Unit 2-Part I:MATTER AND ENERGY CHEMISTRY KEYWORDS

Chemistry - study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.

- can be classified as substance, mixtures, elements and compounds

- commonly found in three different states: solid, liquid, and gas.

A substance is a sample of matter whose physical and chemical properties are the same throughout the
sample because the matter has a constant composition.

element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.

Compound is composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.

mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain

their distinct identities.

physical property: Any characteristic that can be determined without changing

the substance’s chemical identity.

Example: Color, Melting point, Boiling point

chemical property: Any characteristic that can be determined only by changing a

substance’s molecular structure. (Reactivity, acidity)

intensive property: Any characteristic of matter that does not depend on the amount of the substance
present.

(density, taste, odor and color)

extensive property: Any characteristic of matter that depends on the amount of matter being
measured. (mass, length and volume)

Physical changes only change the appearance of a substance, not its chemical

composition.

Chemical changes cause a substance to change into an entirely new substance

with a new chemical formula.

Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions. The “ingredients” of areaction are called
reactants, and the end results are called products.

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Combination Reaction

A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product is

known as a combination reaction.

It takes the form of X + Y → XY

EX. 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

2. Decomposition Reaction

A reaction in which a single compound breaks into two or more simpler

compounds is known as a decomposition reaction.

It takes the form of XY → X + Y

3. Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive

element from its aqueous salt solution.

It takes the form X + YZ → XZ + Y

It is also called a substitution reaction

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

4. Double Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which ions gets exchanged between two reactants which

form a new compound is called a double displacement reaction.

It takes the form of XY + ZA → XZ + YA

It is also called a metathesis reaction

BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

5. Neutralization Reaction

HCL+NAOH → H2O+NACL

6. Combustion Reaction – reaction of elements and compounds with oxygen.

C2H4+O2 → CO2H2O(limited/division/destribution)

C2H4+O2 → COH2O(excess)

Stoichiometry is an integral part of chemistry that involves the relationship between product and

reactants in a chemical reaction and other words.

means the measurement of elements

Limiting and Excess Reactant

Limiting Reactant

The limiting reactant or limiting reagent is the first reactant to get used up in a chemical

reaction.

Once the limiting reactant gets used up, the reaction has to stop and cannot continue and

there is extra of the other reactants left over. Those are called the excess reactants.
UNIT 2: MATTER AND ENERGY
PART II: Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions exhibits the two fundamental laws:

- the law of conservation of mass

- law of conservation of energy: the total quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant.
ENERGY

Energy - defined as the capacity to do work.

Energy, unlike matter, cannot be seen, touched, smelled,or weighed but all of its for are capable of
doing work.

Chemists define work as directed energy change resulting from a process.

There are different forms of energy namely: kinetic energy, thermal energy, chemical energy and
potential energy. All forms of energy can be transformed from one form to another.

Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperatures.
(absorbed or released)

Thermochemistry is the study of heat change in chemical reactions.

System - the specific part of the universe that is of interest to us.

Surroundings - the rest of the universe outside the system.

Open system (control volume) - Type of system that allows transfer of both matter and energy.

Closed system (control mass) – type of system that allows exchange of energy only; consists of a fixed
amount of mass while its volume does not have to be fixed.

Isolated system – type of system that allows neither transfer of matter nor

energy.

FORMULA OF FIRST LAW

OF THERMODYNAMICS

E= Internal Energy

Q=Heat Transfer

W-Work

E2-E1=Q-W
Heat (q) – form of energy transferred from one body to another by virtue of a

temperature difference.

Exothermic Process – process that results to the release of energy in the form

of heat to the surroundings.

Endothermic Process – process that results to the absorption of energy in the

form of heat from the surroundings.

Calorimetry is the measurement of heat changes.

q = C ΔT = C ( Tf - Ti )

q= the heat C= the heat capacity Tf= the final temperature Ti= the initial temperature

Specific Heat Capacity

HEAT FORMULA : q=msΔT=ms(Tfinal−Tinitial)

Calorimetry is the science or act of measuring changes in state variables of a body for the purpose of
deriving the heat transfer associated with changes of its state due, for example,to chemical reactions,
physical changes, or phase transitions under specified constraints.
 Phase Changes Phase transitions play an important theoretical and practical role in the study of
heat flow.

In melting (or “fusion”), a solid turns into a liquid; the opposite process is freezing. In

evaporation, a liquid turns into a gas; the opposite process is condensation.

Latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state (phase)
that occurs without changing its temperature.

The latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of fusion;that
associated with vaporizing a liquid or a solid or condensing a vapour is called the heat of vaporization.

The latent heat of fusion is the heat required to change the solid from solid to

liquid state without any change in temperature.

Latent heat of vaporization is the heat required to change the liquid from

liquid to vapor state without any change in temperature.

Enthalpy is sometimes known as “heat content”, but “enthalpy” is an interesting and unusual word, so
most people like to use it.

“enthalpy” is derived from the Greek meaning “warming”

When a process takes place at constant pressure, the heat absorbed or released is

equal to the Enthalpy change.

Enthalpy(H) is the sum of the internal energy(U) and the product of pressure(P) and

volume(V).
STATE OR POINT FUNCTIONS these are functions that depend on the current state of the system and not
on how the system reaches that state

PATH FUNCTIONS Functions that depend on the path followed during the process
SPONTANEITY

ENTROPY

The concept of entropy basically talks about the spontaneous changes that occur in the everyday
phenomenon or the tendency of the universe towards disorder.

Entropy is used to describe the behavior of a system in terms of thermodynamic properties such as
temperature, pressure, entropy, and heat capacity.

The greater disorder will be seen in an isolated system, hence entropy also increases. When chemical
reactions take place if reactants break into more number of products, entropy also gets increased.

A system at higher temperatures has greater randomness than a system at a lower temperature. From
these examples, it is clear that entropy increases with a decrease in regularity.

Entropy order: gas>liquid>solids

ENTROPY CHANGES AND CALCULATIONS

Thermodynamics?
The branch which deals with the movement of energy from one form to the other and the relation
between heat and temperature with energy and work done

In other terms we can define thermodynamics as the science stream that deals with the study of the
combined effects of heat and work on the changes of state of matter confined by the laws of
thermodynamics.

Chemical Thermodynamics

Chemical thermodynamics is the study of relation between work, heat and chemical reactions or with
the physical changes of the state which are confined to the laws of thermodynamics.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Kelvin) stated the First Law – which preserves total energy –

First law of thermodynamics: When energy moves into or out of a system, the system’s internal energy
changes in accordance with the law of conservation of mass.

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one

form to another.”

∆U (universe) = ∆U (system) + ∆U (surr) = 0

Second Law of Thermodynamics
Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson (Kelvin) stated the Second Law of Thermodynamics around 1850.

Initially, the Second Law was conceived in terms of the fact that heat does not flow from a cooler body
to a hotter one naturally.

Second law of thermodynamics: The state of the entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system,
will always increase over time.

“The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an
equilibrium process.”

GIBB’S FREE ENERGY

If the reaction is carried out under constant temperature{ΔT=O}
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at a temperature
of zero Kelvin (absolute zero) is equal to zero.
At a temperature of zero Kelvin, the following phenomena can be observed in a closed system:
The system does not contain any heat. All the atoms and molecules in the system are at their
lowest energy points. Therefore, a system at absolute zero has only one accessible microstate –
it’s groundstate. As per the third law of thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system is
exactly zero.
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
Electrochemical energy is defined as “the energy which converts electrical energy to chemical
energy and vice versa.”
The electrochemical energy is related to fuel cells, photo electrochemical, and energy storage
systems such as batteries, super capacitors or ultra-capacitors.
This movement of electrons is called electricity, which can be generated by movements of
electrons from one element to another in a reaction known as anoxidation-reduction ("redox")
reaction.
Electrochemical processes are REDOX reactions in which the energyreleased by a spontaneous
reaction is converted to electricity or in which electricity is used to drive a nonspontaneous
chemical reaction.

REDOX REACTION
is a reaction that involves a change in oxidation state of one or more elements.
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Galvanic cells
driven by a spontaneous chemical reaction that produces an electric current through an outside
circuit.
transforms the energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy that can
be used to perform work.
The voltage across the electrodes of a galvanic cell is called the cell voltage, or cell potential.
electromotive force or emf (E).
The conventional notation for representing galvanic cells is the cell diagram.
CELL POTENTIAL AND SPONTANEITY

Ecell - potential difference that is called the cell potential (or EMF for electromotive
force, although it is not really a force)
ELECTROCHEM AND GIBB’S FREE ENERGY

For a spontaneous reaction, Ecell is positive and ΔG (Gibbs free energy, used to determine if a
reaction occurs spontaneously) is negative. Thus, when ΔG is negative the reaction is
spontaneous.