Subject: Electronics Property of 10 Archimedes

Week No.: Week 4-5

Fundamentals of Electricity
Electricity - electron, but it is opposite in polarity.
- One of the basic forms of energy.
- Associated with electric charge.
- A property of certain elementary particles
such as electrons and proton, two of the
basic particles that makes up the atoms
all ordinary matter.
- Electric charges can be stationary, as in Like charges repel, Unlike Charges Attract
static electricity, or moving, as in an
electric current. - Two electrons will tend to repel each other
- Extremely versatile form of energy. because they have negative electrical
- It can be generated in many ways and charges, same also in protons because
from many different sources. It can be that both have positive charges.
sent almost instantaneously over long - On the other hand, electrons and protons
distances. will be attracted to each other because
- Electricity can also be converted efficiently they have unlike charges.
into other forms of energy, and it can be
stored.
- Because of this versatility, electricity plays
a part in nearly every aspect of modern
technology.
- Provides light, heat and mechanical
power. - The farther away they are from each
other, the less force their electric fields
ELECTRIC CHARGES have on each other.
1. Electrons - The closer they are to each other, the
- Smallest and lightest of the particle of the more force they will experience from each
atom. other due to this invisible force field called
- In a constant motion as they circle around an electric field.
the nucleus of that atom. SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
- Have a negative charge
1. Hydroelectric Power
- Surrounded by an electrostatic field. - Hydroelectric dams harness the energy of
water released from the water reservoir to
turn hydraulic turbines.
- The turbines convert the energy of the
water into mechanical energy, which is
used to power electric generators.
- A dam generates electricity by releasing a
controlled flow of high-pressure water
2. Protons
from a reservoir through a channel called
- Much larger and heavier than electrons.
the penstock, where it spins the turbines
- Have a positive electrical charge.
that turn the generators, producing an
- This positively charged electrostatic field
electric current.
is exactly the same strength as the
electrostatic field in an
Subject: Electronics Property of 10 Archimedes
Week No.: Week 4-5
Fundamentals of Electricity
- This phenomenon was first observed in
1821 by the German physicist Thomas
Seebeck and is known as the Seebeck
effect.
Photoelectric Cell
-
- Also known a s Phototube.
- The current then passes through a “step - Electron tube in which the electrons
up” transformer that changes it from a initiating an electric current originate by
large current at low voltage to a small photoelectric emission. In its simplest form
current at a high voltage. This current then the phototube is composed of cathode,
goes over transmission lines to a coated with a photosensitive material, and
substation, where the voltage is reduced an anode.
for customers. The water exits the dam - In a modification called the multiplier
through the draft tube. phototube, or the photomultiplier, a
series of metal plates are so shaped an
2. Geothermal Energy
arranged that the photoelectric emission.
- The energy contained is intense heat that
The multiplier phototube is capable of
continually flows outward from deep within
detecting radiation of extremely low
Earth. This heat originates primarily in the
intensity; hence, it is an essential tool for
core. Some heat is generated in the crust,
those working in the area of nuclear
the planet’s outer layer, by the decay of
research.
radioactive elements that are in all rocks.
- The crust, which is about 5 to 75 km Piezoelectric Effect
(about 3 to 47 mi) thick, insulates the
- Appearance of an electric potential across
surface from the hot interior, which at the
certain faces of a crystal when it is
core may reach temperatures from 40000
subjected to mechanical pressure.
to 70000 C (72000 to 12,6000 F).
Conversely, when an electric field is
- Generate electricity and heat by
applied on certain faces of the crystals,
harnessing the heat energy contained
the crystal undergoes mechanical
within the earth.
distortion.
- The earth transfers its energy to deep-
- Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques
lying circulating water, which the plants
discovered the phenomenon in quartz and
access with wells and pumps. Geothermal
Rochelle salt in 1880 and named the
energy is attractive because it creates
effect piezoelectricity (from Greek piezein,
almost no environmental pollution.
“to press”).
However, the number of sites where
- The piezoelectric effect occurs in several
geothermal energy can be economically
crystalline substances, such as barium
extracted is limited.
titanate and tourmaline. When an external
Thermoelectricity
electric field is applied to the crystal, the
- In physics, it is electricity generated by the
ions in each unit cell are displaced by
application of heat to the junction of two
electrostatic forces. Because of their
dissimilar materials.
capacity to convert mechanical
- If two wires of different materials are
deformation into electric voltages, they are
joined at their ends and one is maintained
used in a wide variety of electronic
at a higher temperature than the other, a
devices.
voltage difference will arise, and an
electric current will exist between the hot
and the cold junctions.
Subject: Electronics
Week No.: Week 4-5
Fundamentals of Electricity
Solar Energy
- Solar Energy, radiation produced by
nuclear fusion reactions deep in the Sun’s
core.
- Solar energy travels to Earth through
space in discrete packets of energy called
photons. The total radiation power (1.4
kilowatts per square meter, called the
solar constant) varies only slightly, about
0.2 percent every 30 years.
- In a photovoltaic cell, light excites
electrons to move from one layer to
another through semi-conductive silicon
materials. This produces an electric
current
- Solar cells called photovoltaics made
from thin slices of crystalline silicon,
gallium arsenide, or other semiconductor
materials convert solar radiation directly
into electricity.
- Usually though, solar cells provide low
power to remote, unattended devices
such as buoys, weather and
communication satellites, and equipment
aboard spacecraft.
- In this solar home in Corrales, New
Mexico, a flat plate solar collector (lower
right) provides energy to heat water
pumped by the windmill. The water is
stored in large drums on the side of home
Nuclear Energy
- Nuclear Energy, energy released during
the splitting or fusing of atomic nuclei.
- The energy of any system, whether
physical, chemical, or nuclear, is
manifested by the system's ability to work
or release heat or radiation.
- The total energy in a system is always
conserved, but it can be transferred to
another system or changed in form.
- Since the Industrial Revolution, people
have depended on fossil fuels-coal,
petroleum, and natural gas-also derived
from store solar energy.
- This amount of energy is typical of
chemical reactions resulting from changes
in the electronic structure of the atoms.
Property of 10 Archimedes
Batteries and Cells
- Battery, also electric cell, device that
converts chemical energy into electricity.
- Battery consists of two or more cells
connected in series or parallel, but the
term is also used for single cells.
- When the electrodes are connected to a
device to be powered, called a load,
electrical current flow.
- Batteries in which the chemicals cannot
be reconstituted into their original form
once the energy has been converted (that
is, batteries that have been discharge) are
called primary cells or voltaic cells.
- Rechargeable cells, storage cell, or
accumulators.
- Bichromate Cell developed in the 1850’s,
it consisted of electrode plates made of
zinc and carbon placed in a glass flask
filled with chromic acid this battery design
was considered far safer than that of
some predecessors because it did not use
concentrated nitric acid, which gives off
poisonous fumes.
Primary Cells
- The most common form of primary cell is
the Leclanche cell, invented by the
French chemist George Leclanche in the
1860’s. It is popularly called a dry cell or
flashlight battery.
- The Leclanche cell produce about 1.5 V.
- Dry Cell Battery. This simple dry cell
battery contains a negative electrode (a
zinc sheath which encloses the battery
materials) and a positive electrode (the
carbon rod and the carbon and
manganese dioxide mixture that
surrounds the rod).
- An electrolyte paste separates the two
electrodes and facilitates a chemical
reaction between them.
- This reaction causes a current to flow
9that is, makes the electrons move)
through a conductor that connects the
positive and negative electrodes.
Secondary Cells
Subject: Electronics Property of 10 Archimedes
Week No.: Week 4-5
Fundamentals of Electricity
- The storage battery, or secondary cell, - However, the use of this designation is
which can be recharged by revising the voluntary, so it will not necessarily appear
chemical reaction, was invented in 1859 on every primary battery.
by the French physicist Gaston Plante. - Nevertheless, the manufacturer's
- Plante's cell was a lead-acid battery, the designation and the battery voltage are
type widely used today. always printed on the battery housing.
- The lead-acid battery, which consist of
three or six cells connected in series, is
used in automobiles, trucks, aircraft, and
other vehicles. It produced about 2 V per
cell.
- Lead-Acid Storage Battery invented in
1859 by Gaston Plante, the lead-acid
storage battery is still widely used in cars,
trucks, and airplanes.
- The storage battery consists of a group of
cells connected together in series.
- Each cell consists of a lead plate, a lead
oxide plate, and an electrolyte solution of
sulfuric acid.
- When these types of batteries run down,
they can be recharged by forcing current
through the battery in the direction
opposite the direction the current flows
when the battery is fully charged.
Nature Flow of Electricity
Solar Cells
- All matter, whether a gas, a liquid, or a
- Solar batteries produce electricity by a solid, is composed of atoms, in turn, are
photoelectric conversion process. made up of fundamental subatomic
- The source of electricity is a particles called protons, neutrons and
photosensitive semiconducting substance electrons.
such as silicon crystal to which impurities - According to modern theory, which has
have been added. been substantiated by experimental
- When the crystal is stuck by light, results of many investigators, the atom of
electrons are dislodged from the surface all matter consists of a positively charge
of the crystal and migrate toward the nucleus, around which infinitesimal
opposite surface. negative charges rotate with high angular
- There they are collected as a current of velocity.
electricity. - The individual negative charges rotate
- Solar batteries have very long lifetimes which are called electrons, are invisible
and used chiefly in spacecraft as a source and are found to be identical for all matter.
of electricity to operate the equipment - The movement of these electrons
aboard. constitutes the electric current.
Battery Sizes
- Batteries standardized by the IEC
(International Electrotechnical
Commission) have a clear, internationally
valid designation.
Subject: Electronics
Week No.: Week 4-5
Fundamentals of Electricity
- Hence, the electric current may be
considered as electricity in motion and is
called dynamic electricity.
- Since the electron are negative charges,
the direction of their motion is opposite to
the conventional direction of current.
- The conventional direction of current is
from the positive of the battery through the
external circuit, which includes the lamp,
to the negative of the battery, and then
within the battery, from the negative to
positive of the battery.
- On the other hand, the direction of the
flow of the electrons is opposite that of the
current.
Motor and Generators
- Electric Motors and Generators is a group
of devices used to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy, or electrical
energy into mechanical energy, by
electromagnetic means.
- A machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy is called
Property of 10 Archimedes
generator, alternator, or dynamo while
and a machine that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy is called a
motor.
- Two related physical principles underlie
the operation of generators and motors.
- The first is the principle of electromagnetic
induction discovered by the British
scientist Michael Faraday in 1831.
- If a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field, or if the strength of a
stationary conducting loop is made to
vary, a current is set up or induced in the
conductor.
- The converse of this principle is that of
electromagnetic reaction, first observed by
the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere
in 1820.
- If a current is passed through a conductor
located in a magnetic field, the field exerts
a mechanical force on it.
Alternating Current (AC) and Direct
Current (DC)
1. Direct Current
- Direct Current or DC is the first type of
current because it was easy to produce.
- This type of current always flows in one
direction.
- One of the disadvantages of using DC is
the excessive voltage drop and power
loss in the power lines in a long-distance
transmission.
- Batteries are common sources of direct
current.
Subject: Electronics Property of 10 Archimedes
Week No.: Week 4-5
Fundamentals of Electricity
2. Alternating Current
- Alternating Current or AC is the solution to
the problem of DC.
- AC allows the flow of current in two
directions.
- Today, it is possible to step-up electricity
to a power station, transmit it to any
distant place and step it down to for
consumption.
- A transformer is the device used for
stepping-up or stepping-down AC voltage.
- Common sources of AC are found in our
AC outlet (Typically, 220 volts, in the
Philippines).

RMS Value or True Effective Value

- The peak-to-peak value of alternating
current is the measure form the positive
peak to the negative peak of the
waveform.
- If the power provided by direct current is
replaced with alternating current, one
should compute for the true effective
value, or for the Root Mean Square
(RMS), not the peak-to-peak value.
- Too get the RMS value of AC voltages,
get the peak value.
- To get peak value of the RMS, divide the
RMS value to 0.707.
- AC current can be expressed in peak-to-
peak value, peak value or RMS value, as
specified.