dyer and Huntley,
1999, for a review). Huthnance (1982) suggested that
irregularities oriented ±20 to 308 to maximum flow are
optimal for promoting aggradation of sandbanks. An-
cient tidal sandbanks most likely will exhibit a similar
orientation, counterclockwise and oblique to principal
paleocurrent directions. The spacing of tidal sandbanks
has been shown to be related to water depth and cur-
rent speed, with spacing increasing roughly 250 times
the water depth, moving offshore (Off, 1963; Allen,
1968).
Shape
Tidal sandbanks (bars and ridges) on the open shelf
are generally straight, having only slightly sinuous
crests. In contrast, as one nears the coast, tidal sand-
banks have a more parabolic shape, and in the confines
of the flooded estuaries, they increasingly overlap (Bel-
derson, 1986). In more estuarine (river mouth) settings,
banks exhibit lower relief with flat tops (Dalrymple and
Rhodes, 1995). The more sigmoid or parabolic shape of
estuarine sandbanks are related to the well-developed
ebb- or flood-dominant channel system in the sedi-
ment-choked estuary setting. In these shallow-water
settings, sandbanks spread laterally, amalgamate, and
become dissected by flood- and ebb-tide channels. Be-
cause ebb-flood channel systems are a wave-phase lag
phenomenon, the transition from more open-ocean
linear to coastal-estuarine parabolic forms most likely
occurs at some characteristic Froude number (Swift,
1975).
Tidal sandbanks (bars and ridges) may be symmet-
ric or asymmetric, either equant in form or broad at one
end, and tapering to the opposite end. In the latter case,
the broad end faces upcurrent. Rates of bank accretion
and migration and swale excavation are known to vary
widely as a function of the magnitude, frequency, and
orientation of waves and currents (Swift, 1975). The
degree of asymmetry in sandbanks increases in propor-
tion to the inequality of ebb- and flood-tidal currents
(Kenyon et al., 1981). Banks tend to be asymmetric,
with a steeper face in the direction of sediment trans-
port (Belderson, 1986), and have been noted to migrate
as far as 37 m in a single year (Gomez and Perillo, 1992).
More unidirectional flows, such as in open-ocean set-
tings, may result in rapid and long migration in a single
direction. These flows can increase reworking and re-
sult in cleaner sands. Banks resulting from this process
may show a pronounced asymmetry, the steeper face
dipping in the migration direction (Kenyon et al.,
1981). In contrast, bidirectional flow in more nearshore
settings produces increasingly symmetrical banks that
migrate more slowly, although exceptions to this latter
observation have been noted (Gomez and Perillo,
1992).
Dimensions
Huthnance (1982) theorized that tidal banks (bars
and ridges) will aggrade until the flow is retarded,
instead of accelerated, at the bank crest. Such decel-
eration will lead to deposition on the upcurrent side
and bank widening in the upcurrent direction. This
principle governs much of the shallow- to deep-water
trends in tidal-bank geometry variability because tid-
al velocity is related to water depth. Swift and Field
(1981) documented a systematic decline in the length
and width of tidal sandbanks as water depth increases.
In general, narrower banks typically occur in deeper
water (Dalrymple and Rhodes, 1995). Because currents
tend to become more unidirectional, and there is little
chance of waves inhibiting growth, one would expect
banks to have more relief in deeper water. However,
sand supply plays an important part in defining the
width of tidal banks, especially those in deeper water.
If sand supply is decreased, as is commonly the case
under conditions of deepening water, banks will ac-
crete vertically, their widths will decrease, and they
will become more widely spaced. In contrast, sand-
banks in shallower water tend to be thinner, as a func-
tion of the shallower-water surface waves retarding
cross-bank sediment transport and upward growth, but
wider because of the plentiful sand supply. Because
widening is a function of inability to sustain tidal ener-
gy and sediment transport efficiency, it should hold
true that shelf and coastal localities having lower tidal
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems
velocities would be characterized by wide but thin
tidal banks.
A Model for Spatial Variations in Tidal
Sandbank Character
Swift and Field (1981) noted what they believed to
be a systematic continuum of tidal sandbank (bar and
ridge) evolution as water depth, current nature and ve-
locity, and sand type and volume were varied. The
static model in Figure 7 is constructed on the basis of
observations from the modern coastal-process litera-
ture cited earlier, as well as modern and ancient tidal-
bar and -ridge dimensional data found in this report.
This model summarizes the important parameters that
impact tidal-bar and -ridge shape, form, and distribu-
tion from deep- to shallow-shelf to flooded-estuarine
water depths. As one moves more basinward in silici-
clastic settings, tidal currents become more unidirec-
tional, and grain sizes, sediment supply, and tidal
velocities decrease. Water depths and accommodation
space increase, and geomorphic forms become increas-
ingly dynamic. As a result, tidal sandbanks become
FIGURE 7. Static model illustrating
spatial variance of factors that influ-
ence the shape, form, and distribution
of tidal sandbanks and the associated
character of tidal sandbanks in differ-
ent areas of the system.
53
thick, broad, and more asymmetric. These features are
linear and distributed radially away from the main
sediment feeder system. More landward, within the
estuary, tidal currents become increasingly bidirection-
al, grain sizes and sediment supply increase, tidal ve-
locities increase, water depths and accommodation
space decrease, and geomorphic forms become more
stable, commonly lying end to end in long, flat-topped
sandbank chains cut by diagonal ebb-and-flow chan-
nels (Dalrymple and Rhodes, 1995). Banks (bars and
ridges), which are short, narrow, and more symmetric,
have a more parabolic form and lie in a parallel ori-
entation to one another and the estuarine valley walls.
TRENDS IN TIDAL SAND-BODY
GEOMETRY IN SYSTEMS
TRACTS OF THE
SEGO SANDSTONE
Under conditions of shoreline regression, one
would expect certain variables to change: water depth
to decrease, grain size to increase, and sediment supply
54 Wood
to increase. Under conditions of shoreline transgres-
sion, one would likewise expect certain variables to
change: water depths to increase, grain sizes to de-
crease, and sediment supply to potentially decrease.
How tidal forms develop in response to these changes is
complex and open to debate ( Johnson and Belderson,
1969; Snedden and Dalrymple, 1998), yet by exam-
ining the preserved geometry of tidal sandbanks depos-
ited under conditions of changing sea level in various
sequences (sensu Van Wagoner et al., 1988) and systems
tracts, researchers gain a sense of how geometry varies
in response to these changing conditions.
The principles of sequence stratigraphy are inti-
mately linked to changes in relative shoreline position
or basin water depth (Posamentier and Vail, 1988) that
can also alter tidal regimes across a shallow seaway.
Therefore, tidal-bar and tidal-ridge architecture may vary
between systems tracts as tidal conditions change with
varying base level or across systems-tract boundaries. In
a literature of more than 671 paralic sand bodies, Rey-
nolds (1999) noted that a systematic relationship exists
between paralic sand-body dimensions and sequence-
stratigraphic cyclicity. He noted his ability to signifi-
cantly reduce data plot scatter by subgrouping sands
according to sand-body type, as well as a systematic
tendency for certain sand-body types to occur in speci-
fic systems tracts.
Tidal Sandbanks of the Sego Sandstone
(Upper Campanian), Book Cliffs, Utah
Dimensional data of lenticular tidal sandbars and
ridges were collected from the Sego Sandstone in the
southern Book Cliffs of eastern Utah for purposes of
assessing trends in architectural distribution as a func-
tion of their position in a sequence-stratigraphic frame-
work (that is, the conditions of relative sea level under
which they were deposited). The Sego Sandstone Mem-
ber of the Mancos shale is part of a series of exception-
ally exposed, forward-stepping cycles of upper Campa-
nian siliciclastic deposition that prograded away from
the rising Sevier orogenic belt into the shallow, epi-
continental Cretaceous seaway of western North
America. The Sego formed during a period of 1.4 m.y.
as tide-influenced shorelines rapidly regressed and
transgressed the area.
The epicontinental seaway during Sego deposition
was 600 km wide and extended 4800 km from the
present site of the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean
(Figure 8). Although few quantitative estimates of tidal
regimes in the Late Cretaceous have been made on the
basis of the geometry of Cretaceous age tidal deposits
and modern analogy, Bridges (1982) described the re-
gime as micro- to mesotidal. Tidal-current velocities are
thought to have ranged from 50 to 200 cm/s, flowing
close and parallel to the western edge of the seaway
(Bridges, 1982).
Sequence Stratigraphy of the Sego
The Sego Sandstone crops out extensively between
Green River, Utah, and Coal Gulch in western Colorado
(Figure 9). It was deposited as marine shelf sands and
muds, inner-shelf tidal sandbars, valley fills, and tidally
influenced estuarine sediments (for a detailed descrip-
tion of lithofacies in the Sego Sandstone, see Willis and
Gabel, 2001). Paleocurrent measurements from regio-
nal studies indicate a late Campanian paleoshoreline
oriented east-northeast to west-southwest, with fluvial-
deltaic systems impinging from the north-northwest
(Figure 9). Progradation of the Sego forms the basal unit
of an overall progradational-aggradational nearshore-
marine succession that is underlain by the shales of the
Buck Tongue regional flooding event (Van Wagoner,
1991)(Figure 10) and capped by the aggradational
Neslen Formation coastal-plain units and their time-
equivalent, thick shoreface sandstones (Corcoran, Coz-
zette, and Rollins Sandstones). For a more extensive review
of the regional stratigraphic relationships associated
with the Sego, see Van Wagoner (1991), McLaurin and
Steel (2000), Yang and Sun (1988), and Yoshida (2000).
The Sego Sandstone consists of four fourth-order
genetic sequences, the lower three composing the sin-
gle third-order genetic sequence of the lower Sego Sand-
stone (Figure 10) (Wood, 2000; Willis and Gabel, 2001).
Each sequence is composed, in ascending order, of
highstand, falling-stage, lowstand, and transgressive
systems tracts. Sequences coarsen upward from deep-
marine shales to shales interbedded with hummocky
cross-stratified sheets sands to both isolated and stack-
ed tidal bars cut by a lowstand erosional surface. Low-
stand surfaces may show fluvial- or estuarine-valley in-
cision or distributary and tidal channeling (Wood,
2000; Wood and Willis, 2000; Willis and Gabel, 2001).
The sequences then fine upward from coarse-grained
lowstand and transgressive valley fills to transgressive,
hummocky, cross-stratified sheet sands and marine
shale. Sequence 1 is defined from the maximum trans-
gression of the Buck Tongue shale to the marine flood-
ing above the lower lower Sego. It was deposited on the
falling limb of the overall third-order Sego cycle. The
maximum lowstand surface of this cycle shows low re-
gional relief, with basinward-stepping distributary
channels but no incised valleys (Wood, 2000; Wood
and Willis, 2000; Willis and Gabel, 2001). Sequence 2 is
defined from the maximum marine transgressive shale
above the lower lower Sego to the maximum marine
transgressive shale above the upper lower Sego, the
eastern Anchor Tongue shale. It was deposited at the
maximum lowstand of the overall third-order Sego
cycle and has a maximum lowstand surface of erosion
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems 55

FIGURE 8. Illustration of interpreted

tidal regime and paleogeography of
the western interior Cretaceous sea-
way of North America during the Late
Cretaceous. Tidal regime ranges are
relative. Modified after Stride (1982).

showing regional relief of as much as 60 m and incision
of valleys into older sequences (Wood, 2000; Wood and
Willis, 2000). Sequence 3 is defined from the maximum
marine-flooding shale above the upper lower Sego to
the third-order maximum marine flooding that depos-
ited the Anchor Tongue shale. This genetic sequence
was deposited on the rising limb of the third-order Sego
sequence, and the maximum lowstand surface of ero-
sion shows sharp truncation of underlying sequences
by backstepping incised valleys (Wood, 2000; Wood
and Willis, 2000).
Tidal bars and stacked bar complexes (tidal sand
ridges) were mapped in two outcrop segments: a 15-km-
long eastward depositional strike section and an 8-km-
long westward depositional strike section (Figure 11).
The eastern outcrop (EOW) is believed to have been
located in a slightly more distal location than the west-
ern outcrop (WOW)(Wood and Willis, 2000; Willis and

FIGURE 9. The outcrop extent of the

Sego Sandstone in the Book Cliffs of
western Colorado and eastern Utah.
Detailed outcrop windows (shown in
Figure 11) for the eastern study area
(EOW) and the western study area
(WOW), as well as paleocurrent ori-
entations, are shown. EPC = East
Prairie Canyon, JC = Jim Canyon.
56 Wood

FIGURE 10. Stratigraphic sequences and systems tracts of the Sego Sandstone, Book Cliffs, eastern Utah. Tidal bars
and ridges are distributed in the fourth-order falling stage, lowstand, and transgressive systems tracts of the basinward-
stepping sequence (1), maximum lowstand sequence (2), and landward-stepping sequence (3) of the third-order Sego
sequence. Eastern outcrop window (EOW) and western outcrop window (WOW) are detailed in Figure 11.

Gabel, 2001). At both locations, the Sego dips 3 – 58 to
the north and is well exposed, with cliffs oriented dom-
inantly southwest to northeast, approximately parallel
to Sego depositional strike (Figure 12). Vertical facies
trends were measured at 105 sections along outcrops
spaced a few hundreds of meters apart (Wood and Wil-
lis, 2000; Willis and Gabel, 2001). Erosional surfaces,
marine flooding shales, and sand beds were walked lat-
erally between sections or traced using high-resolution
photomosaics to define stratal geometries. In addition
to the exceptional outcrop, an extensive subsurface
geophysical log database from more than 200 wells
located immediately west of the eastern outcrop was
used to extend the outcrop sequence stratigraphy into
the subsurface (Figures 12 – 14).
Tidal bars make up a high percentage of the ar-
chitectural elements that compose the Sego Sandstone.
Bars were deposited in distal-delta and open-shelf set-
tings, as well as within the confines of the estuaries
themselves. Individual bar deposits are composed of
heterolithic cross-stratified sandstones, homogeneous
cross-stratified sandstones, and extensively bioturbated
sandstones (Willis and Gabel, 2001). Tidal bars typical-
ly have an erosional base with as much as 1 m of relief
overlain by a lag deposit that may include mud clasts,
plant debris, shelly fossils (clams and oysters), and rare
sharks’ teeth. The tidal bars typically thin away from
their axis, and the degree of erosion at the base of the
bars decreases away from the axis. Away from the axis,
basal deposits consist of thinly interbedded sandstones
and mudstones that are extensively bioturbated by Pla-
nolites and less commonly by Thalassinoides and Astero-
soma. This basal lag is in turn overlain by fine to me-
dium, angle-of-repose, cross-stratified sandstones. Paleo-
current measurements indicate a southeast-oriented
paleoflow. Cross-strata show numerous dip changes
within sets. The upper few meters may be extensively
bioturbated, most notably by abundant Ophiomorpha.
Deposits grade upward to heterolithic cross-stratified
sandstones. Cross-strata dip decrease toward the base
of any single bed and become increasingly tangential
with the base of the bed. Most tidal bars are homogenized
nearly completely by bioturbation near their edges. In
rare cases, bed sets grade laterally into sandstone-rich,
hummocky, cross-stratified deposits (Willis and Gabel,
2001).
Individual tidal bars aggregate into tidal ridges that
are as much as 11 m in height and greater than 4.5 km
wide. These tidal ridges show multiple internal scour
surfaces associated with basal incision by tidal-current
processes associated with deposition of overlapping
tidal bars. Internal shaly beds are locally continuous,
forming potential barriers and baffles to fluid flow.
These shales were eroded by interbar currents, a process
that resulted in the redeposition of abundant shale and
shell clasts along cross-beds and reactivation surfaces.
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems 57

FIGURE 11. West-east

cross section showing
geometry of stratal units
in the lower Sego Sand-
stone of the Mancos
shale. Sections measured
from outcrop were pro-
jected into an east-west
plane between West-
water and Bryson Can-
yons (left half of A) and
into a north-south plane
between Bryson and San
Arroyo Canyons (right
half of A), and into an
east-west plane between
Sego and Crescent Can-
yons (B). Bounding sur-
faces of tidal-ridge and
-bar elements are shown
mapped on panels as
bedding surfaces (modi-
fied after Willis and
Gabel, 2001).

The entire ridge typically sits in a localized incision
formed by offshore tidal processes cutting as much as
several meters into underlying hummocky, cross-
stratified shelf deposits (Willis and Gabel, 2001). Ridges
thin along strike as a function of decreasing sand content.
Tidal-bar and -ridge Dimensions
Tidal-bar dimensions were measured in six tidal
ridges in the outcrop study area. Bar widths were mea-
sured between the thinnest identifiable exposures of
large-scale, cross-stratified, homogenous, or heavily bio-
turbated sands in the bars. All bars included in the data
set show a clear upward coarsening and shallowing
from heterolithic cross-stratified sandstones with abun-
dant shale drapes overlain by homogeneous cross-
stratified sandstone, or alternatively overlain by exten-
sively bioturbated sandstones. In addition, all bars have
a clear axis of stratigraphic thickening. Bar dimensions
were not included in the data set if significant trun-
cation and erosion by overlying lowstand surfaces had
resulted in an incomplete stratigraphic sequence. This
methodology is premised on the assumption that, al-
though each bar may not be intersected directly at its
maximum width or thickness, there is no difference
in bias between populations of bars measured from
58 Wood

FIGURE 12. Sand thicks interpreted from subsurface well data immediately west and north of the eastern outcrop area
and integrated with outcrop mapping illustrate the distribution of combined lowstand and transgressive fill of
sequence 2 incised valleys.

different outcrop locations or from different systems
tracts or sequences. Therefore, the gross observations
regarding differences between the groups should be
insightful and valid. Included in this assessment were
bars in the falling-stage systems tract of sequence 1
(third-order regressive), the falling-stage systems tract
of sequence 2 (third-order maximum lowstand), and
the transgressive systems tract of sequence 2 (third-
order transgressive). Only sequence 2 exhibits incised
valleys filled with tidal bars. Bars are by far best de-
veloped in the falling-stage systems tract (late high-
stand systems tract of Van Wagoner et al., 1988). Width
and thickness measurements were made for 25 bars
along their strike orientation (Figure 15).

FIGURE 13. Approximate depositional strike section of the Sego systems. It includes both outcrop gamma and
subsurface logs and illustrates the nature of in-valley, upward-fining fills and out-of-valley, underlying, upward-
coarsening falling-stage deposits. Line of section (AA0) is shown in Figure 12.
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems 59

FIGURE 14. Approximate depositional dip section of the Sego systems, trending first along the updip parts of the San
Arroyo maximum lowstand valley, then along the interfluve, and finally crossing the downdip San Arroyo incised valley.
Note the updip (northward) truncation of older falling-stage, tidal-bar deposits as the lowstand erosional surface incised
progressively deeper into the stratigraphic column. Line of section (BB0) is shown in Figure 12.

Overall individual tidal sandbars exhibit a wide
range of heights between 6.8 and 1.4 m, and their
widths can range between 1800 and 380 m (Figure 16).
Tidal bars in the eastern outcrop window are thicker
than those in the western outcrop window (Figure 16A).
It is apparent in data from the western outcrop window
(Figure 16A) that tidal bars that formed during the fall-
ing stage of sequence 2 have a much broader geometry
than those formed during the falling stage of sequence
1. In contrast to tidal bars developed in the falling-stage
systems tract, those bars developed during transgression
are dominantly confined to the incised estuarine valleys
and show much narrower and a more overlapping ge-
ometry (Figure 16B).
Interpretation
A distinct hierarchy of tidal sandbank architecture
exists in the Sego, with tidal bars averaging 3.5 m in
height and several hundreds of meters in width, and
stacking into tidal ridges that are several kilometers
wide and as much as 11 m thick. Although there is some
overlap in measurements, architectural dimensions of
tidal bars seem to vary systematically between systems
tracts. When the data are grouped by systems tract and
sequence, four distinct classes of dimensions appear.
Falling-stage tidal bars developed in the slightly more
distal eastern outcrop window are thicker than those of
the same sequence along strike in the more proximal
western outcrop window (Figure 16A). Increased water
depths limit attenuation by waves, allowing bars to
grow higher than they do in more proximal, regressive
shelf settings. Falling-stage tidal bars in the western
outcrop area located in a more proximal setting more
rapidly feel the effects of shallowing water depths.
Shallower water depths result in attenuation of bar
aggradation, and increasing sand volumes associated
with rejuvenation of basinward sediment transport
systems result in sedimentation on both the upcurrent
and downcurrent margins of the bar, allowing it to
broaden (Huthnance, 1982). In contrast to falling-stage
tidal bars, transgressive tidal bars are confined to val-
leys incised during the previous lowstand (Figure 12).
These bars are thin and narrow, with greater amounts
of fine-grained material. Tidal currents confined by
geographic obstruction, such as valley walls, will in-
crease in velocity. Faster tidal currents will result in
taller, narrower tidal bars. In addition, the abundance
of fine material associated with estuary development
stabilizes the bars, allowing upward growth, and the
increasing water depths associated with rising sea level
limit reworking.
CUMULATIVE-PROBABILITY
CURVES
A pinch of probability is worth a pound of perhaps.
– James Thurber
A great many unknowns complicate construction
of a deterministic geologic framework from subsurface
60 Wood
data. However, it is commonly the original deposition-
al architecture that most impacts fluid flow in hydro-
carbon reservoirs (Tyler and Finley, 1991; White and
Barton, 1997, 1999). The dimensions and orientations
of the sand bodies and shales are questions that must
be answered if one is to construct a meaningful model
of the subsurface architecture. This problem is compli-
cated by the lack of spatially detailed deterministic data
that one can derive from seismic and wells. Geomod-
elers commonly turn to high-resolution analogs from
outcrop or modern systems to answer basic questions or
fill in the details of the stratigraphy (White and Barton,
1997; Jackson et al., 2000; Willis and White, 2000; Yang
and Sun, 1988; Yoshida, 2000).
Typical approaches to the use of analog dimension-
al data to answer such questions employ crossplots of
variables such as width versus thickness or length versus
thickness (Fielding and Crane, 1987; Reynolds, 1999).
These plots can be useful when one is careful to compare
FIGURE 15. General
strike-view dimensions
of tidal sand ridges and
tidal sand bars (see text
for definition) taken
from the sequence 1
falling-stage systems
tract (A), the sequence
2 falling-stage systems
tract (B), and sequence
2 transgressive systems
tract (C), all in the west-
ern outcrop area. Tidal-
bank dimensions col-
lected from the eastern
outcrop area are not
shown.
sands of similar genesis (for a more extensive discussion
of this approach, see Reynolds, 1999). Great ambiguity
often exists, however, in the selection of an appropriate
analog for the area of comparison. In addition, processes
of convergence, divergence, and sensitivity can cause
great variability of architectural-element forms, even in
the same geomorphic system (Schumm, 1991; Ethridge
et al., 1999). Because of the uncertainty that exists in
deterministically applying analogs to explain reservoir
architecture, we should probably be asking other ques-
tions. What is the probability that tidal sandbanks are
at least 4 m thick? What is the probability that two wells
drilled 400 m apart will encounter the same tidal sand
bar? If a seismic data set can resolve only 7 m in thick-
ness, how probable is it that individual tidal bars can be
deterministically mapped? Can one correlate individ-
ual sandbanks between dip-oriented wells, given a well
spacing of 2 km? How about between strike-oriented
wells? To answer these questions, one must employ a
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems 61

slightly different approach to the use of analog data
using CPC (Capen, 1992). Data sets from modern tidal-
shelf and estuarine systems and ancient Sego Sandstone
tidal sand ridge systems have been combined to illus-
trate this approach.
Producing Cumulative-probability
Curve Graphs
On the basis of data of tidal-sand dimensions
known worldwide, CPC graphs allow geomodelers to
obtain probabilities that reservoirs of certain size or
character may exist. After sorting the quantitative data
from low values to high values, a geomodeler can cal-
culate what percentage of the points in the entire sam-
ple have values less than or equal to the next largest
point according to the formula
Cumulative frequency ¼ ðPoint numberÞ=
ð1 þ Total number of pointsÞ
The data are then plotted on a CPC graph (Capen,
1992), allowing the individual to assess the probability
that their ‘‘guesses’’ regarding the dimensions and ori-
entation of the tidal sands actually occur in their study
area. Probability of success is expressed as the P1, or 1%
probability of success, to the P99, or 99% probability of
success.
Cumulative-probability Curve Results
Cumulative-probability curves, which are based
on tidal-bar and -ridge dimensional data from the
Sego Sandstone outcrop, as well as data from modern
systems around the world’s oceans, can be used to
assess chance of success (COS) of finding certain reser-
voir areas, thicknesses, and spacing. By plotting well-
separation distances from subsurface data on these
graphs, we can assess the probability that tidal bars are
continuous between two wells. Likewise, one can assess
the probability of contacting productive tidal-bar/ridge
facies using specific well designs (vertical, slant, hori-
zontal). Finally, geophysicists can design seismic sur-
veys that will optimize the cost versus benefit and result
in data that will detect and resolve reservoir bodies.
Tidal-bar widths were measured from Sego out-
crops to produce the CPC graph shown in Figure 17A.
This graph shows a P50 of 724 m, with 80% of the data
ranging between a P10 of 580 m and a P90 of 885 m.
Therefore, a development-well program with well spac-
ings of less than 750 m would require at least two wells
in about 50% of the tidal bars in the Sego system. How-
ever, these bars stack into ridges that are significantly
larger than the individual tidal-bar architectural ele-
ments. In cross section AA0 (Figure 13), well-separation
distance between the Federal 6-5 and the Hancock Fed-
eral 2 wells is 537 m. When plotted on the CPC graph in
Figure 17A, results show a 7% chance that a tidal bar
logged in the Federal 6-5 well would not also be pen-
etrated by the Hancock Federal 2 well. Individual tidal-
bar elements could therefore be expected to have a high
probability of correlating between these two wells.
A second variable that is relatively easy to measure
in outcrop is tidal-bar thickness (Figure 17B). A CPC of
Sego individual tidal-bar thicknesses indicates P50 =
3.5 m, with a less than 10% probability of finding a tidal
bar greater than 5.8 m thick (P90 = 5.8 m) or less than

FIGURE 16. (A) Graph

of width/height ratios
for tidal bars calculated
from the falling-stage
systems tracts of the
western and eastern
outcrop areas. Three
main classes are discrim-
inated when grouped
on the basis of sequence
and systems tract.
(B) Graph of width/
height ratios for tidal
bars calculated from
systems tracts of the
western outcrop area.
Three main classes can
be discriminated when
the data are grouped on
the basis of systems tract
and sequence.
62 Wood

26 km. For example,

according to this data
set, there is less than
a 15% chance that tid-
al ridges would not
be correlatable in the
dip (length) direction
between the Federal
11-30-16-24 and Feder-
FIGURE 17. (A) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of specific al 20-15 wells, shown
tidal-bar widths based on data from the Sego Sandstone, eastern Utah. Distance between the on the cross section in
Federal 6-5 and the Hancock Federal 2 wells is plotted on this curve to illustrate the 7% Figure 14.
probability that a tidal bar in the Sego would be too narrow (>537 m) to be penetrated by Cumulative-prob-
both wells. (B) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of ability curves of data
specific tidal-bar heights based on data from the Sego Sandstone, eastern Utah. from ridge thickness
worldwide show a P50
of 1600 m. These results
2 m (P10 = 2 m). In the Federal 2-34 well (Figure 14), the indicate that less than 10% probability exists for
three stacked, upward-coarsening parasequences seen finding ridges larger than 3350 m or smaller than 550
in sequence 2 are each greater than 10-m-thick tidal m. Some of the widest ridges are found in heads of
ridges composed of several stacked, individual, tidal- bays, possibly a function of abundant sediment sup-
bar architectural elements. A similar stack of amalga- ply allowing for bars to laterally accrete, but a lower
mated tidal bars is observed in sequence 2, found in the wave base limiting the aggradation of tidal bars. This
Federal 33-16 and the
Hancock Federal No. 2
wells (Figure 13).
Tidal-bar and -ridge
length data from the
Sego Sandstone were
limited because of the
limited dip orientation
of the outcrop expo-
sures. Off’s (1963) data
set of tidal-ridge lengths
was therefore plotted
on a CPC, and separa-
tion distances from sub-
surface wells adjacent
to the Sego outcrop were
plotted on the same
graph (Figure 18A). The
worldwide tidal-ridge
sizes were used as a guide
to assess the probabil-
ity of tidal sands being
correlatable between FIGURE 18. (A) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of
the subsurface wells. specific tidal-ridge lengths based on data from a worldwide data set of modern tidal-ridge
Cumulative-probability lengths. Distance between two dip-oriented wells in the Sego are shown to illustrate a 15%
curves show 80% of the probability that a 2000-m-long tidal bar/ridge in the Sego would not reach between the wells.
(B) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of specific tidal-ridge
worldwide length data
width based on data from a worldwide data set of modern tidal-ridge widths. Plot shows
occurring between 2 (P10)
the specific occurrences of tidal-ridge widths from the Sego Sandstone for comparison.
and 42 km (P90) (Figure (C) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of specific tidal-
18A). This broad range ridge height based on data from a worldwide data set of modern tidal-ridge height. Plot shows
of lengths is skewed to- the specific occurrence of tidal-ridge heights from the Sego Sandstone for comparison.
ward the low end, with (D) Cumulative-probability plot showing the probability of occurrence of specific tidal-ridge
P50 = 12 km and P80 = spacing based on data from a worldwide data set of modern tidal-ridge spacings.
 Predicting Tidal Sand Reservoir Architecture Using Data from Modern and Ancient Depositional Systems
observation also may explain why tidal ridges of the
Sego, deposited in a shallow epicontinental seaway,
are wider than the P50 worldwide tidal-bar width (Fig-
ure 18B) and are, on average, shorter than the world-
wide P50 tidal-bar height (Figure 18B).
Cumulative-probability curves of worldwide tidal-
ridge thickness show a P50 = 9.2 m, indicating a less
than 10% probability of finding tidal ridges greater
than 15.6 m thick or less than 4 m thick (Figure 18C).
Because tidal ridges cannot be smaller than their own
architectural elements, tidal bars, 4 m (which is very
close to the P50 thickness for tidal bars defined in the
Sego Sandstone) most likely represents a lower limit for
tidal-ridge thickness. The thickness of stacked, tidal-
ridge parasequences found in the Sego Sandstone well
logs is commonly 8 – 9 m, reflective of the worldwide
P50 for ridge thickness.
A CPC of worldwide tidal-ridge spacing shows a P50
of 3100 m, with few ridges spaced more closely than
450 m (P10 = 450 m) and few spaced wider than 8000 m
(P90 = 8000) (Figure 18D). Off (1963) and others have
suggested a relationship between ridge thickness and
spacing. However, thicknesses appear to be normally
distributed, whereas spacing appears not to be normally
distributed. The actual accuracy of correlation between
the two parameters has been questioned. Although we
know that current speed and water depth control ridge
spacing, there is no clear pattern in the occurrence of
widely spaced ridges. They exist in every tidal setting
in the world and compose the statistical ‘‘tail’’ of the
data.
CONCLUSIONS
Outcrop and modern tidal sandbank data provide
quantitative dimensional and spatial distribution in-
formation that can be used to significantly improve our
estimates of reservoir dimensions in tidally influenced,
hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs around the world.
These data provide insights into how tidal-bank geom-
etries develop in response to changing conditions of
water depth, sediment supply and type, and current
intensity and modality. These observations, and the
resulting model for tidal-bank development, are help-
ful in predicting differences in the architecture of tidal
banks developing under conditions of changing rela-
tive shoreline. Such models also help explain the ap-
parent difference in the architecture of tidal banks
seen in different systems tracts and sequences of the
Sego Sandstone (upper Campanian), Utah. Cumulative-
probability curves constructed using both modern
data from tidal settings around the world and ancient
data sets from the Utah Sego outcrops can be used
to predict the probability that tidal bars and ridges
63
of certain dimensions will occur and to assess the cor-
relation length of tidal-bar and -ridge reservoir ele-
ments in the subsurface.
Several specific conclusions were arrived at in the
course of this research:
 Modern tidal-system settings, classified into open
oceans, heads of bays, river mouths, and tidal
coasts each have their own distinct sets of condi-
tions (sediment type and amount, water depth,
tidal velocity and magnitude, and nuclei type and
occurrence) that influence the dimensions and
distributions of individual tidal bars and ridges.
 Modern tidal ridges worldwide exhibit a P50 height
of 9.2 m, length of 12 km, width of 1600 m, and
spacing of 3100 m. Tidal ridges in the Sego appear
shorter (P50 width = 6 m) and slightly wider (P50
width = 3100 m). This difference is interpreted to be
a function of shallower water depths and slower
tidal-current velocities and higher sediment sup-
plies in this progradational portion of the western
interior Cretaceous seaway. Such conditions are
also typical in modern heads of bays, such as the
Bay of Bengal, India, an area that exhibits tidal
ridges of a geometry similar to that of the Sego
Sandstone in Utah.
 The lower limit for modern tidal-ridge thickness
worldwide (P10 height = 4 m) is very close to the
average tidal-bar thickness in the Sego (P50 = 3.5 m)
[S/B P10?], reflecting the dictate that a tidal ridge
cannot be larger than the tidal-bar elements that
make it up.
 Spatial distribution of tidal bars and ridges varies
temporally within a cycle of shoreline change as a
function of the changing conditions when water
depths decrease over the shelf and sediment sup-
plies increase and when water depths increase and
sediment supply begins to decrease. Falling-stage
tidal bars and ridges are shorter and wider than
transgressive tidal bars and ridges.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was initiated as part of the Bureau of
Economic Geology’s Clastic Reservoirs Group, which
included myself and project scientists Shirley P.
Dutton, Chris D. White, and Brian Willis. Amoco Pro-
duction, ARCO Oil and Gas, British Petroleum Inter-
national, Chevron Petroleum Technology, Exxon Pro-
duction, Intevep, Japan National Oil, Maxus Explora-
tion, Oryx Energy, Saga Petroleum, and Statoil funded
the research. Sharon Gabel, Matt Uliana, and Muleghe-
ta Feseha assisted with data collection in the field, and
Matt Uliana and Yugong Gao helped process the field
64 Wood
data. Ramero Amaya and Dallas Dunlap helped load
and quality control the well-log data, and Jana
Robinson drafted the final figure. John C. Van Wagoner
and Mark Kirschbaum generously provided advice and
insights into the Sego deposition throughout the
course of this project. Shirley Dutton provided early
reviews that added significantly to the quality of the
submission. Marjorie Levy, Bill Morgan, and Paul Harris
provided comments and suggestions that immensely
improved the quality of the final manuscript.
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