‘earo019 Cognitive Development - stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems Chis Heat (1. 1 Cdextin {Copii Deve Cognitive development (Gs) reece Conn (Definition Cognitive development isthe construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence (./A/Adolescence.html) 1 adulthood, (Description Iwas once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and romained without cognition until they earned language. tis now known that babies are aware of ther surrouncings and interested in exploration from the time tiey are bom. From bith, babies begin to actively learn, Thay gather, sort, and process information ror around them, using the data to develop perception ane thinking sls Cognitive development refers to how a person percsives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among he areas of cognitive development are information processing, intelligence (.-K/inteligence.html) , reasoning, language ‘development (./L/Language-Development html) , and memory Historically the cognitive development of chldran has bean studied ina variety of ways. The oldests through intaligence tests, such asthe widely used Stanford Binet Intetigence Quotient (IQ) tes frst adopted for use in the United Slates by psychologist Lewis Terman (1877-1956) in 1916 froma French model pioneered in 1905. 10 scaring is based on the concept of ‘mental age” according fo which the scores of a child of average intaligence match his or her age, while a gited child's performance 's comparable to that of an older chile, and a slow leamer’s scores are similar to those of & younger chil, IQ tests are widely used in the United States, but they have come under increasing criticism for defining intellgence too narrowly and for being biased with regard to race and gender. In contrast to the emphasis placod on a child's native ables by inteligence testing, learning theory grow out of work by behaviorist, (iknowtedge/Behaviorism. htm) researchers such as John Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (nowledge'®_F_Skinner:niml) (19041990), who argued that children are completely malleable. Leaming theory focuses on the role of environmental factors in shaping the intelligence of children, ‘especialy on a chi’ ablly to lear by having certain behaviors rewarded and others discouraged Piaget's theory of cognitive development The most wel-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of French psychologist Jean Pagel (186-1980). Piaget's theory, fist published in 1952, grow out of decades of extensive observation of children, including his own, in thoi natural onviranmonts as opposed to the laboratory experiments ofthe behaviors, Although Piaget was inerested in how children reacted to thelr environment, he proposed a more active role for them than that suggestea by learring theory. He envisioned a child's knowledge as composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used fo ‘organize past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones. hitp:wawheathotchildren.com/CiCognitive-Development html wr‘earo019 Cognitive Development -stages, meaning, average, Denton, Description, Common problems ‘Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary processes that Paget termed assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to ‘he process of taking in new information by incorporating it into an existing schema, In ather words, people assimilate new experiences by relating ‘hem to things they already know. On the other hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema itself changes to accommodate new knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves an ongoing attempt to achieve a balance between assimilation and accommodation that he tormod equilbration [At the center of Piage's theory is the principe that cognitive development occur in a series of four distinct, universal stages, each charactrized by increasingly sophisticated and abstract levels of thought. These stages alvays occurin the same order, and each bulds on what was leamed in the previous stage. They are as fllows: ‘+ Sonsorimotor stage Infancy} In tis period, which has si sub-stages,inloligence is demonstrated through motor actly without the use of ‘symbols. Knowledge ofthe wore i ited, but developing, because i 's based on physical interactions (nowledgo/Fundamental interaction hin!) and experiences. Children acquire abject pormanonce at about seven months of age (memory). Physical cevelopment(mobity) allows the chid to begin developing new intelectual abilties. Some symbole (language) ables are developed atthe and o thi stage. + Pre-operaional stage (Ioddlerhood and early childhood): In this perio, which has two sub stages intligence is demonstrated thraugh the use ‘of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, bu thinking fs dane in @ norogical, noneversible manner. Egocentic thinking predominates. + Concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence): In this stage, characterized by saven types of conservation (number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, and volume), inelhgence is demonstrated through logical ane systematic manipulation of symbols elated to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible), Egocentic thought diminishes, + Formal operational stage (adolescence and aduthood): In this stage, inteligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Ealy in the period there isa return to egocentric thought. Only 36 percent of high school graduates in industrialized counties (knowledge’Developed_country.himl) obtain formal operations; many people do no hink formally during adulthood ‘The most significant altemative to the work of Piaget has been the information-processing approach, which uses the computer as a model o provide new insight into how the human mind recsives, stores, retrieves, and uses information. Researchers using informaton-processing theory (iknouledgelinformation_processing_teory.html) to study cognitive development in children have focused on areas such asthe gradu improvements in chilren's ably to take in information and focus selecvely on certain pats of it and their increasing attention spans and capacity for memory storage. For example, researchers have found thatthe superior memory skils of older children are due in pat to memorization strategies, such as repeating itoms in order to memorize them or dvisng them into categorie, Infancy [As soon as they are bor, infants begin lsaring to use their senses to explore the world around them. Most newboms can focus on ang follow moving ‘objects, distinguish the pitch and volume of sound, 56 all colors and distinguish their hue and brightness, and stat antcipating events, such as ‘sucking atthe sight ofa nipple. By three months ol, infants can recognize faces; imitate the facial expressions of others, such as smiling and frowning, and respond to familar sounds. At sic months of ag babies are just begining fa understand how the world araund them works. They imitate sounds, enjoy hearing their own voice, recognize parents, fear (./E-F/Fear html) strangers, distinguish between animate and inanimate objects, and base distance on the size ofan objec. “They also realize that hey drop an object, they can pickt up again. AL four to seven months, bables can recognize their names. By rine months. infants can imitate gestures and actions, experiment with the physical properties of objects. understand simple words such as "no," and understand that an object sil exists even when they cannot see i They also begin to test parenal responses to their behavior, such as throwing {food on the floor. They remember the reaction and test the parents again to see if they get the same reaction [At 12 months of age, babies can follow a fast moving object can speak two to fours word, including "mama" 1nd "papa; imitate animal sounds; ‘associate names with objects; develop atachments to objects, such as a toy or blanket; and experience separation anxiety (./SISeparation- ‘Anxity.html) when away from thelr parents, By 18 months of age, babies are able to understand about 10-50 words; Identify body pats; feel a sense ‘of ownership by using the word "my/ with cern people of objects; and can follow directions that involve two cifferent tasks, such a picking up toys. (£11Feys.html) and puting them in a box Toddlerhood Between 18 months to three years of age, toddlers have reached the "sensorimotor stage of Paget's theary of cognitive development that involves rudimentary thought. For instance, they understane the permanence of objects and people, visualy follow the displacement of objects, and begin to tse instruments anc tools. Toddlers start o strive for more independence, which can present challenges to parents concemed for their safety (.18iSafety:ntmi). They also understand discipline (./D/Discipline.html) and what behaviors appropriate and inappropriate, and they understand the concepts of words ike "pleaso" and "hank you" “Two-year-olds should be able to understand 100 to 150 words and start adding about ten new words per day. Toddlers also have a better understanding of emotions, such as love, rust, and fear. They Begin to understand some ofthe ordinary aspects of everyday Iie, such as shopping for food, tling ime, and being read to. Preschool Preschoolers, ages three to six, shauld be a the “preoperationa’ stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory, meaning they are using thelr imagery ‘and memory skis. They should be conditioned to learning and memarizing, and their view ofthe world is normally very self-centered. Preschoolers «usually have also developed ther social interaction skits, such as playing and cooperating with other children ther own age. Itis normal for preschoolers to test the limits oftheir cognitve abilites, and they learn negative concepts and actions, such as talking back to aduts, ying (iLuLying html), and bulying. Other cognitive development in preschoolers are developing an increased attention span, learning to read, and developing structured routines, such as doing household chores. School age itp: heathotchildren.com/CiCognitive-Devalopment html an‘earo019 Cognitive Development -stages, meaning, average, Denton, Description, Common problems ‘Younger schoo-age children, six to 12 years old, shouldbe al the “concrete operations” stage of Paget's cognitive development theory, characterized by the ability to use logical and coherent actions in thinking and solving problems. They understand the concepts of permanence and conservation by learning that volume, weight, and numbers may remain constant despite changes in outward appearance. These children should be able to build on past experiences, using ther to explain why some things happen, Their attention span should increase with age, from being able to focus on a task for about 15 minutes al ago six to an hour by age nine. ‘Adolescents, ages 12 through 18, should be atthe “formal operations" stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory. Is characterized by an increased independence for thinking through problems and situations. Adolascants should ba able to understand pure abstractions, such as philosophy and higher math concepts. During tis age, children should be able to leam and apply general information needed to adapt to spsctic Situations. They should also be able to learn specific information ane skills necessary for an occupation. A major component ofthe passage through ‘adolescence is a cognitive transition. Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, ana generally more ‘complex. This abilty can be seen in five ways, First, curing adolescence individuals become beter able than chien fo think about what is possible, instead of limiting thelr thought to whats real ‘Whereas children's thinking is oriented tothe hera and now—that is, o things and events that they can observe directh-adolascents are able to consider wnat they observe agains! a backdrop of whalis possible; they can thik hypotheticaly. ‘Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals become better abe to think about abstract ideas. For example, adolescents find it easier than children to comprehend the sorts of higher-order, abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. The adolescent's greator facity with abstract thinking also permits the application of advanced reasoning anc logical processes to social and ideological matter. Ths is clearly ‘sven in the adolescent's increased facily and interest in thinking about interpersonal retatonships, polis, philosophy, religion, and morally ‘Thire, during adolescence individuals begin thinking more often about the process of thinking itself, or metacogniton. As a resull, adolescents may clsplay increased introspection and self-consciousness. Afhough improvements in metacogniive (Kknowledge/Metacogntion hm) abilties provide important intellectual advantages, one potentally negative byproduct ofthese advances isthe tendency for adolescents to develop a sort of ‘egocentrism, or intense preoccupation wit the sel ‘A fourth change in cognition is tha thinking tends ta become mulidimensional, rather than limited toa single issue. Whereas children tend to think ‘about things one aspect at atime, adolescents can see things through more complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and others in more differentiated and complicated terms and find it personalities are not one-sided or that jer to look at problems from multiple perspectives. Being able to understand that people's {Taba 66S noma Sarons) To none Stl pro ig. Bea aloe ning pron ah pe ne ona Shuma ar is, My by peta ay lag, Showa carat ann a ty ate ws, = ‘Sarto undertone woe. Woe bey el tama ee. ven nha Rep promane aie gh a Lhe pte py Shwe ea oak CE Mie Enya ad Day Mad, Ri an Aad at 5 aan Debra, hp someday hitp:wwwheathotchldren.com/CiCogntive-Development htm a‘vear2019 Cognitive Development -stages, meaning, average, Denton, Description, Common problems foe petty rane Ponta cect en ater. Mince acts cn sae ay pe keys oe ga as Tye Comryta unosMay on 1, gene pci: sinc, ite an ud ek Prope cop Take bo ig athe apd ‘socal stations can have diferent interpretations depending on one's point of view permits the adolescent to have far more sophisticated and ‘complicated relationships wit other people. Finally, adolescents are more tkely than children to see things as relative, rather than absolute. Children tend to see things in absolute terms—in black ‘and white. Adolescents, in contrast, tend fo see things as relative. They are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept facts as absolute truths. This increase in relativism (knowledgeiRelativism him) can be paricularly exasperating o parents, who may feel that their adolescent clon question everything just for the sake of argument. Diffcues often arse, for example, when adolescents begin seeing ther parents’ values as, ‘oxcessively relative. (Common problems Cognitive impairments the general oss or lack of development of cognitive abiltes, particularly autism (.JA/Autism html) and leaming dsabilties. ‘The National Institutes of Mental Health (NINH) describes leaming disables as a disorder that affects people's abilty to either itarprot what thay soe ‘and hear oto link information from diferent parts ofthe brain. These limitations can show up in many ways, such as specfccficutes with spoken ‘and written language, coordination, selon, or atenton, Such dificultes extend to schoolwork and can impede leaming to read or write orto do math. A child who has a learning disabilty may have other condions, such as hearing problems or serious emotional disturbance. However, leaming lsabltes are not caused by these conditions, no are they caused by environmental influences such as cultural differences or inappropriate insvucton, (Parental concerns [AS of 2004 itis widely accepted that a child's intellectual ability is determined by a combination of heredity knowledgerHeredity him) and ‘envionment. Thus, although a chil’s genetic inheritance is unchangeable, there are definite ways that parents can enhance their chiets intellectual dovelopment through environmental factors. They can provide stimulating learning materials and experiences from an ealy age, read to and tak with thelr chldren, and help children explore the world around them, As children mature, parents can both chalienge and support the chit talents ‘Altnough a supportive environment in eaty childhood provides a clear advantage for children, itis possible to make up for early losses in cognitive dovelopment if supportive envionment is provided at some later perod, in contrast o early disruptions in physical development, which are often iroversible. When to call the doctor I, by age three, a child has problems understanding simple drectons ois perplexed when asked to do something simple, the parents or primary caregiver should consulta physician or pedatician. The child may have a delay in cognitive development. Parents should also consult a healthcare professionali, after age tree, ther chil’ cognitive development appears tobe significantly slower than their peers. (KEY TERMS ‘Autism —A developmental disabilty that appears early in Ife, in which normal brain development s disrupted and social and communication skils are retarded, sometimes soverly Cognition —The actor process of knowing or perceiving Egocentrie —Limited in outook to things mainly relating to oneself or confined to one's own affairs or activites. Learning disabilities —An impairment of the cognitive processes of understanding and using spoken and written language that results indificuies With one ar more academic ski sets (e.g, reading, wing, mathematics (knowledge/Mathematics htm!) Metacognition —Awareness ofthe p-ocess of cognition. ‘Schemas —Fundamental core beliefs or assumptions that are part ofthe perceptual iter people use to view the world. Cogntivebehavioral therapy ‘seeks to change maladaptive schemas. Stanford-Binet intelligence scales —A device designed to measure somebody's inteligence, obtained thvough a series of aptitude tests (knowtedge/Tesl_assessment_htn!) concentraing on different aspects of intellectual functonng, An IQ score of 100 represents “average inteligonce, (Resources itp: heathotchildren.com/CiCognitive-Development htm an‘earo019 Cognitive Development -stages, meaning, average, Definition, Description, Common problems BOOKS Bjorklund, David F. Children’s Thinking: Cognitive Development and Inaividual Differences. Stamford, CT: Wadsworth Publishing, 2004 Pica, Rae. Your Active Child: How to Boost Physical, Emotional, and Cognitive Development Through Age-Approprate Activity. New York: McGraw. Hl, 2003, ‘Thorton, Stephanie. Growing Minds: An Introduction fo Children's Cognitive Development. Now York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, Wadsworth, Bary J. Paget's Theory of Cognitive and Afoctiv Development: Foundations of Constructivism , Sth od. Upper Sade River, NJ: Alyn & Bacon, 2008. PERIODICALS Blumberg, Fran. C., and Lori M. Sokol. "Boys! and Git’ Use of Cognitive Strategy when Leaming to Play Video Games.” The Journal of General Psychology (Apt 2004); 151-58. Dahl, Ronald. "Risk-Taking and ThiilSeeking." Behavioral Healthcare Tomorrow (June 2008): S$8-SS7. L, Xiaoming, and Melissa S, Atkins, "Early Childhood Computer Experience and Cognitve and Motor Development. Pediatric (June 2004): 1715-22, ‘Thurber, Christopher A. “I Am. Therelare Think Explanations of Cognitive Development" Camping Magazine (July-August 2003): 36-41, Wacharasin, Chintana et al. "Factors Affecting Toddler Cognitive Development in Low-Income Families: Implications for Practitioners." Infants & Young Cchiéren (Apei-sune 2003): 175-81 Zinner, Susan. "The Role of Cognitive Development in Pediatric Medical Decision-Making." Global Virtue Ethics Review (January 2004): NIA, ORGANIZATIONS. Cognitive Development Society University of North Carolina, PO 3270, Chapel Hil, NC 27599. Web slo: htp:/wm.cagdeveoc.or, National Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 3615 Wisconsin Ave. NW, Washington, OC 20016. Web sit: ntp:www.aacap.org WEB SITES Developmental Psychology: Cognitive Development , 2004. Availabe online at Ntpimww pey.pdx.edulPsiCafe/AceasiDavelopmentalCogDev- Childindex htm (accessed November 9, 2004), Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 2003, Available online at htpchron.valdosta.edulwhuitvcollcogsysipiaget.niml (hntpfchironvaldosta,edulwhuit/co¥cogsysipiaget html) (accessed November 9, 2004) Ken R. Wells Which political party matches your beliefs? Try this quiz iSide Other articles you might tke: hitp:wwwheathotchildren.com/CiCognitive-Development htm si