Das PoGE SI Chapter17

Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan
Chapter 17
Subsoil
Exploration
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accessible website, in whole or in part.
Learning Objectives
• Learn about planning for soil exploration
• Know the methods used for boring
• Learn some methods of collecting soil samples
• Learn about the area ratio, which is a measure of how
disturbed soil is
• Learn about some correlations for determining soil
parameters from the standard penetration test
• Learn about some other tests that can conducted in situ
• Know how rock coring is performed
• Understand what a soil exploration report is
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Planning for Soil Exploration

• There are four main phases of a soil exploration program:
• Compilation of the existing information about the structure
• Determine type of structure, building codes, anticipated loads
• Collection of existing information for the subsoil condition
• Use existing survey maps to provide insight
• Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site
• Visually inspect the site and surrounding area
• Detailed site investigation
• Make several test borings at the site and collect disturbed and
undisturbed soil samples from various depths for visual
observation and laboratory tests
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Planning for Soil Exploration

• Test borings should extend through unsuitable foundation
materials to firm soil layers
• For light steel or narrow concrete buildings:
𝑧𝑏 𝑚 = 3𝑆 0.7
• 𝑧𝑏 is the approximate boring depth, and 𝑆 is the number of
stories of the building
• Guidelines for planning of bore
hole spacing
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Boring Methods
• The simplest method
of advancing the
borehole is by using
augers
• Soil samples collected
by augers are
disturbed, but they
can be used in
laboratory tests
including grain-size
determination
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Boring Methods
• When boring to greater
depths, power-operated
continuous-flight augers
are often used
• The power for drilling can be
delivered by truck- or
tractor-mounted drilling rigs
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Boring Methods
• Continuous-flight augers can be
solid stem or hollow stem
• Solid-stem augers must be
withdrawn at regular intervals
to obtain soil samples
• Hollow-stem augers have a
removable plug that can be
pulled out with the auger in
place
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Boring Methods
• Rotary drilling uses rotating drilling bits at the end of
drilling rods which cut and grind the soil to advance the
borehole down
• Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rock
• Water or drilling mud is forced down the drilling rod
• Drilling mud is a mix of bentonite and water
• The return flow of this water or mud forces the cuttings back
to the surface
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Boring Methods
• Wash boring uses a casing
and a chopping bit at the
end of a drilling rod
• Water is forced through the
drilling rod and out of holes
at the bottom of the
chopping bit
• The chopped soil particles
rise upward
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Boring Methods
• Percussion drilling is useful for drilling through hard soil

and rock
• A heavy drilling bit is raised and lowered repeatedly to
chop the soil
• Casing for this type of drilling may be required
• Recirculating water brings up the chopped soil particles
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Common Sampling Methods
• A split-spoon sampler
has a steel tube split
longitudinally, a driving
shoe at the bottom,
and a coupling at the
top
• The sampler is driven
into the soil by
hammer blows
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• The split-spoon
sampler is attached to
the drilling rod and
then lowered to the
bottom of the
borehole, as shown in
Figure 17.7
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• The number of blows needed to drive the sampler the last

152.4 mm is the standard penetration number, or blow
count
• The SPT hammer energy efficiency is:
actual hammer energy to the sampler
𝐸𝑟 % = × 100
input energy
 𝐸𝑟 can vary from 30% to 90% in the field
• The two most common types of SPT hammers are the
safety hammer and donut hammer
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• The field penetration number may be expressed in a

standard form corrected for field conditions:
𝑁𝜂𝐻 𝜂𝐵 𝜂𝑆 𝜂𝑅
𝑁60 =
60
 𝜂𝐻 is the hammer efficiency
 𝜂𝐵 is the correction for borehole diameter
 𝜂𝑆 is the sampler correction
 𝜂𝑅 is the correction for rod length
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• Fairly undisturbed samples may be

obtained by using thin-wall tubes
called Shelby tubes
• The sampler is pushed into the soil
hydraulically and is spun to shear
off the base
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• Piston samplers are

used to obtain highly
undisturbed samples
• The sampler is a thin-wall
tube with a piston, which
applies pressure while the
tube is pushed into the
soil to prevent distortion
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Sample Disturbance
• The degree of disturbance of the sample can be expressed

by the area ratio:
𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖2
𝐴𝑟 % = 2 × 100
𝐷𝑖
 𝐷𝑜 is the outside diameter of the sampler
 𝐷𝑖 is the inside diameter of the sampler
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Sample Disturbance
• The sample can generally be considered undisturbed if the

area ratio is less than or equal to 10%
• A standard split-spoon sampler has an area ratio of 110%
• A 50.8 mm Shelby-tube sampler has an area ratio of
13.8%
• Therefore, the Shelby tube disturbs the soil much less
• Undisturbed samples are needed for some tests such as
consolidation, triaxial compression, and unconfined
compression tests
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Correlations for 𝑁60 in Cohesive Soil
• The consistency index is defined as:

𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤
𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
• The consistency index may be estimated from the standard
penetration number, 𝑁60
• The unconfined compression strength, 𝑞𝑢 , may also be
estimated, though the sensitivity 𝑆𝑡 also affects the value
obtained for 𝑁60 in the field (which causes inaccuracies)
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Correlations for 𝑁60 in Cohesive Soil
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Correlations for Standard Penetration

Number in Granular Soil
• A correlation to determine the drained angle of friction for
granular soils from the standard penetration number is:
0.34
𝑁60
𝜙 ′ = tan−1
𝜎′
12.2 + 20.3
𝑝𝑎
Where 𝑝𝑎 = atmospheric pressure
• In general, the standard penetration number is useful as a
guideline in soil exploration to assess subsoil conditions
• Results must be interpreted correctly, as all these correlations are
approximate, and 𝑁60 may vary widely if the soil is not
homogeneous or contains boulders or gravel
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Other In Situ Tests
• In situ tests often give more representative results because

sample disturbance is not an issue
• The vane shear test (discussed in Chapter 12) can be
applied during the advancement of a borehole
• The undrained shear strength may be determined, which
gives useful information about the strength of the
undisturbed clay
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Borehole Pressuremeter Test

• The pressuremeter is used
for in situ measurement of
the stress-strain modulus
• It consists of a pressure cell
and two guard cells
• The pressure cell is expanded
and the volume change is
measured
• The data are interpreted on
the basis of the theory of
expansion of an infinitely
thick cylinder of soil
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Cone Penetration Test

• The Dutch cone
penetrometer is a device
which pushes a 60∘ cone
into the soil
• 𝑞𝑐 , the resistance to
penetration, is measured
• Most cone penetrometers
have friction sleeves
• The penetrometer shown
in Figure 7.12 is a
mechanical-friction
cone penetrometer
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• The drained soil friction angle may be estimated for sand:

′ −1
𝑞𝑐
𝜙 = tan 0.1 + 0.38 log ′
𝜎𝑜
 𝜎𝑜′ is the effective vertical stress
• The undrained shear may also be estimated:
𝑞𝑐 − 𝜎𝑜
𝑐𝑢 =
𝑁𝑘
 𝜎𝑜 is the total vertical stress and 𝑁𝑘 (≈ 18.3 for all cones) is
the bearing capacity factor
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Rock Coring
• Rock coring may be necessary

if bedrock is encountered at a
certain depth during drilling
• A core barrel with a coring bit
at the bottom is attached to
the drilling rod. Rock cores may
be fractured by torsion during
the coring
• A double-tube core barrel may
be used to prevent this
problem
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Rock Coring
• Several quantities exist to evaluate the quality of rock:

Length of rock core recovered
Recovery ratio =
Length of coring
• Intact rock has a recovery ratio of 1, while highly fractured
rocks have recovery ratios of 0.5 or less
• Another quantity is:
Rock quality designation 𝑅𝑄𝐷

Σ Length of rock pieces recovered having lengths of 101.6 mm or more
=
Length of coring
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Rock Coring
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Soil Exploration Report
• After the soil and rock samples are subjected to tests, a soil
exploration report is prepared for planning and design
• This report should include:
• Scope of investigation
• General description of the proposed structure
• Geologic conditions of the site
• Drainage facilities at the site
• Details of boring
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• The report should also include:

• Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and
rock samples collected
• Groundwater table as observed from the boreholes
• Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives
• Anticipated construction problems
• Limitations of the investigation
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• The report should include the following presentations:

• Site location map
• Boring locations with respect to the proposed structure
• Boring logs (example on next slide)
• Laboratory test results
• Any other special presentations
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Summary
• Soil exploration planning involves compilation of existing

information, reconnaissance, and detailed site investigation
• Borings are generally made with continuous-flight augers.
Rotary drilling, wash boring, and percussion drilling are other
methods of advancing a bore hole
• Soil samples during boring can be obtained by standard split-
spoon sampler, thin-wall tube, and piston sampler
• Standard penetration resistance can be correlated with
unconfined compression strength of cohesive soils
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Summary
• Other in situ tests are vane shear test, pressuremeter test,

and cone penetrometer test
• Rock coring is done by attaching a core barrel to the drilling
rod. A coring bit is attached to the bottom of the core barrel.
Recovery ratio and rock quality designation are parameters
to evaluate the quality of rock
• Subsoil exploration reports are prepared to communicate the
field findings to the planning and design office
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Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, SI, 9E Das/Sobhan

Planning for Soil Exploration

Planning for Soil Exploration

• Percussion drilling is useful for drilling through hard soil

Common Sampling Methods

Common Sampling Methods

Common Sampling Methods

• The number of blows needed to drive the sampler the last

Common Sampling Methods

• The field penetration number may be expressed in a

Common Sampling Methods

• Fairly undisturbed samples may be

Common Sampling Methods

• Piston samplers are

• The degree of disturbance of the sample can be expressed

• The sample can generally be considered undisturbed if the

Correlations for 𝑁60 in Cohesive Soil

• The consistency index is defined as:

Correlations for 𝑁60 in Cohesive Soil

Correlations for Standard Penetration

Other In Situ Tests

• In situ tests often give more representative results because

Borehole Pressuremeter Test

Cone Penetration Test

Cone Penetration Test

• The drained soil friction angle may be estimated for sand:

Cone Penetration Test

• Rock coring may be necessary

• Several quantities exist to evaluate the quality of rock:

Rock quality designation 𝑅𝑄𝐷

Soil Exploration Report

Soil Exploration Report

• The report should also include:

Soil Exploration Report

• The report should include the following presentations:

• Soil exploration planning involves compilation of existing

• Other in situ tests are vane shear test, pressuremeter test,

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