MARILYN T. RUBIO, Ph.D.

Lesson 6. Permutation Groups

6.1 Definition and Notation of Permutation
Definition: A permutation of a set A is a function ∅: 𝐴 → 𝐴 that is both one to one (injective) and onto
(surjective). Thus, the function is bijective. In a permutation on set A, the range and the domain of the
function are both the set A.
One to One means 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑏
Onto means every element of B is the image of at least one element of A under f.

So in a Permutation Group, we need functions and their inverses; also we need an identity
function.

Consider D4, (Dihedral Group which is denoted by Or, in cycle notation we can write:
Dn=D2n where the order is 2n) be the symmetry R90 = (1 2 3 4)
group of a square. We can represent this group as a and
permutation group in grid notation (array form) Fh= (1 2)(3 4)
or in cycle notation as follows.
3 2
Number the four corners of the square:
1,2,3,4 as shown on the left.

Then we can represent a 90 o counterclockwise

rotation as:

R90 = 1 2 3 4. OR (1234)
4 1
2341 What is the reflection across the vertical line?
and a reflection across the horizontal axis as:
Fv= 23)(41)
Fh= 1 2 3 4. OR (12) (34)
2143

Let S3 be the group of all one to one function Let’s consider the transformation of a triangle.
from the set {1, 2, 3} to itself. This is the same We call this S3. Permutation on S3 and the
as saying, all arrangements or permutations of Cayley’s Table
these three elements.

In general, Sn is the set of all permutations on

a set of size n, and the order of Sn is n!

The order of S3 = 3!= 3x2x1=6

 Exercises: B. Express this as a cycle notation
A. Express each permutation in an array or
grid form 𝜎 =12 34 567 𝜏=1 2 3 4 5 6 7
543 7 612 3 5 4 1 2 7 6
a. a=(145)(37)(682)
b. b= (71825)(36)(49) C. Provide a Cayley’s Table for D4
c. c=(17)(628) (9354) (group of symmetries of the square.
d. d=(12)(347)

6.2 Product and Composition of Permutation

Let A ={1,2,3,4,5} where 𝜎 ∈ 𝐴

𝜎 = (15423) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 −1 = (13245) 𝑜𝑟 (32451) 𝜎 = (15423) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎 −1 = (13245) 𝑜𝑟 (32451)

𝜎= 1 2 3 4 5 𝜎 −1 = 1 2 3 4 5 𝜎= 1 2 3 4 5 𝜎 −1 = 1 2 3 4 5
5 3 1 2 4 3 4 2 5 1 5 3 1 2 4 3 4 2 5 1

When you multiply

Take a look in 𝜎 and 𝜎 −1 , what do you notice? 𝜎 𝜎 −1 = 𝜎 −1 𝜎 = 𝑒
The 𝜎 −1 is just the reverse order of 𝜎
𝜎 𝜎 −1 = 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 = 1 2 3 4 5
5 3 1 2 4 3 4 2 5 1 1 2 3 4 5
Therefore, the reverse of the permutation is its inverse
because the resulting permutation is its identity.
`` Example:
Product of Permutation
𝑎= 1 2 3 4 𝑏= 1 2 3 4
In computing the product of permutation, write the 2 3 4 1 1 2 4 3
two array permutation and map it from left to right.
𝑎𝑏 = 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 = 1 2 3 4
Next we look at multiplying these matrices. We 2 3 4 1 1 2 4 3 2 4 3 1
will find 𝜎 𝜎 −1. To do this we will start with the
b permutation and then follow with a. (In some Find the inverse of f and g so the that product is an
books you may see this done in the reverse identity?
direction, a first then b. There are different
approaches to multiplying permutations here we Let A = {1,2,3,4,5}
will describe two of them.
𝑓 = 1 2 3 45 𝑔= 1 2 3 45
2 3 4 15 1 2 4 35

Exercises: Find the inverse of the permutation

a. (145)(37)(682) d. (17)(628) (9354

b. (71825)(36)(49) 123456789
c. (147)(1678)(74132) e.
492517683
 Guide to Multiply Permutation 1. So we begin with b, 1 goes to 6
where does 6 go in a, 6 is fixed so 6
Consider this example: goes to 6 so now we know our first
entry is 1 goes to 6.
Let a = (1,3,5,2) 2. Next back to b where does 6 go in b,
What does this mean? 6 goes to 3, where does 3 go to in a,
3 goes to 5, Now we have our next
It means 1 goes to3, 3 goes to 5, 5 goes 2, 2 goes to1, entry 6 goes to 5.
3. Next back to b where does 3 go in b,
and 4 and any other number is fixed. So we could 3 goes to 4, where does 4 go to in a,
write it like this 𝑎 = (
12345
) 4 is fixed in a therefore 3 goes to 4,
31542 Now we have our next entry 3 goes
to 4.
And b = (1,6,3,4) 4. Continue the same process
This says 1 goes to 6, 6 goes to 3, 3 goes 4 , 4 goes to 5. So our final ab is
1, and 2, 5 and any other fixed. So we could write is
this way: a = (1,3,5,2) b = (1,6,3,4)
123456 123456 123456
𝑏=( ) 𝑎𝑏 = ( )( )
624153 315426 624153
Next we look at multiplying these matrices. We
will find ab. To do this we will start with the b
permutation and then follow with a. (In some books 123456
you may see this done in the reverse direction, a first 𝑎𝑏 = ( )
614325
then b. There are different approaches to
multiplying permutations here we will describe two ab = (1, 2, 5, 6)(3, 4)
of them. So, when multiplying ab = (1,3,5,2)(1,6,3,4)

Exercises:
A. Compute each of the following products in S9
c. (147)(1678)(74132)
a. (145)(37)(682) d. (145) (78) (257)
b. (71825)(36)(49) e. (12) (478)(21)(72815)
B. Do as indicated in each number with the given: Compute for the following:
𝜎 =12 34 567 𝜏=1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. 𝜎 𝜏.
543 7 612 3 5 4 1 2 7 6
2. I𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜏
3. 𝜎𝜏 2

6.3 Transposition, Even and Odd Permutation

Transposition Examples of decomposition into 2-cycles:
Any permutation may also be written or
“decomposed” as a product of two-cycles. (12345) = (15)(14)(13)(12)
 This product would usually not be disjoint,
and it need not be unique.
The product of a cycle that can be formed into
cycle with 2 lengths that is called transposition. (1234) = (14)(13)(12)

Odd or Even Permutation

If a permutation can be written as an
even number of two cycles
(transposition), we say it is an even
permutation.
If a permutation can be written as an odd
number of two cycles (transposition), we
say it is an odd permutation.
Notice that (12345) is a cycle of length 5, and 5 is an
odd number – yet (12345) can be written as an even
number of two-cycles so it is an even permutation.
Also notice that, (1234), a cycle of length 4 is an odd
permutation because it can be written as an odd
number of two-cycles, even though 4 is an even
number.

Let’s consider the permutation in 𝑆6

It has five transpositions, so it is an odd permutation.
(1,4,5,6)(2,1,5) = (1,6)(1,5)(1,4)(2,5)(2,1) Thus, if the transposition is even then, it is an even
permutation.

Exercises:
Express each of the following as transpositions in S8 and tell whether it is an even or odd
permutation

a. (137428)
b. (416)(8235)
c. (123)(456)(1574)

6.4 Order of a Permutation

The order of the permutation of a finite set written in Example:
disjoint cycle form is the least common multiple of the 1. (1 2 3 4) has order 4
lengths of the cycle 2. (12) (3 4 5) has order l.c.m (2,3) = 6

Exercises:
a. What is the order of the cycle (1, 4, 5, 7) in S8?
b. What is the order of:
a = (4, 5), (2, 3, 7)
b = ( 1, 4) ( 3, 5, 7, 8)
c. Find the order of each permutation by looking at its decomposition into a product of disjoint cycle
12345678
( )
36418257

6.5 Orbits and Cycle

Orbits
If an element of 𝛼 moves around a fixed path, the
fixed path is called the orbit.
Consider the permutation below
Cycle
A permutation can be described by its orbits. When σ is a
permutation of a finite set A, we can use cycles to
visualize the orbits of σ.
Consider the permutation in 𝑆7 .
 𝛼= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 σ= 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 = (1,3,5,4)(2)(6,7)
3 8 6 7 4 1 5 2 3 2 5 1 4 7 6

In this permutation we see that If we map the elements in 𝛼, we get (1,3,5,4)(2)(6,7)

These are the cycles in 𝛼. We have 4 cycles, 1 cycle and 2
1→ 3 → 6 this is the orbit containing 1 cycles.
2→8 orbit containing 2
4→7→5 orbit containing 4

The 3 orbits of 𝛼 is (1,3,6), (2,8), and (4,7,5).

Disjoint Cycle We can also multiply this product of cycle into array
Let’s take another example
If two cycles are not disjoint, then we have,
(1,2,5,3)(4) = 1 2 3 4 5 𝑎 = (1,3,2) 𝑏 = (1,3)
2 5 1 4 3
𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = (1,3,2)(1,3) = (1,2)(3)
𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 = (1,3)(1,3,2) = (1)(2,3)

The multiplication of disjoint cycle is commutative so Example:

the order is not important
(1,4)(2,3,6) = 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 3 6 1 5 2

(2,3,6) (1,4) = 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 3 6 1 5 2

Exercises:
A. Find the orbits of the given permutation.
123456 12345678
1. ( ) 2. ( ) 3. 𝜎: 𝑍 → 𝑍 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎(𝑛) = 𝑛 + 2
513624 23514687
B. Write each of the following as the product of disjoint cycles:
A B C
123456789 123456789 123456789
492517683 749238165 795312486
C. In S , (12345)
5

1. Write five different ways as a cycle

2. Write five different ways as the product of transpositions.

6.5 The Alternating Groups

Alternating Group Consider 𝐴3
The subgroup of 𝑆𝑛 consisting of the even
permutations of n letters is the alternating group 𝐴𝑛 3! 6
𝐴3 has 2 = 2 = 3, so there are 3 alternating groups.
on n letters
The 3 alternating groups are:
𝑛!
𝐴𝑛 = for n>1 (1,2,3) = (1,2)(1,3)
2
 For any n, (1,3,2) = (1,3)(1,2)
the set of even permutations in Sn forms a
group, and a subgroup of S (2,3,1) = (2,3)(2,1)
n.
(2,1,3) = (2,1)(2,3)
This is because the inverse of an even
permutation is always even, the composition of (3,1,2) = (3,1)(3,2)
even cycles is always even, and the identity (3,2,1) = (3,2)(3,1)
can always be written as an even cycle.

This group is called An, the alternating group of When can you say that there is an alternating group?
degree n. When n ≠1, An is of order n!/ There is an alternating group if the transposition is even?
2

An Alternating group is a normal subgroup of the

permutation group

What is the order of the alternating group with 4 elements?

Assessment:
Read each question and explain in your own words.
1. What is permutation?
2. How do we write permutation?
3. What is the difference of orbit and cycle?
4. What is transposition?
5. Why is it that we need to get the transposition of the product of permutation?
6. What is an alternating groups?
7. How do we get the product of permutation?
8. How about the product of permutation using function composition?
9. What is the order of the permutation?
10. How to identify if the permutation is odd or even?
Lesson 7. Normal Subgroup, Cosets and Lagrange Theorem
7.1 Left and Right Cosets and Normal Subgroup
In ℤ12 what are the numbers generated by <3>? Observe that:
<3> = {0, 3, 6, 9}
= {1, 4, 7, 10} <3> = {0, 3, 6, 9}
= {2, 5, 8, 11} 1 + <3> = {1, 4, 7, 10}
2 + <3> = {2, 5, 8, 11}
This are called cosets
Cosets simply partition the group, dividing it into Notice that G=Z12 is H 1+H 2+H
even section. partitioned into 3 sections. 0 1 2
3 4 5
6 7 8
9 10 11
Definition Specifically,
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The subset H = { Multiplication
h1, h2, h3,…} will have a coset aH = { ah1, ah2, ah3, …}
aH = {ah│h ∈ H} Left Coset Ha = { h1a, h2a, h3a,…}
Ha = {ah│h ∈ H} Right Coset Addition
a + H = { a+h1, a+h2, a+h3, …}
H + a = { h1 + a, h2 + a, h3 + a,…}
Normal Subgroup Left Coset
The subgroup N of a group G is a normal subgroup if <3> = {0, 3, 6, 9} Right Coset
and only if every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N 1 + <3> = {1, 4, 7, 10} <3> = {0, 3, 6, 9}
in G. 2 + <3> = {2, 5, 8, 11} <3> + 1 = {1, 4, 7, 10}
Example: Let G=Z12 and Let H=<3> <3> + 2 = {2, 5, 8, 11}
SYMMETRIC GROUP S3 on three letters. Let H = {I, F1}
Let H be the subgroup of S3 = { I, F1} of S3
LEFT COSET
I R1 R2 F1 F2 F3 R1H ={R1I, R1F1}
I I R1 R2 F1 F2 F3 R2H ={R2I, R2F1} Right coset is not
R1 R1 R2 I F2 F3 F1 = {R1,F3} equal to right coset.
= {R1,F3}
R2 R2 I R1 F3 F1 F2 Thus, H in S3 is not
F1 F1 F3 F2 I R2 R1 RIGHT COSET a Normal Subgroup.
F2 F2 F1 F3 R1 I R2 H R1 ={ I R1, F1 R1}
H R2 ={P0 R2, F1 R2}
F3 F3 F2 F1 R2 R1 I = {R1,F2}
= {R2,F3}

7.2 Lagrange’s Theorem

Definition:
Theorem: Let G be a finite group and let H be a
subgroup of G. Then, the order of h divides the order
of G.
The order of G = |G|= # of elements in G
Lagrange’s Theorem
𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 → |𝐻|𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝐺|
If 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 → |𝐻|𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 |𝐺|
Claim: g1H and g2H have no element in common
Let’s assume that there is a common element in g1H
and g2H, then g1h1=g2h2 for some hi and hj in H.
Thus,
Proof: If G is a finite group, then |G|=n
Case 1 {e}≤ G and |{e}|=1 and 1 divides n. TRUE
Case 2 G ≤ G and |G|=n and n divides n. TRUE Case 3 H ≤
G and H is not {e}
Let g1  G not in H
g1H ={g1h for all h  H}
Claim that H and g1H have no element in common and also
with g1H and g2H.
Suppose there is an element in common in g1H and g2H
Definition: Index in G of H
Let H be a subgroup of G. The number of left(right) cosets of H in G
is called the index in G of H denoted by: 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = |G: H

𝑔1 . ℎ𝑖 = 𝑔2. ℎ𝑗 .
 𝑔1 ℎ𝑖 (ℎ𝑗−1 ) = 𝑔2. ℎ𝑗 (ℎ𝑗−1)
𝑔1ℎ𝑖 (ℎ𝑗−1) = 𝑔2. 𝑒
𝑔1ℎ𝑘 = 𝑔2
𝑔1ℎ𝑘 ∈ 𝑔1 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑔2 ∈ 𝑔1 𝐻

But , 𝑔2 ∉ 𝑔1 𝐻 , thus, it is a contradiction.

Assessment
A. Let us consider Z . We know that every divisor of n generates a subgroup of Z . Find the number of subgroups in the ff:
n n
a. z b. z c. z d. z
• 8 12 15 24
B. From exercise 1, obtain a formula to find the or the number of proper subgroups of Z
n
C. Given Z8
a. Find the subgroup generated by <6>.
b. Give the left and right cosets.
c. Verify if the order of H divides the order of G.
d. Find the index of <6> in Z8
Lesson 8. Direct Product and Finitely Generated Abelian Groups
Direct product
One purpose of this topic is to show a way to use known groups as a building block to form more
groups.
Definition. The Cartesian Product of sets is the set of all ordered n- Theorem. Let G1,G2, …Gn be groups. For (a1,a2,…an) and
tuples (a1,a2,…an) where ai is an element Si fo i=1,2,3…n. The (b1,b2,…bn). Then ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝐺 . Group, the direct product of the groups
cartesian product is denoted by either Gi under this binary operation.
𝑛
Theorem. The group Zm x Zn is isomorphic to Zmn iff m
𝑆1 x𝑆2 x𝑆3 x𝑆𝑛 = ∏ 𝑆𝑖 and n are relatively prime, that is (m,n) = 1.
𝑖=1

Application of the Theorem Do This!

List the elements on the group of Z2 x Z3 and determine
whether it is cyclic. Determine whether Z3 x Z3 is cyclic
Z2= {0,1}. Z3 ={0,1,2}
Z2 x Z3= { (0,0), (0,1), (0,2),(1,0),(1,1), (1,2)} isomorphic to Z9
Here we can check that (1,1) is a generator
(1,1) = (1,1)
There is no generator and is not
(1,1) + (1,1)= (2,2)=(0,2)
(1,1) + (1,1) + (1,1)= (3,3) = (1, 0) What about Z3 x Z3
(1,1) + (1,1) +(1,1) + (1,1) = (4,4)= (0, 1)
(1,1) + (1,1) +(1,1) + (1,1)+( 1,1) = (5,5)= (1, 2)
(1,1) + (1,1) +(1,1) + (1,1)+( 1,1) +(1,1)= (6,6)= (0,0) Not cyclic not isomorphic to Z4
Hence, Z2 x Z3 is cyclic and is isomorphic to Z6.
And there is, up to isomorphism, only one cyclic group structure of a
given order.

Find the order of each element of the direct product * 7(3, 4) = ( 2, 0) + (3 , 4)= ( 5,4)
8(3, 4) = ( 5, 4) + (3 , 4)= ( 0,8)
(3, 4) in Z4 x Z12 9(3, 4) = ( 0, 8) + (3 , 4)= ( 3,0)
(3, 4) = ( 3, 4) 10(3, 4) = ( 3, 0) + (3 , 4)=(2,4)
2(3, 4) = ( 3, 4) + (3 , 4)= (2,8) 11(3, 4) = ( 2, 4) + (3 , 4)=(1,8)
3(3, 4) = ( 2, 8) + (3 , 4)= (1,0) 12(3, 4) = ( 1, 8) + (3 , 4)=(0,0)
4(3, 4) = ( 1, 0) + (3 , 4)= ( 0,4)
5(3, 4) = ( 0, 4) + (3 , 4)= ( 3,8) |<(3,4)>| = 12
6(3, 4) = ( 3, 8) + (3 , 4)= ( 2,0)

Theorem. Every finitely generated abelian group G is 3. Find the largest order of all the cyclic subgroup.
isomorphic to direct product of cyclic group in the
form

Pi are distinct primes

Application of the Theorem
In Z6 x Z8,
1. Find all the subgroups.
2. Find all the cyclic subgroups

Finding an Abelian Group up to Isomorphism of order n

To find (up to isomorphism) all abelian groups of order into its prime factorization.
Example: 360 = 23 32. .5. The possible factorizations of 2 3 are (8), (2, 4), (2, 2, 2) whereas for 32,
they are are (32), (3,3). We then have that (up to isomorphism) the abelian groups of order
360are:
1. Z2 x Z2 x Z2 x Z3 x Z3 x Z5 5. Z8 x Z3 x Z3 x Z5
2. Z2 x Z2 x Z2 x Z9 x Z5 6. Z8 x Z9 x Z5
3. Z2 x Z4 x Z3 x Z3 x Z5
 4. Z2 x Z4 x Z9 x Z5 Thus, there are six different abelian groups up to
isomorphism of order 360.
Assessment:
A.Find the order of the given element of the direct product.
1. (2,6 ) in Z4 x Z12
2. (8,10) in Z12 x Z18
3. (2,8) in Z6 x Z15?
4. ( 4, 5) in Z6 x Z7.
B. In Z3 x Z4,
1. List all the elements 3. Find all the subgroups and its order. S
2. Find all the cyclic subgroups 4. Find the largest order of all the cyclic subgroup
C. Find the subgroup generate by given subset of the group. The find the left cosets of the subgroup.
1. (2,3) in Z12
D. Find all abelian group up to isomorphism of order 216.
Lesson 9. Homomorphisms , Isomorphism and Automorphism

Review Concepts:
FUNCTION- rule or set of
rules that translates every
element of some group A into
an element of another group
B.

ONTO- a function such that

every element in B is mapped
by some element in A.

9.1 HOMOMORPHISM
Illustration:

Definition: A homomorphism domain range

G H
𝐟: 𝑮 → 𝑯 is a transformation
from an algebraic structure a f(a)
(G, *) to an algebraic structure b
(H, #) such that, 𝐟(𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) = f(b)

𝐟(𝐚)#𝐟(𝐛) for all a and b in G.

a* b f(a) # f(b)

Operation: * Operation: #

Example: Consider 𝐟: (R, +)→ (R+, x) be
defined by 𝐟(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 . We need to show if the
function 𝚽 is a homomorphism.
Proof:
If it is a homomorphism, it follows that,
𝐟(𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚)#𝚽(𝐛)
Let a and b be element in R.
𝒆𝐚+𝐛 = 𝒆𝒂 ∙ 𝒆𝒃 by properties of exponent
𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚) ∗ 𝐟(𝐛) for f(x)=ex
Therefore, f is a homomorphism
Non-Example let 𝚽: (R+, +)→ (R,+) be
defined by: 𝚽(x) = log(x).
𝐟(𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚)#𝐟(𝐛)
Let x and y be in (R+, +). Then,
𝚽 (x+y) = log(x +y)
log(x +y) ≠ log(x) + log(y).
Here, 𝚽 is not a homomorphism.
However, if we change the domain to (R+, x),
then:
𝚽(xy) = log(xy) = log(x) + log(y), and the same
𝚽 is now a homomorphism.
 Let f: Z2 x Z4 → Z2 be defined by f(x, y)=x for
all x which is an element in Z2, y which is an
element in Z4. Is f a homomorphism?
Solution: we can check that for all (x1, y1), (x2,
y2) is an element of Z2 x Z4,
f((x1, y1)+(x2, y2) )= x1+ x2= f(x1, y1)+ f(x2,
y2).
So f is a homomorphism.

9.2 ISOMORPHISM
Definition: An Isomorphism𝐟: 𝑮 → 𝑯 is a transformation that homomorphism that is bijective (one-to-
one and onto). Thus,
(G, *) to an algebraic structure (H, #) such that, 𝐟(𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚)#𝐟(𝐛) for all a and b in G, and
One

Therefore, 𝑮 ≅ 𝑯 reads as “ G is isomorphic to H

Proving Homomorphic and Isomorphic

1. Find a mapping between the two groups.
2. Prove the mapping preserves the operations (homomorphism)
3. Show it is an isomorphism
a. One-to-one
b. Onto

Example: Consider 𝐟: (< 𝒁𝟔 , +>, +)→ 𝐟(𝟑) = 𝐟(𝟏) • 𝐟(𝟐)

<𝒁𝟕 . −{𝟎},•> be defined by 𝐟(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙 . We 𝟔= 𝟑•𝟐
need to show if the function f is a 𝟔=𝟔
homomorphism. 1. Prove that the mapping is preserved.
𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚) • 𝐟(𝐛)
1. Mapping: 𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝟑𝒂 • 𝟑𝒃
𝟑𝒂+𝒃 = 𝟑𝒂+𝒃
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 2. Show that it is one-to-one and onto as
f(x) 1 3 2 6 4 5 shown in the table. The domain x is
mapped to range f(x) and all of the
Let a=1 b=2 elements in the range f(x) is mapped
𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚) • 𝐟(𝐛) with the elements in the domain X.
𝐟(𝟏 + 𝟐) = 𝐟(𝟏) • 𝐟(𝟐)

9.3 AUTOMORPHISM
Definition: An Automorphisms is a homomorphism that maps a function G to itself. Thus,
𝐟: 𝑮 → 𝑮.
 Example: Consider 𝐟: (< 𝒁, +>, +)→ <𝒁, +> 𝐟(𝟑) = 𝐟(𝟏) + (𝟐)
be defined by 𝐟(𝒙) = 𝒙 . We need to show if the 𝟑= 𝟏+𝟐
function f is a homomorphism. 𝟑=𝟑
Prove that the mapping is preserved
1. Mapping: (Homormorphism)
𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚) + 𝐟(𝐛)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐚 + 𝒃
f(x) 0 1 2 3 4 5 𝐚+𝐛= 𝐚+𝐛

Let a=1 b=2

𝐟(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝐟(𝐚) + 𝐟(𝐛)
𝐟(𝟏 + 𝟐) = 𝐟(𝟏) + 𝐟(𝟐)

KERNEL
Definition: The Kernel of ∅ in ∅: 𝑮 → 𝑯 be Illustration:
kernel
a group of homomorphism. The Kernel is DOMAIN
a identity in
the set of elements in G that maps with the d
RANGE
range
P
identity element e in the range. Thus, b
Q
e
R
∅−𝟏 {∅(𝒂)} = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑮|∅(𝒙) = ∅(𝒂)} c
f

Assessment:
A. Show if the function given is a homomorphism or not.
1. Let ∅: 𝒁 → 𝑹 under addition be given by ∅(𝒏) = 𝒏.
2. Let ∅: 𝑹∗ → 𝑹∗ under addition be given by ∅(𝒙) = |𝒙|.
3. Let 𝒇: 𝒁𝟗 → 𝒁𝟐 under addition be given by 𝒇(𝒙) = the remainder of x when
divided by 2, as in division algorithm.
4. Let 𝒓 ∈ 𝒁 and let 𝒇: 𝒁 → 𝒁 be defined by 𝒇(𝒏) = 𝒓𝒏 for all 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁n Z. Is this
a homomorphism?
5. Let f: (Z,+)→ (Z,+) be defined by : f(x) = 2x, i.e. f sends every x in the
domain to an even number 2x in the range. Is this a homomorphism?

B. Compute the indicated quantities for the given homomorphism.

1. Ker (∅)𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∅(𝟐𝟓)𝒇𝒐𝒓 ∅: 𝒁 → 𝒁𝟕 such that ∅(𝟏) = 𝟒
2. Ker (∅)𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∅(𝟐𝟎)𝒇𝒐𝒓 ∅: 𝒁 → 𝒁𝟖 such that ∅(𝟏) = (𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟐, 𝟔)(𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟕)
Lesson 10. Rings
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define Rings and Fields
2. Differentiate Rings and fields;
3. Determine what properties to be satisfied in rings and fields;
4. Verify if the given set is a ring or field.
ACTIVITY 1. Examine the properties that are satisfied for a set to be a ring and make a
generalization to formulate your definition of a ring.

Properties
Z= {…,-2,- Q={a/b| a and B 𝑀2𝑥2 where
1,0,1,2,…} are element of elements is in R 𝑍[𝑥] Polynomial
set of all integer Z} with integer
(Z,+,·) (Q,+,·) coefficient

Addition
1. Closure
satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
property
2. Existence of satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
Identity
3. Existence of satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
Inverse
4. Associative satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
5. Commutative satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
Generalization Abelian group Abelian group Abelian group Abelian group under
under addition under addition under addition addition
Multiplication
1. Closure
satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
property
2. Existence of May or may no May or may no be
satisfied satisfied
Identity be satisfied satisfied
3. Existence of May or may no May or may no be
Not satisfied Not satisfied
Inverse be satisfied satisfied
4. Associative satisfied satisfied satisfied satisfied
5. Commutative satisfied satisfied Not satisfied Not satisfied
Generalization Not a group under Not a group under Not a group under Not a group under
multiplication multiplication multiplication multiplication
Based on activity, write the properties to be satisfied for a set of elements to be a ring.
Properties to be sat
isfied:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________.

ACQUIRE: Formulate the definition of a Ring with emphasis on the properties to be satisfied.

Definition: a ring R is a set with two binary operations, denoted by + and x (called addition and
multiplication) satisfying the following properties or axioms:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group
2. Multiplication must be:
a. Commutative: ab=ba
b. Associative: (ab)c= a(bc)
c. contains identity element denoted by 1.
3. Distributive property of multiplication over addition
a. (a+b) c = ac+bc

APPLY: Proving: Use the properties that you have identified to verify whether the given set is a ring
or not. Show your proof. Provide conditions or exceptions if there are.

A. The set of real number under addition. 𝐺 = (𝑅, +, 𝑥)

Addition Multiplication
Properties 𝐺 = (𝑅, +) 𝐺 = (𝑅, 𝑥)
Proof: Proof:
Let a,b and c be an element in R Let a,b and c be an element in R
1. Closure a + b = c wehre c is an element in R. Closure property
property therefore addition of real is closed. a x b = c, where c is a real n umber.
Meaning that, real number plus a real Therefore, R is closed under
number gives an answer of a real multiplication. Meaning that, real
number number times real number the result
Therefore, closure property is is a real number
satisfied
2. Existence of If a + I = a, where I is the identity If a x I = a, where I is the identity
Identity Then I = a-a=0, where 0 exist in R. Then I = a/a= 1, where 1 exist in R.
Therefore Identity exists in R Therefore Identity exists in R

3. Existence of If a + a-1= I where a-1 in the inverse If a x a-1= I where a-1 in the inverse
Inverse of a of a
Then a-1=0-a = -a, since I=0 Then a-1=1/a = since I=1
Therefore, a-1 for all a in R exists. Threfore, a-1 = 1/a exist for all a in R
 Therefore, Inverse property is Therefore, Inverse property is
satisfied satisfied
However, is a=0, then 0 doesn’t have
an inverse.
4. Associative If (a+b) + c= a + (b+c) If (axb) x c= a x (bxc)
Then a+b +c = a + b+ c Then a x b x c = a x b x c
Addition of real numbers is Multiplication of real numbers is
associative. associative.
Therefore, Associative property is Therefore, Associative property is
satisfied satisfied

5. Commutative If a+b = b + a If a x b = b x a
Addition of real number is Multiplication of real number is
commutative. commutative.
Therefore, commutative property is Therefore, commutative property is
satisfied. satisfied.

Generalization Group under addition and it is an abelian Group under multiplication if zero is
group (commutative group) excluded.

To Prove that the set G which is the set of all real n umbers is a ring denoted by 𝐺 = (𝑅, +, 𝑥 ). We need
to show that the following axioms are satisfied:
ed by + and x (called addition and multiplication) satisfying the following properties or axioms:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group: yes, it is an abelian group under addition.
2. Multiplication must be:
a. Commutative: ab=ba : yes, multiplication is commutative
b. Associative: (ab)c= a(bc): yes, multiplication is associative
c. contains identity element denoted by 1. Yes the identity exist and it is 1.
3. Distributive property of multiplication over addition
a. (a+b) c = ac+bc: yes, distributive property is satisfied. Since this property is true to real.
Numbers.

ASSESS: Prove whether the given set is a ring or not

𝑧1 𝑧2
1. 𝑀 = {[−𝑧̅ ]: 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐶)}.
2 𝑧̅1
2. 𝑅 = {𝑍5 = (0,1,2,3,4)}.
3. 𝑅 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖|𝑎, 𝑑,  𝑍}
4. 𝑅 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√2|𝑎, 𝑑,  𝑍}