MODULE 1

KEY ECOLOGICAL TERMS AND CONCEPTS

What is Ecology?

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms, the interaction between
organisms, the interaction between organisms and their environment, and structure and function
of ecosystems. The word “ecology” has a Greek origin – “Oikos” means household and “logos”
is the study of. Therefore, it is the study of the “house/environment” in which we live.

Ecology includes individual organisms, populations and communities. These are considered as
the living part of the environment also called the Biotic Components. The non living part is the
Abiotic component which contains matter as soil, water, air and energy.

Together these two components combine to form an ECOSYSTEM. An ecosystem can be

defined as the interaction between organisms or the biotic component and their surroundings or
the abiotic component. Ecosystems are relatively self contained and it perpetuates itself by
cycling and recycling minerals within itself. Some examples of ecosystems include: Coral Reefs,
Ponds, Lakes, Mangroves and Salt marshes.

THE HIERARCHY OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANISATION

The biological organization is a hierarchical system of classification which consists of several

levels and each level is greater in size and complexity than the last. The lowest level of this
classification is the atom and the highest is the biosphere. In the context of Environmental
Science, the Species can be considered the lowest level of classification and when we speak of
species we speak of an individual. Next, a collection of the same individuals or species forms a
population. The next step is the community; which is a collection of different species, and then
higher up in the hierarchy is the Ecosystem and lastly the Biosphere.
Diagram 1: showing the hierarchical system of Biological organization.

The lowest and the most basic level of biological organization is SPECIES. A species is defined
as a group of individuals that have numerous Physical features in common and that are
normally capable of interbreeding and producing viable offspring. It is the most basic and
fundamental taxonomic category in the classification of the biotic component of the ecosystem.

Kingdom ->Phylum -> Class ->Order ->Family-> Genera->SPECIES.

This hierarchical classification was first developed by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th Century. When it
was first developed, he proposed two kingdoms, Animalia and Plants; however with the
discovery of new species it was expanded to three more kingdoms: Fungi, Protista and Monera.
Diagram 2: Carl Linnaeus Classification System

There are two components associated with this:

✔ The biological species concept which deals with reproduction. This is where two
organisms of the same species can only reproduce and produce viable offspring
however, two organisms of different species cannot reproduce this is due to barriers
referred to as pre-zygotic and post-zygotic.

Pre-zygotic Barriers go up before fertilization can take place and take the form of
mechanical barriers. Physiological barriers or gametic isolation, behavioural barriers,
seasonal variations and pollination by different pollinators are pre-zygotic barriers.

Post-zygotic Barriers goes up after fertilization occurs and takes four forms:

1. Hybrid inviability

2. Hybrid sterility

3. Hybrid breakdown

4. Reduced competiveness

✔ Morphological species concept: this recognizes that each species is physically

distinguishable from its closest relative.

POPULATION
It consists of a group of organisms that are of the same species whose individuals can freely
interbreed. Most organisms do not live as isolated individuals but associated with others of the
same species. Populations can differ in size from a few individuals as a lion pride to many
individuals as swarm of bees. The population is dynamic with changes occurring with births,
deaths and migration.

COMMUNITY

A community can be defined as a naturally occurring assemblage of plants and animals living in
the same environment and interacting in many ways as Mutualism, Predation and
Competition. Interactions may be direct or indirect but in some way each population affects the
well being of the other.

A community can vary in size and change is always taking place within the community. Some
communities may change rapidly while others change very little in space and time.

ECOSYSTEM

According to P. Odum:

“Any unit that includes all of the organisms in any given area interacting with the physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to an exchange of materials between living (biotic)
and non-living(abiotic) parts within a system”

As mentioned in the definition above the ecosystem has two main parts: the biotic and the
abiotic. The biotic consists of the living components in the ecosystem and the abiotic consists of
the non living elements in the ecosystem. These are illustrated in the table below:

ABIOTIC BIOTIC

Sunlight Primary Producers

Temperature Herbivores

Precipitation Carnivores

Water or Moisture Omnivores

Soil Detritivores

In an ecosystem there are two major processes occurring:

● Energy flows
 ● Biogeochemical cycling

Energy flows occurs when energy enters the system through light energy and plants convert it
through photosynthesis to become the building block for food chains. At each level of the food
chain or web energy is passed in a unidirectional manner from the primary producers which are
plants, to primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers and detritivores.

The second function of the ecosystem is biogeochemical cycling. Elements found in the
biogeochemical cycles as nitrogen, phosphorous or carbon enter living organisms in a variety of
ways. Plants consume elements from the soil, water or atmosphere and as a result animals
consume the plants or other animals to obtain these nutrients. Consequently these nutrients
either by excretion or decomposition are returned to an inorganic state. These elements are
cycled continuously between their biotic and abiotic states and are referred to as
biogeochemical cycling.

BIOSPHERE

The part of the earth that is able to support life is known as the biosphere or zone of life. It is
also at the top of the biological classification system. The biosphere extends from the bottom of
the ocean to the upper atmosphere and amounts to the combination of all ecosystems on the
earth. It includes the atmosphere, hydrosphere and parts of the lithosphere.

Diagram 3: The Interaction between the Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere
The Biosphere is subdivided into Biomes; a biome is a large geographical area of distinctive
plant and animal groups, which are adapted to that particular environment. Biomes are often
defined by abiotic factors such as climate, relief, geology, soils and vegetation. There are five
major biomes:

● Desert biome: comprises of Hot and Dry Deserts, Semi Arid Deserts, Coastal Deserts
and Cold Deserts

● Forest biome: consists of Tropical Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called
the Taiga)

● Grasslands biome: consists of Tropical and temperate grasslands.

● Tundra biomes: Arctic and Alpine Tundra

● Aquatic biome: consists of Fresh water biomes as ponds, lakes and rivers and Saltwater
biomes as oceans, coral reefs and estuaries.

ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. It is transparent and consists of
odourless gases which are held to the Earth by gravitational forces. The major gases found in
atmosphere is Nitrogen and oxygen which makes up 99% of the gases and the remaining 1% is
made up of carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone and argon. The atmosphere generates weather
and climate which is located within 16km of the Earth’s surface and 8km from the poles and
protects all ;living things from the sun’s harmful UV rays. The atmosphere is divided into:
 ● Troposphere

● Stratosphere

● Mesosphere

● Thermosphere

The atmospheric processes of conduction, convection and radiation are the main factors
responsible for the transfer of energy between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. It is an
integral part of the biosphere since it provides the solar energy which drives many functions in
the biosphere as mainly photosynthesis.

Diagram 4: Layers of the Atmosphere

HYDROSPHERE

Hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a planet which covers 71% of the Earth’s surface.
The hydrosphere includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground, and in the air.
A planet's hydrosphere can be liquid, vapor, or ice.
On Earth, liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers. It also exists
below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible as clouds and
fog. The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs. The
frozen part of the hydrosphere has its own name, the cryosphere.

The hydrosphere is continuously in motion through waves, currents and tides. Water moves
through the hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, and then falls to Earth in the form
of rain or snow. This water collects in rivers, lakes and oceans. Then it evaporates into the
atmosphere to start the cycle all over again. This is called the water cycle.

LITHOSPHERE

The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth, consisting of the crust, mantle and the core

Diagram 5: Showing structure of the Earth

The Crust: the crust makes up 1% of the mass of the planet, can be equated to the outer skin
of an apple. It is 100km thick and has the ability to glide over the upper mantle. It is the zone of
earthquakes, mountain building, volcanoes and continental drift.

There are two types of crust: oceanic and continental crust. The Oceanic crust is thin but dense
and supports the ocean floor and the continental crust is less dense and supports the land
masses of the continents. The continental crust floats upon the mantle.
The Mantle: The mantle is about 2900km thick and comprises 83% of the Earth’s volume. The
rocks are in a semi molten state and pliable due to high temperatures. It contains a large
proportion of lighter element as silicon and aluminium.

The Core: this layer is rich in iron and nickle and consists of two parts: the Inner core and the
Outer core. The inner core is theoretically solid due to the high level of pressure and the outer
core is semi solid as a result of the decay of unstable elements uranium.

HABITAT

A Habitat is an area with specific environmental conditions in which an organism lives and
reproduces. These environmental conditions include abiotic factors such as soil, moisture,
range of temperature, and availability of light as well as biotic factors such as the availability of
food and the presence of predators. Many species of plants and animals require specific
conditions and this limits the distribution of these organisms for example Koala bears can only
eat eucalyptus leaves which is only found in Australia hence they are only found there.

NICHE

An ecological niche is a term which describes the role and space that an organism occupies in a
given ecosystem. It describes the relative position in which an organism lives as well as the role
it plays in that habitat for example the role a fox plays is a predator or a plant acts the role as a
primary producer. A distinction should be made between a habitat and niche; the habitat is
where the organism lives and the niche is the function it plays within the habitat. This is
illustrated with the example of the red fox; its habitat might include forest edges, meadows and
the bank of a river. The niche of the red fox is that of a predator which feeds on the small
mammals, amphibians, insects, and fruit found in this habitat.

ECOTONE

An ecotone is a transition area between two biomes. It is where two communities meet and
integrate and as a result the ecotone may be narrow or wide. Also it can be a local ecotone
where a field and a forest merge and hence a narrow ecotone or it could be regional which
occurs when a tropical forest blends into a tropical savanna giving rise to a wide ecotone. The
ecotone may appear as a gradual blending of the two communities across a broad area or it can
manifest itself as a sharp boundary line.

Ecotones have specific characteristics which can help conserve the biodiversity of both
ecosystems. Firstly, the ecotone would have species from both ecosystems which would lead to
the area having a higher level of biodiversity than either ecosystem. Secondly, due to the
presence of a high species density, ecosystem stability would be promoted; that is rapid
changes which are harmful to the population of species would rarely occur. Thirdly, with the
blending of the two ecosystems it would create abiotic and biotic conditions which may be
attractive to species not found in either ecosystem; promoting immigration into ecotone.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIVING ORGANISMS AND THEIR

ENVIRONMENT
The Biotic and Abiotic Environments
Earlier in the chapter we came across the terms Biotic and Abiotic which influence the
environment in which the organism is found. Abiotic factors are those non-living physical
or chemical factors which affect how organisms survive and reproduce. These abiotic
factors determine the types and number of organisms that can survive in the
environment. The abiotic factors are:

● Temperature

● Availability of water

● Availability of light

● Soils

● Relief

These abiotic factors exercise control over the size of the species population in the
ecosystem; that is they acting as limiting factors which can severely affect the growth
patterns of each species; availability of water for instance can be examined. Water is
essential for plant growth; however too little water and too much water can have a
negative impact on the plant. Temperature also acts on the organism in a similar
manner; if the temperature the organism is accustomed to changes even by one degree
it can have detrimental effects on the organism especially in the Oceans. Changes in
temperature can disrupt reproduction, growth patterns and even the respiration rates of
fish because hotter water holds less oxygen. Therefore, it can be concluded that abiotic
factors exercise a great deal of control over the survivorship of organisms in an
ecosystem.
Even if abiotic factors are ideal, the presence of other living organisms will influence the
survivorship of the organisms. These living organisms represent the Biotic component
of the ecosystem and these take the form of:

● Competition

● Predation

● Symbiosis: mutualism, parasitism and commensalism

● Disease agents

These biotic factors can sometimes exert greater influence on the organisms than
abiotic factors. In competition, species fight for food, territory and mates; as a result,
there is a winner and a loser which could lead to a disadvantage for one of the
competitors. Similar to competition is predation; this occurs when an individual (the
predator) kills and eats another individual (the prey). There are interactions amongst
organisms in an ecosystem that are beneficial to both; these are mutualism and
commensalism.

Therefore both biotic and abiotic factors can determine the types and number of species
that can exist in an environment. Ideal biotic and abiotic factors can and will allow a
species to flourish however these conditions is not present in all ecosystems across the
Earth.

TOLERANCE RANGES AND LIMITING FACTORS:

Limiting Factor:

A limiting factor is any factor present in an environment that controls a process, as

growth, abundance or distribution of a population of organisms in an ecosystem. These
factors will cause stress and limit growth, reproduction and even the survival of a
population even if it is in abundance or in a limited supply. This is referred to as the Law
of Limiting or Liebigs’ Law of Minimum. The limiting may be because of too much or too
little of an element that would cause stress and kill the plant for example over or under
watering a plant.

Environmental factors like light, temperature, humidity, wind speed, availability of food
and nutrients keep changing. These changes affect the well being and survival of the
organisms in an ecosystem as they thrive only if all the factors essential for life are
available. For example, a plant may have adequate nutrition, light, water and space but
just one essential nutrient, say, phosphorous, is lacking may cause the plant to die.

Limiting factors can be divided into Density Dependant Factors and Density
Independent factors. Density dependant factors are those factors from within the
population that leads to a limiting of their growth and may also be referred to biotic
factors as mentioned earlier. These factors are:

● Competition

● Predation

● Disease

● Stress caused by overcrowding

Density independent factors are those factors found outside of the population and are
also abiotic factors. These include:

● Natural disasters: as floods, forest fires, tsunamis, tornados etc.

● Temperature: too hot/too cold

● Too much Rainfall or the lack of rainfall

● Sunlight: some plants need to be shaded

● Human Activities: Farming destroys ecosystems, mining for minerals as oil,

causing species to become endangered as the Bengal tiger, elephants.

TOLERANCE RANGES:

A tolerance range is the maximum or minimum intensity or condition which a species

can withstand without damage. Species with high tolerance can utilise the resources of
the environment to a high degree, for example, dandelions have a very high tolerance it
withstands excessive light, roots in poor soil and can withstand being trampled.

Many physical and biotic factors affects species but each can be considered as forming
a gradient for example temperatures affect species over a range from low temperatures
at one extreme to high temperatures at the other.
This is SHELFORD’S Law of Tolerance (1913); which was an improvement of Liebigs
Law of minimum. According to Shelford, “each and every plant species is able to exist
and reproduce successfully only within a definite range of environmental conditions.”
This is illustrated in the diagram below.

In the Diagram below the majority of distribution of a species is in the optimum zone.
This represents an area that has all the correct conditions for the growth and
reproduction to occur hence the majority of species are found under this curve S
species move away from the Optimal zone they enter a Zone of Stress; the species can
survive here but they have to be eurytopic that is able to tolerate extremes in abiotic
conditions and this zone has few species present.

The last zone which is the Zone of Intolerance; no species are present here. Within the
range of Optimum the species can survive and maintain a large population beyond it
towards the low and high end, the species suffer physiological stress.

Diagram 6: Range of Tolerance

Different species vary in their tolerance of environmental factors being either

EURYTOPIC OR STENOTOPIC.

Eurytopic organisms are only able to adapt to a wide range of environmental conditions;
therefore their tolerance ranges are large and can adapt to large changes and there
area of distribution is extensive. The Scottish pine grows on varied substrate as sandy
soils; clayey loam and many more substrates. It can tolerate low winter temperatures
and high summer temperatures.

Stenotopic organisms are able to adapt only to a narrow range of environmental

conditions and their distribution is limited to few areas.

ECOLOGICAL NICHE CONCEPT

The concept of an ecological niche was developed by Grinnel and Elton in the 1920s
and was further redefined by Hutchinson in 1958. An ecological niche can be defined as
the total requirements of a population or species for all resources and physical
conditions. It is also the function of an organism in an ecosystem and its physical
location. The physical space occupied by an organism is the Spatial Niche and the
functional role in the community is called the Trophic Niche.

As mentioned earlier, Hutchinson in 1958 suggested that the niche could be modelled
as an “n-dimensional hypervolume enclosing the complete range of conditions under
which that organism can successfully replace itself and all variables relevant to the life
of the organism must be included. Thus, the niche of a plant might include the range of
temperatures that it can tolerate, the intensity of light required for photosynthesis,
specific humidity regimes and minimum quantities of essential soil nutrients for uptake.

According to Hutchinson (1957) there are two types of niches that can be created from
this; Fundamental and Realised Niches. Fundamental Niches are said to occur where
an individual or species is free from interference and can occupy the entire hypervolume
as proposed by Hutchinson. The fundamental niche assumes the absence of
competitors but this rarely happens in reality. Competitive relationships may force the
species to occupy a smaller portion of the fundamental niche and this is referred to as
the Realised Niche. The realised niche describes that part of the fundamental niche
that is actually occupied by the species. The realised niche will be smaller the
fundamental niche because of the activities of predators, competitors for resources and
mutualists that all performs “jobs” that are necessary for the continuance of the
ecosystem.

The diagram below is a graphical representation of the fundamental and the realise
niche as proposed by Hutchinson.
The hypothetical niche or the fundamental niche is represented by yellow which shows
the optimum areas of moisture and temperature; however the green area represents the
actual area within the fundamental niche that is actually occupied by the species and
they experience predation, competition and mutualism.

Niches like species are “dynamic” that is they are never static nor do they stay the
same. There may be the disappearance of niches as a result of the changing needs of
the species and the appearance of new ones to meet these new needs.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Biogeochemical cycles is a set of cyclical pathways by which a given elements as
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous and hydrogen move through organisms and the
environment. According to the Encyclopedia of Earth, biogeochemical cycles transport
and transform matter within the four main parts of the Earth; the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. The word biogeochemical has many facets;
bio- involves biological organisms and the functions they perform, geo-the geological
processes as weathering of rocks and chemical – the elements being cycled.

ELEMENTS TRANSPORTED IN THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

These elements are categorised as:

● Micro elements: elements required by living organisms in small amounts

● Macro elements: elements that are required in large amounts as carbon,
hydrogen nitrogen and phosphorous.
Importance of Biogeochemical Cycles

1. Biogeochemical cycles enable the transformation of matter from one form to

another: for example in the hydrological cycle it converts water to liquid, gas
and solid. Also in the nitrogen cycle; although it is abundant in the
atmosphere it is a limited nutrient for plants because it has to converted from
nitrogen to ammonium to nitrates and then to nitrites which can be taken up
by plants.
2. The cycles transfer molecules from one locality to another such as nitrogen
from the air into the soil through nitrogen fixing.
3. Biogeochemical cycles assist in the functioning of ecosystems; whenever an
imbalance occurs in an ecosystem biogeochemical cycles corrects these over
time to return the ecosystem to its former state.
4. Biogeochemical cycles links living organisms with their biotic and abiotic
elements of the ecosystem.

TERMINOLOGY USED IN BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

● Reservoirs or pools: where elements from the biogeochemical cycle reside for
varying amounts of time.
● Residence time: time period and element resides in a reservoir or pool
● Source: a pool that releases more elements than it accepts
● Sinks: a pool that accepts more nutrients than it releases.
● Flux: the rate at which materials move between pools.

Diagram 7: Showing the movement of elements in biogeochemical cycles.

According to the diagram above there are two main reservoirs, the source and sink,
within each the residence time varies. In the Source the elements have a short
residence time because they are being released constantly whereas with the sink the
residence time is long because the elements are stored here as Carbon is stored in
sedimentary rocks. The fluxes between both reservoirs also vary; there a larger flux
from the source to the sink as incated by the arrow and a smaller flux from the sink to
the source also indicated by the arrow. It should be noted a source could also be a sink
as Oceans are a source of water but it is also a sink of water too; also the atmosphere
can act as a source and a sink for nitrogen.

There are four main biogeochemical cycles we will examine. They are:

1. Hydrological cycle
2. Carbon cycle
3. Nitrogen cycle
4. Phosphorous

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
The hydrological cycle illustrates the ways water passes through the four parts of the
earth and the different forms it takes as a gas, liquid and solid. In the Atmosphere it is in
gaseous and solid form, on the Lithosphere it is in a liquid form, also in the hydrosphere
it is in a liquid form and in the Biosphere a liquid form. Therefore, water traverses the
entire environment and the oceans are the main reservoirs and to a lesser extent lakes
and groundwater.

Diagram 7: Hydrological cycle

The hydrological cycle has major processes that are all occurring which leads to the
transfer of water from one region of the earth to the other. These processes are:

● Evaporation
● Transport
● Condensation
● Precipitation
● Runoff
● Infiltration

The Sun powers the process of EVAPORATION; its energy in the form of light and heat
creates the catalyst which changes water from a liquid to a vapour called water vapour.
The water evaporates from the open surfaces of water as Oceans, Lakes, rivers,
streams and even barrels which contain water once it is exposed to the Sun. Water also
evaporates from plants, on their leaves, when they transpire, that is lose water; this
process is referred to as Evapotranspiration.

TRANSPORTATION occurs when water is transported in the form of water vapour,

which is the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Warm air currents lift the
vapour upwards into the atmosphere.

The water vapour as it approaches cooler regions of the atmosphere condenses leading
to CONDENSATION; forming tiny droplets that create clouds. As the air gets
increasingly moist and the rain droplets become larger and the winds can no longer hold
them up they fall as PRECIPITATION and can take the form of rain, sleet, hail or snow.

Once the precipitation reaches the surface of the Earth it can be re-evaporated into the
atmosphere, it runs off the surface of the Earth into rivers and streams and eventually
flows into the Oceans. RUN-OFF is precipitation that was not absorbed into the Earth
nor was it re-evaporated; it literally ran off the surface of the Earth into rivers and
streams. Infiltration occurs when water that does not run off is absorbed into the ground
and the majority of the time goes towards the recharging of the GROUND WATER.
Some of the underground water is trapped between rock and clay layers and are called
aquifers; groundwater returns to the surface through these aquifers which empty into
lakes, rivers and oceans.

MAN’S IMPACT ON THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Anthropogenic activities have had long lasting effects on the hydrological cycle. These
include:

● The building of Dams and Storage lakes retards the natural flow of the
hydrological cycle; this reduces the output of water into the oceans.
● Deforestation increases the level of run-off which can lead to higher levels of
erosion which increases turbidity of the river and sea water and it can also lead
to higher levels of flooding because the extra sediment raises the river beds and
the river channel can hold less water.
● Also higher levels of run-off decreases the rate of infiltration in the soil which can
retard the recharging of groundwater and create future water shortages.
● Agricultural chemicals as fertilisers can over fertilise the water bodies and lead to
high levels of algae growth which can slow evaporation and promote
eutrophication
CARBON CYCLE

All life is based on the element CARBON because it is the major chemical constituent of
organic matter from fossil fuels to DNA. Carbon is not one of the most abundant
elements within the Earth’s crust and it is stored in our planet in the following sinks:

● As organic molecules in living and dead organisms found in the Biosphere.

● As the gas carbon dioxide or CO2 in the atmosphere.
● As organic matter in the soil
● In the Lithosphere as fossil fuels and sedimentary rock deposits as limestone and
chalk.
● In the Oceans as dissolved atmospheric CO2 and as calcium carbonate in shells
of marine organisms.
● The presence of forests can act a dual role as sink and source. It is a sink when
the carbon is taken in during photosynthesis and they become a source when
forest fires occur.

Diagram 8: CARBON CYCLE

Ecosystems gain most of their CO2 from the atmosphere when plants absorb carbon
dioxide, water and sunlight. The plants use photosynthesis to convert the carbon
dioxide into sugar molecules; these are then converted to more complex compounds as
proteins and cellulose.

Carbon dioxide enters the water of oceans through diffusion. It is then converted to

calcium carbonate which is used to produce shells and other body parts. When the
organism dies the shells settle on the sea floor to form calcium rich deposits; the
deposits are then physically and chemically altered into limestone and sedimentary
rocks, one of the largest sinks of carbon on the planet. Eventually through uplift of land
through tectonic forces the limestone rock to be exposed to the forces of weathering
and carbon is released back into the atmosphere.
Carbon is also released from plants through photosynthesis; one of the largest sources
of carbon on the planet. Another way carbon is released from plants back into the
atmosphere is when forest fires both natural and man made are set.

Carbon is also stored in the Earth’s Lithosphere in both organic and inorganic forms.
Leaf litter and dead palnts and animals make up the organic components; the inorganic
components consist of fossil fuel deposits as crude oil, natural gas and coal. The carbon
that is trapped in theses fossil fuels are returned to the atmosphere when these fuels
are combusted by industries, cars and for electricity generation.

MAN’S IMPACT ON THE CARBON CYCLE

● An increase in the carbon levels in the atmosphere: Under normal circumstances

volcanoes when erupting release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in small
quantities. However, since the industrial revolution anthropogenic activities have
dramatically increased the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which
can have effects on the conditions in our atmosphere for example as Global
Warming which can lead to higher temperatures.
● Clearance of Forests: Forests are being cleared for agriulture, building of cities,
mining of minerals and setting up of industrial areas. In the process of
photosynthesis plants take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen; forests are
commonly referred to as the lungs of the world. When they are cleared it reduces
the number of plants that can absorb carbon dioxide which may upset the
balance in the atmosphere.

NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle is one of the most important cycles found in the ecosystem; it is
essential for biological process and crucial in the production of DNA, RNA and protein.
The largest sink is the atmosphere which accounts for 80% of Nitrogen (N2) however it
is unavailable in a useful form.

There are some plants that have the ability to convert nitrogen to ammonium directly
from the atmosphere because of the presence of nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) in
their legume root nodules in a symbiotic relationship. Also, natural high energy events
such as lightning can also convert the Nitrogen into ammonium and introduce it into the
soil. Also, organic nitrogen, as dead plants and animals, is converted into inorganic
forms when it enters the cycle via decomposition. Decomposers found in the upper soil
layer chemically modify nitrogen found in organic matter from ammonia to ammonium
through the process MINERALISATION.

At this point three processes fix the nitrogen in the soil by specialised microorganisms;
they are:

1. Ammonification
2. Nitrification
3. Denitrification

In the process Ammonification, bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen into
ammonium. Once the nitrogen has been converted to ammonium it can either be
utilised by plants with their specialised bacteria or can be further broken down.

The conversion of ammonium to nitrates is performed primarily by soil living bacteria

and other nitrifying bacteria through the process of NITRIFICATION. The primary stage
of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH4) is performed by bacteria which
converts ammonium to nitrites (NO2). The bacteria gain energy from this process and
nitrification can only take place in the presence of oxygen, therefore the environment
has to be oxygenated.

Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter are responsible for the oxidation of nitrites
into nitrates (NO3). It is important for the nitrites to be converted to nitrates because
accumulated nitrites become toxic to plants; nitrates are assimilated quickly by the
plants. The last process in the soil is DENITRIFICATION; this is the reduction of nitrates
back into the largely inert nitrogen gas (N2) which is quickly lost to the atmosphere thus
completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species in
anaerobic conditions.
MAN’S IMPACT ON THE NITROGEN CYCLE

● Man’s excessive use of artificial nitrogen fertiliser. The overuse of the fertiliser
can lead to the death of rivers and lakes through Eutrophication; this is the
choking to death of rivers and lakes due to the removal of all oxygen.caused by
leaching of excessive fertilisers.
● Nitrous oxides are air pollutants from burning of fossil fuels, power plants,
automobiles and are primary air pollutants in photochemical smog.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of phosphates. It
is part of the DNA molecule where they store energy and fats of cell membranes. The
main sink for phosphorus is the Earth’s crust- on land phosphate rock deposits are the
primary source of phosphorus.

Phosphorus exists in various rock and soil minerals as the inorganic ion, phosphate. As
the rock is weathered, phosphate and other ions are gradually released and washed
into the soil. And is dissolved in water but does not enter the air, that is, it is not
gaseous. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually oceans. Once
there, it can be incorporated into sediments over time.When the phosphate is banded
into organic compounds it is referred to as organic phosphate. Animals and plants play
a major role in the phosphorus cycle. The organic phosphate moves through the food
chain from primary producers to the rest of the ecosystem. The phosphate is returned
to the ecosystem when the plants and animals die and decay or excrete. Phosphorus is
only recycled if the waste containing it is deposited in the ecosystem from which it
came. As a result the phosphorus cycle is one of the slowest biogeochemical cycle.
MAN’S IMPACT ON THE PHOSPHOROUS CYCLE

As with the Nitrogen cycle the over application of fertilsers by farmers can affect the
Phosphorous cycle as well. Most agricultural fertilizers contain artificial phosphorous
and over application of it can result in the leaching from the soil into rivers and lakes.
This over fertilization of the water leads to a process called Eutrophication. This is an
excessive blooming of algae which blocks out the soil and prevents photosynthesis from
occurring. As a result there is a lack of oxygen; further to this the breakdown of the
algae is done by aerobic bacteria which uses the oxygen in the water and further
depletes the oxygen supply in the water and suffocates the lake or river.

ENERGY AND NUTRIENT FLOWS WITHIN ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystems as defined by P. Odum was “any unit that includes all of the organisms in
any given area interacting with the physical environment, so there is a flow of energy
which leads to an exchange of materials between the living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) parts within a system.” This definition illustrates the flow of energy and nutrients
that occurs between the living and non living elements in an average ecosystem that
occurs cyclically usually on an everyday basis.

Primary productivity of producers and ecosystems

Most plants obtain their energy directly from the sun and are termed
AUTOTROPHIC or self feeding. Green plants contain the pigment chlorophyll and fix
energy from the sun into organic molecules of carbon. This process is called
Photosynthesis and is the source of all the energy in living things.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: 6CO2+6H2O+light energy=C6H12O6+6O2

There are exceptions to this with lower organisms which can fix energy in the absence
of light and are termed CHEMOAUTOTROPHIC. Animals, fungi, bacteria and viruses
obtain their energy and nutrients from their food which may be living or dead plant or
animal matter. They are not autotrophic because they need their energy in an organic
ready fixed form and are termed HETEROTROPHIC.

The bodies of plants make up the BIOMASS and are the primary producers of biomass
because of their ability to fix carbon through photosynthesis. The product of
photosynthesis is carbohydrates, such as the sugar glucose and oxygen which is
released into the atmosphere. The primary productivity of a community is the amount
of biomass produced through photosynthesis per unit area and time by plants, the
primary producer. Primary productivity is usually expressed in units of energy as joules
m-2 day-1 or in units of dry organic matter e.g. kg -2 year-1. Primary productivity is very
important because it determines the total energy flow through the biotic component of
the ecosystem and therefore how much life the ecosystem can support.

The total energy fixed by plants in a community through photosynthesis is referred

to as GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY (GPP). A proportion of the energy of gross
primary productivity is used by plants in RESPIRATION. Respiration is the process
whereby plants obtain energy for various physiological and morphological processes.
The equation for respiration is:

C6H12O6+6O2=6CO2+6H2O+Released energy

Respiration is subtracted from Gross Primary Productivity and it gives us Net

Primary Productivity (NPP) which represents the amount of biomass that is available for
consumption by heterotrophic organisms as bacteria, fungi and animals.

On a global scale, net primary productivity varies spatially and temporally with the
least productive areas being those limited by temperature and water as deserts and the
tundra and the Tropical Rainforests are among the most productive terrestrial
ecosystems. The open ocean NPP is low per unit area but as a collective body
contributes more to this than any other ecosystem due to its large size. The overall
pattern of contribution is that terrestrial ecosystems accounts for two thirds of the global
primary productivity while marine ecosystems contribute one third.

 Net Primary Productivity

 Ecosystem Type
(kilocalories/meter -2 /year)

 9000
 Tropical Rain Forest

 9000
 Estuary

 9000
 Swamps and Marshes

 3000
 Savanna

 6000
 Deciduous Temperate Forest

 3500
 Boreal Forest
  2000
 Temperate Grassland

 600
 Polar Tundra

 < 200
 Desert
Cited from: Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Primary Productivity of Plants". Fundamentals of Physical Geography

Table showing Net Primary Productivity of Ecosystems Worldwide.

As mentioned earlier animals, bacteria and fungus cannot make their own food
but must consume other organisms which has the energy in an “organic ready fixed
form”. When the heterotrophs consume other organisms energy is passed from one
trophic level to another; in doing this some of the energy is lost as heat in respiration.
The energy that remains in heterotrophs after respiration, egestion and excretion is
available for growth, repair and reproduction. This is referred to as Secondary
Production.

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS

The autotrophic organisms are the source of food (material and energy) for
heterotrophic organisms, these animals may in turn be eaten by other animals and in
this way energy is transferred through a series of organisms each feeding on the
preceding organism and providing raw materials and energy for the next organism.
Such a sequence is called a FOOD CHAIN. In the food chain there is the movement of
energy and material in a series of unidirectional movements that begins with primary
producers, plants, and ends with carnivores, detritus feeders and decomposers, it is a
series of steps of being eaten and being eaten.

grass ---> grasshopper --> mouse ---> snake ---> hawk

In Food Chains each organism is shown as feeding on only one type of

organism.there are basically two types of food chains; firstly a grazing food chain that
begins with the autotrophs and secondly the detrital food chain which begins with dead
organic matter. Food chains are descriptive and when worked out diagrammatically,
they are a series of arrows each pointing from one species to another. As shown in the
example above the primary producer is the grass which is then eaten by the
grasshopper which is then eaten by the mouse which is then consumed by the snake
and finally the hawk consumes the snake.
 However, feeding relationships in an ecosystem are much more complex than this
because most organisms feed on more than one organism. Some organisms feed on
both grazing and detrital food chains as carnivores which feed on secondary, tertiary
and higher consumers. Some animals as humans feed on all trophic levels plants,
animals and fungi and are called OMNIVORES. The mesh of interlinking food chains
that characterizes the real world is called a FOOD WEB.

TROPHIC LEVELS

Trophic levels represent the classification of organisms in an ecosystem according

to feeding relationships from the first level-autotrophs- through successive levels of
herbivores and carnivores. Of all the trophic levels, the most essential for life is the
Primary Producers or green plants in combination with the light source-the Sun. As
mentioned before green plants are the only autotrophic organisms which utilize solar
energy which is photosynthesized into energy (glucose). As a result of this green plants
are referred to as PRODUCERS and this is the first level and the most important in the
trophic structure of the community.
 The plants are also referred to as Primary Producers because they are the
source of energy for the rest of the community which are known as HETEROTROPHIC
ORGANISMS. These Heterotrophic organisms assume the role of CONSUMERS in the
trophic structure of the community. These consumers require continued supplies of
complex organic compounds as food from which they derive the energy required to help
them function and to provide them with their body building materials. Animals which
feed on plants are called HERBIVORES. These Herbivores are often referred to as
PRIMARY CONSUMERS as sheep, goats, giraffes, elephants, deer and many others

CARNIVORES are those organisms which prey on herbivores are called

SECONDARY CONSUMERS as lions and wolves. Carnivores which prey on other
Carnivores are called Tertiary or Quaternary consumers as Eagles, Falcons etc.

A third Trophic level or group of organisms which use dead remains of plants and
animals as a source of food and energy are DECOMPOSERS AND DETRITUS
FEEDERS. This group consists of mainly soil microorganisms such as bacteria and
fungi, earthworms, termites, beetles and small arthropods. Their functions are to
decompose the organic compounds locked up in the bodies of producers and
consumers and in their waste matters such as the droppings of animals or fallen leaves
and branches. As with regular consumers one can identify Primary Detritus feeders and
Secondary detritus feeders. Primary Detritus feeders are those that feed directly on
detritus and Secondary Detritus feeders are those which feed on Primary Detritus
feeders. An important group of primary detritus feeders is the decomposers namely
fungi and bacteria. Dead leaves and wood rot away which is a result of the metabolic
activity of fungi and bacteria that secrete digestive enzymes that cause the breakdown
of the wood.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Feeding relationships in an ecosystem may be considered in terms of trophic
levels. The first level belongs to the producers, the second level belongs to the
herbivores and the higher levels to the carnivores. The concept of consumer layers was
advanced by Charles Elton (1927). He pointed out the great differences in the number
of organisms involved in each step of the food chain. Consumers at the lower ends are
the most abundant; however in successive links of consumption carnivores decrease
rapidly in number and increase in size until there are very few at the top. These
changes in numbers are reflected in ecological pyramids; ecological pyramids are
illustrations that show the reduction in energy as you move through each feeding or
trophic level in an ecosystem.

There are three ecological pyramids:

1. PYRAMID OF NUMBERS: This is where there are abundant or large

numbers of consumers but with successive links upwards the number
decreases and the size increases until there are very few at the top. However
it is the least useful pyramid and it could be misleading. Although consumers
at the base may be most abundant, there is a great deal of variation in their
size and number. Plants are eaten by herbivores ranging in size from very
small anthropods to elephants.

Figure showing a Pyramid of Numbers

2. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: this pyramid is more realistic than that of numbers.

The number of consumers at each feeding level is multiplied by their weight to
create a pyramid of biomass. The pyramid of biomass indicates by weight or
other measurement of living material the bulk of organisms of fixed energy
present at any one time referred to the STANDING CROP. However for some
ecosystems the pyramid of biomass is inverted e.g. lakes and open seas.

Figure showing a Pyramid of Biomass

3. PYRAMID OF ENERGY: this is a representation of the flow of energy through

different trophic levels. It is the most useful and reliable of all three pyramids.
Energy flow is unidirectional and is more feasible. It is expressed as kilojoules
 per meter squared per year and since energy is lost at every trophic level
these pyramids are always upright.

Figure showing a Pyramid of Energy

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
Interacting species have a tremendous influence on the size of each other’s
population. Biotic influences are quite different from abiotic influences on the size of a
population. Also, biotic factors regulate the size of populations more intensely; also
biotic interaction can occur at two different levels.

● Interspecific – direct interactions between species

● Intraspecific interaction of individuals within a single species.
Types of interactions in an ecosystem are:
● Competition
● Predation
● Parasitism
● Commensalism
● Mutualism

Type of Interaction Symbol Effects

Mutualism +/+ Both species benefit

Commensalism +/o One species benefits/the

other is unaffected

Parasitism +/- One benefits and the other

suffers or dies
 Predation +/- One benefits and the other
suffers

Competition -/- Both species affected

negatively

COMPETITION

“Competition is an interaction between individuals brought about by a shared

requirement for a resource in limited supply and leading to a reduction in the
survivorship, growth and /or reproduction of at least some of the competing individuals
concerned.”

If the competition is among members of the same species it is called

INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION. Competition among different species it is referred to
as INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION. The ultimate effect of competition on an individual
is a decreased contribution to the next generation compared to what would have
happened had there been no competition.

Intraspecific competition, typically leads to decreased rates of resource intake

per individual and thus to decreased rates of individual growth or development or
perhaps to decreases in amounts of stored reserves or to increased risks of predation.
This may lead, in turn, to decreases in survivorship and/or decreases in fecundity.

In many cases, competing individuals do not interact with one another directly.
Instead, individuals respond to the level of a resource which has been depressed by the
presence and activity of other individuals e.g. grass hoppers competing for food are not
directly affected by other grasshoppers but by a reduction in food level and an
increased difficulty in finding good food – in this case competition may be described as
EXPLOITATION, in that each individual is affected by the amount of resource that
remains after it is exploited by others. Exploitation can only occur, therefore, if the
resource is in a limited supply.

However, competition takes a form known as INTERFERENCE. Here individuals

interact directly with each other and one individual will actually prevent another from
exploiting the resource within a portion of the habitat- this is seen amongst animals that
defend territories – referred to as TERRITORIALITY. This refers to individuals or groups
e.g. as a pack of wolves defending a territory against the encroachment of others of the
same species. Another example of interference competition is when two red deer stags
fight for access to females. Interference competition may occur for a resource of real
value e.g. space on a rocky shore for a barnacle.

INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION

The essence of interspecific competition is that individuals of one species suffer a

reduction in fecundity, survivorship or growth as a result of resource exploitation or
interference by individuals of another species. Interspecific competition is influenced by
the degree of proximity. Each individual affects the environment of its neighbour by
consuming resources in limited supply by modifying environmental conditions and by
producing toxins.

PREDATOR-PREY/ PREDATION

Predation is the consumption of one organism by another. In this sense, predation

includes everything from a leopard capturing and eating an antelope, to a deer grazing
on spring grass. Usually the prey is alive when the predator first attacks it. This
excludes detritivory, the consumption of dead organic matter.
There are two main ways predators can be classified. The most obvious
classification is “taxonomic” – carnivores consume animals, herbivores consume plants
and Omnivores consume both.
An alternative is a “functional classification”- there are four main types of predators:

● True Predators
● Grazers
● Parasitoids
True predators : kill their prey more or less immediately after attacking them-in their
lifetime they kill several or many different prey individuals. Most of the obvious
carnivores like tigers, eagles, coccinellid beetles and carnivorous plants are true
predators.

Grazers: also attack a large number of prey but they remove only part of each prey
rather than the whole. Their effect on prey, although harmful, is rarely fatal.

Parasites: like grazers consume part of their host rather than the whole. Their attacks
are typically harmful but rarely lethal in the short term. Their attacks are focused on one
or a very few individuals during the course of their life e.g. tape worms, liver flukes, the
measles virus etc.

Parasitoids: are a group of insects that are classified as such based on the egg laying
behaviour of the adult female and the subsequent developmental pattern of the larva
e.g. Hymenoptera. The larval parasitoid then develops inside its host individual which it
is usually a pre adult. Initially it does little harm to the host but eventually totally
consumes the host and therefore kills it.

Plant Defenses against Herbivores

Plants have evolved many mechanisms to defend themselves from herbivores.
The most obvious are morphological defenses: thorns, spines, and prickles play an
important role in discouraging browsers, and plant hairs, especially those that have a
glandular, sticky tip, deter insect herbivores. Some plants, such as grasses,
deposit silica in their leaves, both strengthening and protecting themselves.
If enough silica is present in their cells, these plants are simply too
tough to eat.

Chemical Defenses
Significant as these morphological adaptations are, the chemical defenses that occur so
widely in plants are even more crucial. Best known and perhaps most important in the
defenses of plants against herbivores are secondary chemical compounds. These
are distinguished from primary compounds, which are regular components of the major
metabolic pathways, such as respiration. Many plants, and apparently many algae as
well, contain very structurally diverse secondary compounds that are either toxic to most
herbivores or disturb their metabolism
greatly, preventing, for example, the normal development of larval insects.
Consequently, most herbivores tend to avoid the plants that possess these compounds.
The mustard family (Brassicaceae) is characterized by a
group of chemicals known as mustard oils. These are the substances that give the
pungent aromas and tastes to such plants as mustard, cabbage, watercress, radish,
and horseradish. The same tastes we enjoy signal the presence of chemicals that are
toxic to many groups of insects. Similarly, plants of the milkweed family
(Asclepiadaceae) and the related dogbane family (Apocynaceae) produce a
milky sap that deters herbivores from eating them.

Animal Defenses against Predators

Some animals that feed on plants rich in secondary compounds receive an extra
benefit. When the caterpillars of monarch butterflies feed on plants of the milkweed
family,
they do not break down the cardiac glycosides that protect these plants from herbivores.
Instead, the caterpillars concentrate and store the cardiac glycosides in fat bodies; they
then pass them through the chrysalis stage to the adult and even to the eggs of the next
generation. The incorporation of cardiac glycosides thus protects all stages of the
monarch life cycle from predators. A bird that eats a monarch butterfly quickly
regurgitates it and in the future avoids the conspicuous orange-and-black pattern that
characterizes the adult monarch. Some birds, however, appear to have acquired the
ability to tolerate the protective chemicals. These birds eat the monarchs.
Defensive Coloration
Many insects that feed on milkweed plants are brightly colored; they advertise their
poisonous nature using an ecological strategy known as warning coloration. Showy
coloration is characteristic of animals that use poisons and stings to repel predators,
while organisms that lack specific chemical defenses are seldom.

Chemical Defenses
Animals also manufacture and use a startling array of substances to perform a variety of
defensive functions. Bees, wasps, predatory bugs, scorpions, spiders, and many other
arthropods use chemicals to defend themselves and to kill their prey. In addition,
various chemical defenses have evolved among marine animals and the vertebrates,
including venomous snakes, lizards, fishes, and some birds. The poison-dart frogs of
the family Dendrobatidae produce toxic alkaloids in the mucus that covers their brightly
colored skin . Some of these toxins are so powerful that a few micrograms will kill a
person if injected into the bloodstream.

SYMBIOSIS

Most of the interactions between species involve food that is competing for the
same food supply, eating (predation) and avoiding being eaten. These interactions are
often brief. There are many cases, however, where two species live in close association
for long periods and such associations are called SYMBIOTIC (Living Together).
In symbiosis, at least one member of the pair benefits from the relationship. The
other members may be:
● Injured (parasitism)
● Relatively unaffected (commensalism)
● May also benefit (mutualism)
In non-symbiotic mutualism-both members of the pair benefit each other but they do not
live together.
MUTUALISM

Mutualism involves cooperation between species, to the mutual benefit of both.

Out of this relationship, most obvious at the individual level, both species enhance their
survival, growth and fitness. Mutualism can be SYMBIOTIC or NON-SYMBIOTIC,
OBLIGATE OR FACULTATIVE.
In symbiosis, two organisms live together in close physical association, from
which one or both derive a benefit and at least one member of the pair cannot lead an
independent life – their relationship is Obligate e.g. intestinal parasites of mammals and
birds. Another example of obligate symbiotic mutualism is the intimate association of
plant roots with fungal hyphae called mycorrhizae. The plant supplies energy to the
fungi and the fungal hyphae takes up mineral nutrients from the soil and transport them
into the host roots.
More common is NON-SYMBIOTIC OBLIGATE MUTUALISM in which the
mutualists live physically separate lives yet cannot survive without each other.
Pollination and seed dispersal systems offer many examples as flowers and their
pollinators are a common and ubiquitous form of mutualism. Pollination is a term for the
sexual reproduction process in plants.
An example of this are orchids in lowland neotropical forests. Scattered widely
these orchids depend entirely on male Euglossine or Golden bees. Extremely fast fliers
these bees cover long distances between orchids. However the male bees do not obtain
any food but collect the fragrances from secretory cells on the lips of the flowers.
Also there is a mutualistic relationship between the Central American plants
Heliconia and hummingbirds. Heliconia depend upon humming birds for pollen transfer.
The shape of their beaks are perfect for probing in the flower to carry the pollen of other
plants. Seed dispersal is another non symbiotic obligate form of mutualism. Plants with
seed too heavy to disperse by wind depend upon animals to carry seeds some distance
from the parent plant. Plants enclose the seeds in a nutritious fruit attractive to fruit
eating animals called frugivores. The berries or fruits are eaten by birds and mammals
which pass through the digestive system and excreted unharmed.

FACULTATIVE MUTUALISM is where both organisms benefit by living in close

association but it is not essential. A good example of this are ants and aphids, where
one species, the aphids, provides food while the other species, ants, provide protection
from other species. Aphids, also called greenflies, are small insects that suck fluids
from the phloem of living plants with their piercing mouthparts. They extract a certain
amount of the sucrose and other nutrients from this fluid, but they excrete much of it in
an altered form through their anus. Certain ants have taken advantage of this—in effect,
domesticating the
aphids. The ants carry the aphids to new plants, where they come into contact with new
sources of food, and then consume as food the “honeydew” that the aphids excrete.

Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship that benefits one species and neither hurts
nor helps the other. In nature, individuals of one species are often physically attached to
members of another. For example, epiphytes are plants that grow on the branches of
other plants. In general, the host plant is unharmed, while the epiphyte that grows on it
benefits. Similarly, various marine animals, such as barnacles, grow on other, often
actively moving sea animals like whales and thus are carried passively from place to
place. These “passengers” presumably gain more protection from predation than they
would if they were fixed in one place, and they also reach new sources of food. The
increased water circulation
that such animals receive as their host moves around may be of great
importance, particularly if the passengers are filter feeders. The gametes
of the passenger are also more widely dispersed than would be the
case otherwise.

Examples of Commensalism :The best-known examples of commensalism involve the

relationships between certain small tropical fishes and sea anemones, marine animals
that have stinging tentacles. These fish have evolved the ability to live among the
tentacles of sea anemones, even though these tentacles would quickly paralyze other
fishes that touched them. The anemone fishes feed on the detritus left from the meals of
the host anemone, remaining uninjured under remarkable circumstances. On land, a
relationship exists between birds called Cattle Egrets and grazing animals such as
cattle or rhinoceros. The birds spend most of their time clinging to the animals, picking
off parasites and other insects, carrying out their entire life cycles in close association
with the host animals.

PARASITISM
Parasitism may be regarded as a special form of symbiosis in which the predator, or
parasite, is much smaller than the prey and remains closely associated with it.
Parasitism is harmful to the prey organism and beneficial to the parasite.
External Parasites
Parasites that feed on the exterior surface of an organism are external parasites, or
ectoparasites. Many instances of external parasitism are known . Lice, which
live on the bodies of vertebrates—mainly birds and mammals—are normally considered
parasites. Mosquitoes are not considered parasites, even though they draw food from
birds and mammals in a similar manner to lice, because
their interaction with their host is so brief. Parasitoids are insects that lay eggs on living
hosts. This behavior is common among wasps, whose larvae feed on the body of the
unfortunate host, often killing it.
Internal Parasites
Vertebrates are parasitized internally by endoparasites. Invertebrates also have many
kinds of parasites that live within their bodies.

ECOSYSTEM STABILITY AND DIVERSITY

SUCCESSION:

According to Connell and Slayter (1977) succession is defined as “changes

observed in an ecological community following a perturbation that opens up a relatively
large space.” Also, Grime (1977) says succession is a “progressive alteration in the
structure and species composition of the vegetation.” Succession can be viewed as the
process in which an area is successively occupied by different communities of plants. It
involves the process of colonization, establishment and extinction which act on the
participating plant species. Pioneer communities tends to be made up of relatively few
species who are able to:
● Migrate quickly
● Live under extreme conditions

The earliest plants to grow may be either those with windblown seeds or those
that are carried long distances in or on birds and animals. Also there may be plants
whose seeds have lived in the soil for many years. Succession begins when an area is
made partially or completely devoid of vegetation because of DISTURBANCE. Some
common disturbances are fires, wind storms, volcanic eruptions, logging, climate
change, severe flooding disease and pest infestation. For the first one or two years,
annual herbs may be important but they have a short lifespan, one growing season.
They are then replaced by perennial herbs and grasses, then the perennial herbs and
grasses stage might be replaced by a community dominated by shrubs followed by a
community dominated by a forest of light tolerant trees. The light tolerant trees are
shade intolerant and are unable to reproduce. As the shade intolerant trees die a
community of shade tolerant trees develops. Then the community is at or near to
CLIMAX; succession stops when the species composition changes no longer with time
and this community is a climax community. The whole sequence from bare ground to
climax is a successional series or a sere with various stages called Seral Stages.
There are three major causes of succession that occur both within the community
and outside of the community. The causes of succession are:
1. Initiating causes: these are the biotic and climatic factors which inflict
serious harm on the plant population of an area. Climatic factors include:
wind, fire, natural disasters such as hurricanes and floods and erosion.
The biotic factors include the activities such as competition for space, light
and food.
2. Continuing causes: these are referred to as ECESIS. These processes
are continuous as competition, migration etc. This results in a series of
changes in the soil structure as changes in soil nutrients, accumulation of
organic matter in soil litter and changes in soil Ph.
3. Stabilizing causes: this involves those climatic factors which lead to the
stabilizing of the community.

There are TWO types of succession

1. Primary succession: this is the gradual establishment through a series of stages,
of a climax ecosystem in an area that had not been occupied before. Primary
succession begins on sites that have never supported life before e.g. freshly
formed sand dunes, lava flows and pumice plains caused by volcanic eruptions
e.g. Mt. St. Helens and soil exposed by the retreat of glaciers.
Succession begins with the colonization of a site by early successional species
that both alter and improve conditions allowing new species to invade. This
process is facilitation which is particularly important where conditions are initially
severe e.g. as a sand dune-which is created from pulverized rock and deposited
by wind and water. Extensive deposits occur along the shores of lakes, oceans
and island sand barriers to form dunes. The colonization of dunes begins with the
grasses, especially beach grasses are the most successful pioneering and
binding plants. When beach grasses and pea grasses stabilize the dune, mat
forming shrubs invade the area. From this point the vegetation may pass to pine
and then oak or to oak directly without the pine stage. The low fertility of the dune
favours plants with low nutrient requirements and also due to low moisture
content oak is rarely replaced by moisture demanding trees.
2. Secondary Succession
This results in a series of changes in the vegetational composition of an
environment in response to a disturbance e.g. a fire, avalanche etc. This involves
the gradual and regular replacement of species and ending with a return to a
stable state or climax. It commonly occurs in areas that were once occupied by
plants due to a disturbance. It is often found in abandoned farmland and
non-cultivated rural sites as fills, spoil banks, railroad grades and roadsides.
In succession, secondary succession has been studied most frequently in old
fields. The sequence of succession includes:
Annual weeds -🡪Herbaceous perennials🡪Shrubs🡪Early successional trees🡪Late
successional trees

The species most likely to colonise these areas are weeds because they grow
well in highly disturbed habitats and are adapted to the sites of disturbance. The
seeds of weeds remain viable for long periods of time, that is they can remain in
the soil for years until conditions are right for germination – unfiltered light,
reduced carbon dioxide concentration and fluctuating temperatures. The rapid
and successful colonization is aided by an efficient means of dispersal e.g. wind
dispersal. The rate of change depends on the nature of the previous community
and the nature of the disturbance itself. Unlike the first colonists, the seeds of the
later successional species are able to germinate beneath a forest canopy.
The early colonists move often – they are not settled because they cannot
compete with the later species therefore they grow and consume the available
resources quickly. They have a high growth rate whereas the later successional
plants are lower. The rate of photosynthesis declines as succession proceeds
and the later species are shade tolerant even at low light intensities the plants
can grow.
Early successional trees are multilayered and the leaves extend deep into the
canopy where they still receive enough light to grow. Late succession trees are
mono layered and are more efficient in the crowded canopy of the late
succession plants. As a result of this characteristic the mono layered trees
emerge as dominant species.
One of the classic examples of secondary succession is Keever’s Study of Old
Field Succession (1950) in Piedmont, North Carolina, USA. The year a crop field
is abandoned the ground is claimed by:
● Crabgrass-whose seeds lying dormant in the soil respond to light and
moisture leading to germination
● Late summer seeds of horse weed germinate
● Invaded in the summer by white asters and ragweed
● By next summer, broomsedge and perennial bungrass
● Pine seedlings grow in open spaces.
● Hardwoods as oaks and ash grow among pine
 ● Between hardwoods shade tolerant trees and shrubs as Dogwood,
Redbud, Sourwood and Hydrangea.

CLIMAX COMMUNITY
This is where the community is in equilibrium with its environment of which climate
is an important factor. The climax community is at a steady state of species competition,
structure and energy flow; also it consists of organisms that are able to tolerate the
conditions that this community has set up.
The following are the characteristics of the climax community:
● The climax community is able to tolerate its own reactions. It can withstand
competition, resource sharing and other internal reactions with little effect on
the ecosystem.
● The climax tends to be a mesic for the climate in which it occurs. The
vegetation of the climax community reflects the climate that it occurs in.
● The climax community is highly organized in that there are many niches and
organisms to perform various functions and this leads to a higher level of
stability.
● The climax community has a higher species diversity in that there are many
varieties of species that occupy the area due to its balanced conditions.
● Organisms composing the climax community tend to be long lived, relatively
large and with low biotic potential and are referred to as K-selected species
whereas species of earlier successional stages tend to be smaller, shorter
lived with a higher biotic potential called a r-selected species.
● Energy is at a steady state in the climax community.

TABLE COMPARING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SUCCESSION
Primary Succession
Harsh environment that has never been
colonized before
The biomass is small
Energy consumption inefficient
Nutrient recycling low
Low species diversity
Fluctuations are common meaning the
ecosystem is unstable and cannot
withstand a disturbance if it occurs
r-adapted
Secondary Succession
Favourable conditions due to the former
presence of vegetation
Biomass is of a large amount
Energy consumption efficient
Nutrient recycling high
High species diversity
Fluctuations are less common because the
ecosystem is stable and can withstand a
disturbance if it occurs
K-adapted
NATURAL SELECTION, EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION

EVOLUTION

According to the Science and Technology encyclopedia Evolution is “changes that occur
across successive generations of organisms. The causes of this generational change include
natural selection and genetic drift” (the chance alteration in the gene pool of a small usually
isolated population). The bulk of evolutionary theory relies on the work of Charles Darwin.
Darwin was influenced by observations made during his voyage as a naturalist on the ship, the
S.S. Beagle; on the Galapagos Islands he noticed the slight variations that made tortoises from
different islands recognizably distinct. He also recognized a whole array of unique finches
referred to as Darwin’s Finches that exhibited slight differences from island to island.

Darwin's Theory
Darwins’s theory basically entails the following three principles below:

● Species (populations of interbreeding organisms) change over time and space.  The
representatives of species living today differ from those that lived in the recent past, and
populations in different geographic regions today differ slightly in form or behavior. 
These differences extend into the fossil record, which provides ample support for this
claim.
● All organisms share common ancestors with other organisms.  Over time, populations
may divide into different species, which share a common ancestral population.  Far
enough back in time, any pair of organisms shares a common ancestor.  For example,
humans shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees about eight million years ago,
with whales about 60 million years ago, and with kangaroos over 100 million years ago.  
Shared ancestry explains the similarities of organisms that are classified together: their
similarities reflect the inheritance of traits from a common ancestor.  
● Evolutionary change is gradual and slow in Darwin’s view.  This claim was supported by
the long episodes of gradual change in organisms in the fossil record and the fact that
no naturalist had observed the sudden appearance of a new species in Darwin’s time. 
Since then, biologists and paleontologists have documented a broad spectrum of slow to
rapid rates of evolutionary change within lineages. 

The primary mechanism of change over time is natural selection.  This mechanism causes
changes in the properties (traits) of organisms within lineages from generation to generation.

The Process of Natural Selection

Darwin’s process of natural selection has four components.
1. Variation.  Organisms (within populations) exhibit individual variation in appearance and
behavior.  These variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings, voice
properties, or number of offspring.  On the other hand, some traits show little to no
variation among individuals—for example, the number of eyes in vertebrates. 
2. Inheritance.  Some traits are consistently passed on from parent to offspring.  Such traits
are heritable, whereas other traits are strongly influenced by environmental conditions
and show weak heritability.
 3. High rate of population growth.  Most populations have more offspring each year than
local resources can support leading to a struggle for resources.  Each generation
experiences substantial mortality.
4. Differential survival and reproduction.  Individuals possessing traits well suited for the
struggle for local resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation. 

From one generation to the next, the struggle for resources (what Darwin called the “struggle for
existence”) will favor individuals with some variations over others and thereby change the
frequency of traits within the population.  This process is natural selection.  The traits that confer
an advantage to those individuals who leave more offspring are called adaptations.

In order for natural selection to operate on a trait, the trait must possess heritable variation and
must confer an advantage in the competition for resources.  If one of these requirements does
not occur, then the trait does not experience natural selection.  Natural selection operates by
comparative advantage, not an absolute standard of design.  “…as natural selection acts by
competition for resources, it adapts the inhabitants of each country only in relation to the degree
of perfection of their associates” (Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species, 1859).

Natural selection can only work on existing variations within a population.  Such variations arise
by mutation, a change in some part of the genetic code for a trait.  Mutations arise by chance
and without foresight for the potential advantage or disadvantage of the mutation. 

Evidence of Natural Selection

Galapagos finches are the famous example from Darwin's voyage. Each island of the
Galapagos that Darwin visited had its own kind of finch (14 in all), found nowhere else in the
world. Some had beaks adapted for eating large seeds, others for small seeds, some had
parrot-like beaks for feeding on buds and fruits, and some had slender beaks for feeding on
small insects (see Figure 4). One used a thorn to probe for insect larvae in wood, like some
woodpeckers do. (Six were ground-dwellers, and eight were tree finches.) (This diversification
into different ecological roles, or niches, is thought to be necessary to permit the coexistence of
multiple species, a topic we will examined in a later lecture.) To Darwin, it appeared that each
was slightly modified from an original colonist, probably the finch on the mainland of South
America, some 600 miles to the east. It is probable that adaptive radiation led to the formation of
so many species because other birds were few or absent, leaving empty niches to fill; and
because the numerous islands of the Galapagos provided ample opportunity for geographic
isolation.
Diagram of Darwin’s Finches

Another example is industrial melanism is a phenomenon that affected over 70 species of

moths in England. It has been best studied in the peppered moth, Biston betularia. Prior to
1800, the typical moth of the species had a light pattern. Dark colored or melanic moths were
rare and were therefore collectors' items. During the Industrial Revolution, soot and other
industrial wastes darkened tree abundant. In 1819, the first melanic morph was seen; by 1886, it
was far more common -- illustrating rapid evolutionary change. Eventually light morphs were
common in only a few locales, far from industrial areas. The cause of this change was thought
to be selective predation by birds, which favored camouflage coloration in the moth.
 Diagram of the Pepper Moth before and after

ADAPTATION

An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction

of organisms that possesses it. Natural selection is the only mechanism known to cause the
evolution of adaptations, so many biologists would simply define an adaptation as a
characteristic that has evolved by natural selection. The word “adaptation” also refers to the
process whereby the members of a population become better suited to some feature of their
environment through change in a characteristic that affects their survival or reproduction

EXAMPLE OF ADAPTATIONS:

Among the 18,000 to 25,000 species of orchids, many have extraordinary modifications of
flower structure and astonishing mechanisms of pollination. In pseudocopulatory pollination, for
example part of the flower is modified to look somewhat like a female insect, and the flower
emits a scent that mimics the attractive sex pheromone (scent) of a female bee, fly, or thynnine
wasp, depending on the orchid species. As a male insect “mates” with the flower, pollen is
deposited precisely on that part of the insect’s body that will contact the stigma of the next
flower visited.

POPULATION SAMPLING METHODS FOR MOVING AND

NON-MOVING ORGANISMS

In order to determine a total count of all the members of a population one has to
conduct a census. The can be carried out for both moving organisms as mammals,
insects etc by using methods as the mark, release and recapture technique and for the
non-moving organisms as plants, methods as quadrats and line transects are used. In
many cases the population size or geographic area may be quite large and as a result
there may be problems with counting each individual hence random sampling is
employed as is the case with Quadrats. In other cases systematic sampling is employed
at fixed intervals as in the case of transects, both line and belt transects, which both
employ this approach. Also, the study area is subdivided into smaller areas and studied;
this approach is stratified sampling. Three types of sampling techniques are examined
in the table below.

Type of Description of When is it used Advantages Disadvantage

sampling method
technique
Capture, Mark and Animal are Useful for Can be used for It is time
Release captured, marked determining highly mobile consuming
and then released. population density animals which are especially the wait
When a suitable for mobile species difficult to time to allow
time period has in a certain area. physically see. mixing to occur.
elapsed the It should be used It is not suitable for
population is for a population immobile species.
recaptured. Data that has a finite
recorded and space boundary.
applied to the
Lincoln Index.
Quadrats Quadrats are Well suited for Simple, easy to Time consuming.
square frames determining use many times Difficult to use on
which are placed community and good for flat uneven ground.
randomly or in a composition, ground. Cannot be used for
grid pattern on the abundance and mobile species.
sampling area. frequency of
Size of quadrat is occurrence of non
determined by the mobile vegetation
habitat eg in a
grassland 0.5m by
.5m is suitable.
Line transects Lines are laid Well suited to Simple to use. Can be time
across the area to determine change Can illustrate consuming.
be sampled. in community changes in the
Organisms that composition along gradient of the
occur along the an environmental land and
strip are counted gradient. abundance in
Provides a vegetation
measure of
species
occurrence.

Moving Organisms

Small mammals such as mice and bats can be caught in a Longworth Trap; it is a
trap designed to capture small mammals with minimum discomfort. Insects and other
invertebrates such as spiders and butterflies can be caught by Sweep Netting; this is
the use of a net to capture insects and bugs. The net is swung back and forth across
the ground, the grass, shrubs and some trees.
 A widely used method of estimating the population size of mobile organisms is the
mark, release and recapture technique. Once the sample of animals is caught, they
are counted and then marked in some way which causes neither harm nor distress.
Voles for example are marked by clipping of a small piece of fur. Once the animal has
been marked , they are released and allowed to mix with the rest of the unmarked
population.
When enough time has passed for mixing to occur another large sample is
captured. The number of marked and unmarked individuals are counted. Then the
figures are applied to the formula below:
Number in population=number caught in first sample*number caught in second
sample

Number of marked individuals in second sample

This equation is for working out the size of the population and is called the Lincoln
Index. The Lincoln index is a statistical measure used in several fields to estimate the
number of cases that have not yet been observed, based on two independent sets of
observed cases.

ESTIMATING NON-MOVING POPULATIONS

QUADRATS

A population of terrestrial plants in the field or area can be estimated using

quadrats. A quadrat is a sampling unit of a known area and is usually square frames
that can be carried about and positioned. The size of the quadrat depends on the
habitat and the organisms to be sampled. Generally, the quadrat sizes vary from 1m2 to
0.5m2. As a general guideline, 0.5 - 1.0m 2 quadrats would be suggested for short
grassland, taller grasslands and shrubby habitats might require 2m quadrats, while
quadrats of 20m2 or larger, would be needed for woodland habitats. At the other end of
the scale, if you are sampling moss on a bank covered with a very diverse range of
moss species, you might choose to use a 0.25m2 quadrat. There are two types of
quadrats, frame and point quadrats. Frame quadrats are two-dimensional empty
frames and allows data to be collected on the species present through a direct count
(that is how many plants are within the frame) and a percentage cover that is an
approximation of the plants within the frame. Point quadrats  are 3-dimensional
quadrats and therefore ideal for sampling vegetation, which tends to grow in layers or
canopies. A point quadrat consists of a frame with 10 holes which is inserted into the
ground by a leg. A pin is then dropped through each of the holes in turn, and the
species that the pin touches are recorded. In this way the total number of pins touching
each species can be converted to percentage frequency data (if a species touched 6
out of the 10 pins it is 60% frequent).

Frame quadrat Point quadrat

TRANSECTS

Systematic sampling is sampling at interval and this occurs in transect sampling.

Transects are lines which are placed along the area being sampled and at points along
the line sampling occurs. There are TWO types of transects: Line transects and Belt
transects.

Line Transects:

A transect line can be made using a nylon rope marked and numbered at 0.5m, or 1m
intervals, all the way along its length. This is laid across the area that is being studied.
The position of the transect line is very important and it depends on the direction of the
environmental gradient studied. A line transect is carried out by unrolling the transect
line along the gradient identified. The species touching the line may be recorded along
the whole length of the line.

Belt Transects:

These are measured strips located across the study area to highlight any transitions. In
this method, the transect line is laid out across the area to be surveyed and a quadrat is
placed on the first marked point on the line. The plants and/or animals inside the
quadrat are then identified and their abundance estimated. Quadrats are sampled all
the way down the transect line, at each marked point on the line, or at some other
predetermined interval.
Belt Transects Line transects

SPECIES DIVERSITY
Species diversity is related to species richness, which is the number of species
found in a particular community, but it is more quantitative in nature and it involves the
abundance of each species present in a community. Species diversity depends upon
the number of individuals of different species present in a habitat. When diversity is
high, as in the Tropical Rain Forest, there are many species and when diversity is low,
as in a Desert, there are few species. It is also postulated that ecosystems with high
levels of diversity tend to be more stable than those with fewer species. Species
diversity (D) can be calculated using the formula:
D=∑n(-1)
N(N-1)
Where N=Total number of species
n= total number of organisms of a particular species
∑= sum of

During succession, the species diversity often increases with time. In the early stages,
few species will be adapted to survive in a harsh environment. However as the
conditions become less harsh many more species are able to survive.

ECOSYSTEM SUSTAINABILITY
It relates to the ability of an ecosystem to withstand significant changes over time
and to repair any damage after any sudden changes. Biotic and abiotic factors of a
habitat influence the species that live there and always the process of ecological
succession. As succession continues, species diversity increases and feeding
relationships become more complex. Eventually, a sustainable ecosystem develops
which is in equilibrium with its environment and which undergoes little future change.
This is the climax community.
Generally, complex ecosystems with high species diversity tend to be more stable
because alternative links between species exist. Several species may also be able to
carry out the same function. For instance, if a disease severely changes the density of
one species then another can take over and perform the function.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE
Certain natural mechanisms appear to influence population size. These fall into
two categories: Density Dependent and Density Independent Factors.

Density Dependant Factors

These are environmental factors whose effects on a population change as population

density changes. Density dependent factors tend to retard population growth. As
population densities increase factors tend to slow population growth by causing an
increase in death rates and a decrease in birth rates. Density dependent factors can
also affect population growth when population density declines by increasing death
rates and decreasing birth rates. Density dependent factors then tend to rejuvenate a
population at a constant size that is near the carrying capacity of the environment.

PREDATION, DISEASES AND COMPETITION

As the density of a population increases, predators are more likely to find an individual
of a prey species. When population densities are high, the members of a population
encounter one another more frequently and the chance of their transmitting infectious
disease increases. As population density increases so does competition for resources
such as living space, food, cover or shelter, water, minerals and sunlight. The opposite
effects occur when the density of a population decreases. Predators are less likely to
encounter individual prey, parasites are less likely to transmit diseases and competition
among members declines.

DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS

Any environmental factors that affect the size of the population but does not come from
within the species is considered a density independent factor. Such factors are typically
abiotic. Random weather events, a frost, severe blizzard, hurricane or a fire may cause
extreme and irregular reductions in a population size.

POPULATION ECOLOGY
This deals with the number of individuals of a particular species that are found in
the area and how and why these numbers change over time. The size of a population
says very little about a population but population density is very useful. Population
density is the number of individuals of a species per unit area at a given time. A
population changes through the interaction of birth rates and death rates. The rate of
change (increase or decrease) or growth rate of a population is r=b-d, this refers to
natural increase or natural decrease. In addition to birth rates and death rates,
dispersal, which is the movement from one area to another, must be considered in
population change. There are two types of dispersals-Immigration (into an area) and
Emigration (out of an area).

GR=(B+I)-(D+E)

BIOTIC POTENTIAL

This is the maximum rate at which a population would increase under ideal conditions.
Different species have different biotic potentials; a species biotic potential is influenced
by several factors. These include:

1. Age at which reproduction begins

2. The fraction of the life span during which an individual of that species is capable
of reproduction.
3. The number of reproductive periods per lifetime.
4. The number of offspring produced during each period of reproduction.

These factors are called Life History Characteristics and they determine whether a
particular species has a large or small biotic potential. Large organisms such as the
Blue Whale and the Elephant have a smaller biotic potential than small organisms and
micro organisms which have a greater biotic potential.

EXPONENTIAL POPULATION GROWTH

This is the accelerating population growth that occurs when optimum conditions
allow a constant population growth rate.
 FIGURE SHOWING EXPONENTIAL GROWTH CURVE OR “J” CURVE

When a population grows exponentially, the larger the population gets, the faster it
grows/the shorter the period of time for reproduction. It doubles then doubles again, but
each time the doubling occurs, it happens in a shorter time period. Certain populations
may exhibit exponential population growth for a short period of time. However,
organisms cannot reproduce indefinitely at their biotic potential because the
environment sets limits which are collectively called ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE.
These are limits set by the environment that prevent organisms from reproducing
indefinitely. Environmental resistance includes such unfavourable environmental
conditions as shortage of food, storage of water, lack of shelter, increased competition,
disease and predation. Environmental resistance may also be natural disasters such as
hurricanes, drought, famine and flooding. As the number of individuals in a population
increases so does environmental resistance which acts to limit population growth.
Environmental resistance is an example of a negative feedback loop.

Over longer periods of time, the rate of population growth may decrease to nearly
zero. This leveling off occurs at or near the limit of the environment's ability to support a
population and this is called the CARRYING CAPACITY (K). The carrying capacity
represents the largest population that can be maintained for an indefinite period by a
particular environment. In nature, the carrying capacity is dynamic and it changes in
response to environmental changes. For example an extended drought would decrease
the amount of vegetation growing in an area and this would lower the carrying capacity
of the ecosystem. When a population influenced by environmental resistance is graphed
over long periods of time, the curve has a characteristic “S” shape. The curve shows the
population’s initial exponential increase. When environmental resistance kicks in it
changes to an “S” shape.
 GRAPH SHOWING CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE ECOSYSTEM.

HUMAN INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Man occupies the top spot in any food chain or food web found in many
ecosystems; he affects the food chain or food web at all levels. Man is an Omnivore,
that is, he eats both plants and animals and as a result his presence can be felt
throughout the entire ecosystem. He derives many essential goods from ecosystems as
seafood including fish, shrimp and many others, game animals, fuel, timber and
pharmaceutical products. In addition to deriving essential goods the ecosystem provides
many fundamental life support services. These include:

● Purification of air and water

● Pollination of crops and natural vegetation
● Cycling and movement of nutrients
● Maintenance of soil fertility and formation of soil
● Cycling and movement of nutrients
● Protection of coastline from erosion by waves
● Dispersal of seeds
● Maintenance of biodiversity
The list of essential functions performed by ecosystems for man can go on but it has
been clearly established that these systems are very important to us. In addition to
these, as mentioned before we also derive products from these ecosystems that we
need to survive.

Benefits of Natural ecosystems

1. Production of ecosystem goods:

These are organisms and parts of their bodies that grow in the wild and are used
directly for human benefit. These include world fish catches which is about
100million metric tonnes and is the leading source of animal protein. Grasslands
provide goods such as horses, cattle, sheep and they provide meat, milk, wool
and leather. On grasslands they also produce wheat, oats and rye. The tropical
forests provide man with timber, fuel, fibres and pharmaceuticals.
2. Generation and Maintenance of biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to a variety of life forms at all levels of organization.
Biodiversity is generated and maintained in natural ecosystems and is directly
related to ecosystem goods. Without biodiversity man would not have access to
many ecological goods available now. Biodiversity supplies the genetic and
biochemical resources that are essential for agriculture and pharmaceutical
needs. Biotechnology uses the genetic materials of the “traditional” plants and
transforms it to create “super” plants.

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEMS

Without a healthy ecosystem, man’s survival would be in jeopardy and life would
not be the same. Although it has been established the importance of ecosystems, man’s
activities continue to threaten ecosystems by the waste it produces, it damages habitats
and removes too many species. The following are ways man impacts the ecosystem:

● Overhunting: When humans over-hunt key predators such as lions, tigers

and bears, they remove the very animals that keep plant consumers in
balance and prevent overgrazing. A healthy ecosystem has a balance of
predators and prey that naturally cycle through life and death sequences.
Over-hunting often results in ecosystem species imbalance and
environmental stress. Humans also practice commercial overfishing, where
massive fishing nets result in “by-catch,” in which unwanted fish are caught
in nets and then thrown away. By-catch results in the death of one million
sharks annually. Large weights and heavy metal rollers that are used with
 the commercial fishing nets also drag along the bottom of the ocean,
destroying anything in their path including fragile coral reefs.
● Deforestation:
Humans have always cut down trees throughout history. However, they now
have the resources of multimillion-dollar equipment that drastically
increases the rate of tree removal. The world’s rainforests are being
destroyed at a rate of 78 million acres per year, resulting in vegetation
degradation, nutrient imbalance, flooding and animal displacement. Trees
also act as a natural air filter in the carbon cycle by taking in carbon dioxide
and releasing oxygen, so deforestation contributes to global warming. Some
estimates indicate that canopy forest species will be reduced by 35 percent
by 2040 if deforestation continues at the same rate.
● Pollution:
Man’s major forms of transportation vehicles as cars, trucks and planes emit
toxic gases that include carcinogenic molecules and volatile organic
compounds leading to air pollution. Humans have also dumped large
amounts of pesticides, such as organophosphates, onto crops that leach
into groundwater and bodies of water, leading to eutrophication in
ecosystems. Plants and animals die from exposure to pollutants such as
excess nutrients from chemical fertilizers and other harmful chemicals.
Pollution is increasing around the world and results in loss of biodiversity
causing severe damage to self-sustaining ecosystems
● Land conversion: Through urban development, the continued rapid
construction of road systems and buildings has changed the Earth's natural
surface, removing soil nutrients, surface vegetation and trees that filter the
air and equalize the carbon cycle. Urbanization also displaces animals and
increases environmental pollution from vehicles and factories. A system of
highways also causes serious migratory obstacles for animals and replaces
native plants with impermeable concrete, resulting in habitat destruction.
Since the concrete is impermeable, it doesn’t allow water to seep through,
resulting in increased vulnerability to flooding. This practice of human
construction continues at a rapid pace, leading to urban sprawl, where cities
are essentially forever expanding outside the traditional inner-city limits.