VII.

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT Theories of Motivation

 Overview of Human Resource Manangement

Personnel Management (Personnel Administration)
--Is the phase of management concerned with the
engagement and effective utilization of manpower to
obtain optimum efficiency of human resources.

--It is the effective recruitment, selection, placement,

development, maintenance and utilization of the
manpower resources of an organization.

Personnel Program
--It consists of series of activities intended to carry out
the personnel policies of the laboratory for the purpose
of realizing the objectives of the laboratory.
--A good personnel program covers the following
activities of the personnel management :
1. Employment – recruit, interview
2. Safety – safety standards
3. Employee relations – collective bargaining, wage
and salary
4. Employee research and standards – job description
5. Employee services – insurance plans, recreational
plans

Personnel Policy
--It is the statement of intention that commits the
laboratory manager to a general course of
action in order to accomplish a specific purpose.
--Once policies are formulated they should be stated in
writing and be
made known to all employees. This may be done in
employees handbook or in a
specially printed statement of policies.
Ten areas normally considered by personnel policies :
1. recruitment, selection and planning
1. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory :
2. employee induction and training
-- is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a
3. employees rating and promotion
five-tier model of human needs proposed by Abraham
4. transfer, downgrading and lay-off
Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human
5. disciplining and discharge
Motivation" in Psychological Review
6. salary and wage administration
7. changes in work assignment and hours
-- in order to better understand what motivates human
8. services for employees
beings, Maslow proposed that human needs can be
9. employees health and safety
organized into a hierarchy, when a lower need is met,
10. employees participation and work problems
the next need is met, the next need on the hierarchy
becomes our focus of attention.
Sources of Labor
1. Internal Sources
-- although Maslow presented his needs in a hierarchy,
--are employees actively working in the laboratory and
he also acknowledged that meeting each need is not
when a vacancy exists, employees are transferred or
an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Consequently, people
promoted.
don’t need to completely satisfy one need in order for
the next need in the hierarchy to emerge. Maslow
2. External Sources
suggests that, at any given time, most people tend to
--include persons who apply in person, who answer
have each of their needs partly met—and that needs
advertisement and who are recommended by schools.
lower on the hierarchy are typically the ones that
people have made the most progress towards.
Theories Of Motivation
Motivation of Employees
These are the five categories of needs according to
Motivation :
Abraham Maslow :
--is a general term applying for drives, desires, needs
1. Physiological Needs -- This concept is the main
and wishes of an individual in order
physical requirement for human survival. This means
to perform
that physiological needs are universal human needs
NEEDS ------> gives rise to ------> WANTS ------> which
like food and water.
causes ------> TENSION -------> gives rise to ------>
ACTION-----> which results in ------> SATISFACTION
2. Safety Needs -- safety and security needs are about
keeping us safe from harm , these include shelter, job
security, health, and safe environments
-- if a person does not feel safe in an environment, they
will seek to find safety before they attempt to meet any
higher level of survival, but the need for safety is not as
important as basic physiological needs.
3. Love and Belonging Needs -- level of human needs
are seen to be interpersonal and involves feelings of
belongingness .
-- According to Maslow, humans possess an affective
need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among
social groups, regardless of whether these groups are
large or small
4. Self-esteem Needs -- this needs are ego needs or
status needs, people develop a concern with getting
recognition, status, importance, and respect from
others. Most humans have a need to feel respected;
this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-
respect
-- presents the typical human desire to be accepted and
valued by others
-- esteem needs include two components : The first
involves feeling self-confident and feeling good about
oneself. The second component involves feeling valued
by others ; that is, feeling that our achievements and
contributions have been recognized by other people.
-- when people’s esteem needs are met, they feel
confident and see their contributions and achievements
as valuable and important. However, when their
esteem needs are not met, they may experience what
psychologist Alfred Adler called "feelings of inferiority"
5. Self-actualization -- Maslow describes this as the
desire to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be
-- Maslow believed that to understand this level of need,
the person must not only succeed in the previous
needs but master them
-- the quotation "What a man can be, he must be" forms
the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization,
where man feels that he is doing what he believes he
were meant to do
-- for one person, self-actualization might involve helping
others; for another person, it might involve
achievements in an artistic or creative field
2. Herzberg's Theory :
-- in 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist
proposed a two-factor theory or the Motivation-Hygiene
Theory or the Dual Factor Theory according to
Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job factors that
prevent dissatisfaction.
-- he conducted his research by asking a group of
people about their good and bad experiences at work.
He was surprised that the group answered questions
about their good experiences very differently from the
ones about their bad experiences
--based on this, he developed the theory that people’s
job satisfaction depends on two kinds of factors.
Factors for satisfaction (motivators / satisfiers) and
factors for dissatisfaction (hygiene factors /
dissatisfiers).
-- motivators / satisfiers.Performance, recognition, job
status, responsibility and opportunities for growth
-- hygiene factors / dissatisfiers are about salary,
secondary working conditions, the relationship with
colleagues, physical work place and the relationship
between supervisor and employee.
Two factors identified by Herzberg :
1. Motivational factors -- according to Herzberg, the
hygiene factors cannot be regarded as motivators. The
motivational factors yield positive satisfaction
-- these factors motivate the employees for a superior
performance. These factors are called satisfiers ,
employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding .
Motivational factors include:
Recognition - the employees should be praised and
recognized for their accomplishments by the managers.
Achievement - the employees must have a sense of
achievement. This depends on the job. This will provide
a proud feeling of having done something difficult but
worthwhile.
Growth and promotional opportunities - there must
be growth and advancement opportunities in an
organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
Responsibility - the employees must hold themselves
responsible for the work. The managers should give
them ownership of the work. They should minimize
control but retain accountability.
The work itself - the work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee to perform
and to get motivated.
Advancement - promotion opportunities should exist for
the employee.
2. Hygiene factors -- are those job factors which are
essential for existence of motivation at workplace,
factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job,
pacify the employees and do not make them
 dissatisfied. These factors describe the job
environment/scenario.
-- the hygiene factors symbolized the physiological
needs which the individuals wanted and expected to be
fulfilled
Hygiene factors include:
Salary / Pay - the pay or salary structure should be
appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal and
competitive to those in the same industry in the same
domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies - the
company policies should be fair and clear It should
include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks,
vacation, etc.
Supervision - supervision must be fair and appropriate.
The employee should be given as much autonomy as
is reasonable.
Working conditions - the working conditions should be
safe, clean and hygienic. The work equipments should
be updated and well-maintained.
Status - the employees’ status within the organization
should be familiar and retained. Performing meaningful
work can provide a sense of status .
Coworker relations - the relationship of the employees
with his peers, superiors and subordinates should be
appropriate and acceptable. There should be no
conflict or humiliation element present.
Job Security - it is important that employees feel that
their job is secure and they are not under the constant
threat of being laid-off.
3. Alderfer’s ERG Theory :
-- Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is formed on the basis
of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs but
collapses five levels into three categories – existence,
relatedness, and growth
Existence – aspirations for material and physical well-
being (includes Maslow’s physiological and safety
levels)
Relatedness – aspirations for fulfilling relationships
(includes Maslow’s belonging and esteem levels)
Growth – aspirations for development of capability,
growth, or potential (includes Maslow’s esteem and
self-actualization levels)
4. McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory :
-- David McClelland’s acquired needs theory
acknowledges that individuals prioritize three specific
needs differently
Affiliation – wish to form close, personal, friendly
relationships
Power – desire to be in charge; to control and influence
others’ actions
Achievement – determination to accomplish something
of importance; to excel
5. Reinforcement Theory :
-- is the best-known of the extrinsic based theories.
-- this approach is criticized because it neglects the
employees’ abilities to think critically and reason, both
of which are important aspects of human motivation.
-- B.F.Skinner studied human behavior and proposed
that individuals are motivated when their behaviors are
reinforced.
His theory was comprised of four types of reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement – rewards positive behaviors
Avoidance learning – rewards behaviors that avoid
undesirable or negative behaviors
Punishment – aims to reduce undesirable behaviors by
creating negative consequences for the individual
Extinction – represents the removal of positive rewards
for undesirable behaviors
6. Adam’s Equity Theory :
-- Adam’s Equity Theory proposes that individuals are
motivated when they perceive that they are treated
equitably in comparison to others within the
organization .
7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory :
-- states that individuals select their behaviors based on
the outcomes that they expect as a result of those
behaviors ( efforts will bring reward )
-- It explains that individuals can be motivated towards
goals if they believe that there is a positive correlation
between efforts and performance - the outcome of a
favorable performance will result in a desirable reward
that satisfies their need enough to make the effort
worthwhile .
-- Variables that influence decision making :
Expectancy -- is the belief that one’s effort will result in
the attainment of desired performance goals. ( effort )
Instrumentality -- is the belief that a person will receive
a reward if the performance expectation is met.
( performance )
Valence - is the value an individual place on the
rewards of an outcome. ( reward )
8. Locke’s Goal Setting Theory :
-- theory hypothesizes that by establishing goals
individuals are motivated to take action to achieve
those goals
9. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y :
-- describe two contrasting models of workforce
motivation that form the basis for two different
managerial styles :
Theory X -- stresses the importance of strict supervision,
external rewards, and penalties. Its management style
supposes that the average employee has little to no
ambition, shies away from work or responsibilities, and
is individual-goal oriented.
Theory Y -- highlights the motivating role of job
satisfaction and encourages workers to approach tasks
without direct supervision. management style supposes
that people in the workforce are internally motivated;
enjoy their labor in the work environment and work to
better themselves without a direct “reward” in return
10. Ouchi’s Theory Z
-- is based on the Japanese approach to management
and motivation.
-- rooted in the idea that employees who are involved in
and committed to an organization will be motivated to
increase productivity
-- the rewards provided can be long-term employment,
promotion from within, participatory management, and
other techniques to motivate employees.
11. Scientific Management Theory :
-- This theory assumes that people are motivated and
able to continually work harder and more efficiently and
that employees should be paid on the basis of the
amount and quality of the work performed.
-- this way is limited by the capacity of employees to
continue to increase the quantity of work without
sacrificing the quality .
Management of Work Groups
Group -- two or more people interact regularly to
accomplish a common purpose or goal
-- is a collection of individuals who coordinate their
individual efforts where each person is working
independently
Team -- is a group of people who share a common team
purpose and a number of towards a common goal
-- everyone is working interdependently toward a shared
goal or outcome
-- a team project relies on each member of the team to
achieve success
Stages of Group Development :
1. Forming -- members get acquainted and test
interpersonal behaviors
2. Storming -- members develop group structure and
patterns of interaction
3. Norming -- members share acceptance of roles,
sense of unity
4. Performing -- members enact roles, direct effort
toward goal attainment and implementation
5. Adjourning -- focus on wrapping up activities, task
completion and recognition.
Laboratory teams :
Laboratory teams can operate interdependently, beyond
normal hierarchies, and with varying powers for
planning and decision-making. Teams, by design, have
become the key structural and cultural drivers of growth,
performance, and change, and teams in different forms,
charters, and strengths have become the agents of
development and commercial strategy.
The importance of of team design :
Laboratory are technical entities for the most part. The
work done by teams is defined in technical terms, with
technical criteria and measures. But there is more
going on, Laboratory are evolving as multifaceted
analytic resources. They harness creativity, resources
for tasks and processes and work on solutions of every
sort. Designing laboratory teams with different kinds of
talent that are well-suited to the work to be done, the
interests of partners, and the goals of the laboratory.
These talent includes:
(OPERATIONAL)
Technical competence: Subject matter knowledge and
expertise
Analytic competence: Data construction and data
model integration
Solution competence: Consideration of options,
solving problems
(MANAGERIAL)
Creative competence: The curation and management
of new ideas
Resource competence: The appropriation of time,
capital, tools
Relational competence: Bringing out the best in
people—together
Two important challenges stand out for laboratory teams Pointers in personnel selection
as the nature of the laboratory world evolves. These 1. An applicant who has held 3 to 4 jobs within the past
challenges are summed up in the very essence of five years is a high risk. Chance are this person is a job
change and transformation—in how lab knowledge and hopper.
projects are managed. 2. Recent emotional crises in an individual may lead to
emotional instability for a period of time
Knowledge Management, or KM, reflects the 3. If the writing is sloppy, it may indicate a general
combined practices of : careless attitude. Unanswered items in the application
form indicate forgetfullness or evasiveness.
Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge 4. Overqualification is about as bad as underqualification.
Acquisition Arrangement Application 5. Check if the reference is a close friend or relative of
the applicant.
6. If the medical history is lengthy or ambiguous, there is
Project Management, or PM, advances with the a good chance that the applicant is either in poor health
combined integration of : or somewhat neurotic.
Project Project Project 7. Hiring relatives or close personal friends must be
Architecture Communication Accountability discouraged.
8. If other things are equal, hire people you instinctively
Both knowledge management and project management like.
are essential laboratory functions that are reflected in 9. Generally, the person who work for financial reasons
the cultivation of strong teams, which: is likely to be more stable employee than is the person
 collaborate well who is economically independent.
 have perspective
 have a sense of pursue their work within every day Personnel interview
 have the ability adapt with regard to their operating --Pre-employment interview by the manager is
roles and the broader technical, customer, and necessary in order to increase the accuracy of
economic world prediction on the applicant
 are bonded by devotion, compassion, and concern --The purpose of interview is to determine the relevant
for individuals facts regarding the applicant as provided by the
application form
Whether in scientific, operating, or technical settings, --The interview questions should be well thought in
from testing products to analyzing polymers in advance and should be in areas of interest as personal,
production scale, the laboratory and its constellation is, history, educational background, volunteer activities,
more than ever, dependent on the ability of teams of work experience, aspirations and objective, self-
people to work together effectively . assessment, strength, and weaknesses
--There is a final caution “Do not jump into conclusion”.
Personnel Selection Process There are three things about impression
Steps in selection process include : : Sometimes close to truth, sometimes dangerous and
1. Posting or advertising job vacancies always based on limited information.
2. Reception of applications / applicants either in person
or in writing Personnel orientation
3. Preliminary interview --is the introduction of the employee to his new
--Filling up the information sheet or the application environment.
blanks --it is good policy to have a period of probation – usually
--Sending of information sheets or application blanks about 3 month
4. Applicant reports to the personnel manager for
briefing or take employment tests such as : Personnel evaluation
1. Performance tests --consists of periodic written reports on employee’s
2. Intelligence tests performance
3. Aptitude tests --the most frequently measured attributes are :
4. Interest tests - quantity of work (productivity),
5. Test emotional reaction and adjustments - judgement,
6. Test of attitudes - knowledge,
7. Applicant is interviewed by the personnel manager. - adaptability,
Types of interviews : - initiative,
 planned and patterned interviews - personal relations (interaction with others),
 non-directive interviews - work habits (attendance, compliance with rules and
 depth interview regulations, orderliness),
 group interview - communication (oral or written expression,
12. Investigation of applicants background - creativity,
13. Introduction of the qualified applicant to his - quality of work and other factors
immediate boss --rating scales from 1 – 5 (outstanding, above average,
14. Selection from among qualified applicants average, below average, unsatisfactory respectively)
15. Medical examination can be used; they must evaluate 2x/yr
16. Induction and placement of the new employee
Personnel records
--provides a ready references to an employee, job
description, education, experience, qualifications,
length of employment, job preferences, written
reprimands, comments and personal list
--this record should be evaluated and considered when
undertaking performance interview, transfer, promotion
or releases
--when an employee becomes a liability rather than an
asset, he should be dismissed
--records should be centralized with accessibility limited
to appropriate supervisor and employee in order to
maintain confidentiality of informations
Promotion
-- is the advancement of an employee to better job in
terms of greater responsibilities, more prestige, or
“status”, greater skill, specialty, rate of pay or salary
-- no employee should even be promoted solely on the
basis of seniority ; seniority is a factor only when there
is more than one candidate of equal capabilities
Personal qualities considered in promotion are :
1. honesty
2. common sense
3. Ambition
4. knowledge
5. Initiative
6. originality
7. Determination
8. understanding
9. enthusiasm
10. Communicative ability
Job enlargement
--is the process of increasing job scope
--ex: two or more jobs may be aggregated into a single
one
--horizontal slice of an organizational unit
Job enrichment
--is the process of increasing job depth
--vertical slice of an organizational unit
Compensation for work
--requirements of laws and regulations such as minimum
wages and overtime
--the non-monetary compensation should be included,
such as benefits like retirement plans, insurance,
annual and sick leaves and free discounted services
play an important part in the total compensation plan
Appraisal Of Job Performance
-- The process of evaluating the performance of
employees, sharing that information with them and
searching for ways to improve their performance
Goal of Appraisal of Job Performance
1. Evaluate the performance of the staff based on
established criteria and standards
2. It is concerned with both strength and weakness of
the staff
3. It assess, internet, correct and apply discipline.
Measured areas of appraisal
1. Adaptability -- the ability to change behavior
2. Attendance -- faithfulness in coming to work
3. Quality of work -- accuracy thoroughness and
precision of work performed
4. Job knowledge and skills -- training and experience
in performing the assigned job duties
5. Quantity of work -- amount of work performed in
comparison with normal amount expected
6. Work relationship -- quality of relationship
7. Initiative -- extra effort
8. Responsiveness --how quickly an individual
accomplishes an assignment
Measurement of Performance
1. Trait rating scale -- set of standards (job description,
behavior and personal traits)
2. Job dimension scale -- focused on job requirement
than quality of work
3. Behaviorally anchor rating -- focused on behavior to
improve performance
4. Checklist -- method of rating composed of behavioral
statement
5. Peer review -- focused on the total situation of the
performance
-- promote excellence in practice and offer information
6. Self appraisal -- evaluates its own performance
Job Evaluation
-- Tool used to determine the relative worth of job
Methods for Job evaluation :
1. Job ranking -- according to the weight given to work
-- number of employees supervised
-- education level
2. Job Grading or Job Classification -- - This method
classify job according to predetermined scale.
-- from simple to complex
3. Point system -- - Most popular, it attempts to
consider all the components of a job
-- four broad group factors : Skill, effort, responsibility
and working condition
-- sub factors : education, experience, creativity, and
training
4. Factor comparison -- - This method focuses in
determining the relative worth of a job by comparing it
to other jobs in the organization on a scale that assigns
a monetary value
-- wage rate to specific job
Corrective Action And Employee Discipline
Discipline and dismissal ( Discharging )
--some employee will fall short of expected standards
--disciplining an employee is probably the toughest and
most distasteful job a supervisor has
--for protection of both employee and employer,
disciplinary action requires documented facts sufficient
to support the contemplated action
--don’t neglect the employee’s side of the story
--for an organization to run smoothly and profitable,
management cannot afford to keep incompetent
workers or trouble makers
--when an employee becomes a liability rather than an
asset, he should be dismissed
Employee’s conflict 7. Monitor order status
Conflict Mediation Techniques : 8. Receipt & inspection
Phase 1 : Clarifying the problem
Phase 2 : Finding out what each side wants from the Objectives of procurement system
other 1. Acquire needed supplies as inexpensively as possible
Phase 3 : Reaching agreement 2. Obtain high quality supplies
3. Assure prompt & dependable delivery
Habitual Tardiness 4. Distribute the procurement workload to avoid period
--this a chronic disease of unknown etiology of idleness & overwork
--following therapy : 5. Optimize inventory management through scientific
1. dock salary for late minutes procurement procedures
2. reschedule for a later starting time (a half hour to one
hour ) Points to remember while purchasing
3. reassign to a different department where there is no 1. Proper specification
overlap of personnel 2. Invite quotations from reputed firms
4. when all fails, mark “improvement needed” on the 3. Comparison of offers based on basic price, freight &
employees’ performance evaluation insurance, taxes and levies
5. if the employee has all other positive features, 4. Quantity &payment discounts
promote to supervisor, this is considered “shock 5. Payment terms
treatment” but often effective 6. Delivery period, guarantee
7. Vendor reputation
VIII. MATERIAL MANAGEMENT 8. (Reliability, technical capabilities, convenience,
Product Research And Product Specification availability, after-sales service, sales assistance)
-- product research is a comparative evaluation with the 9. Short listing for better negotiation terms
laboratory by consultation with other users, or by 10. Seek order acknowledgement
reference to publications giving comparative studies of Sequence of purchasing
equipment and supplies Product Specification --------> Orders --------> Receive ---
-- product specifications prepared after study assures ------> Record --------> Inventory
adequate quality of purchased reagents and supplies
Purchasing of supplies :
Purchasing 1. Orders should be placed only by authorized staff
--the process of buying, learning of the need, selecting a members.
supplier, negotiating prices and other pertinent terms 2. Delivery schedules are a major factor
and following up to insure delivery . 3. High uses items should be delivered frequently
4. Release orders and standing orders are excellent
Acquisition of new equipment methods.
Justification categories for acquisition of new Release orders -- the company agrees to deliver goods
equipment for lab are as follows : at a predetermined as notified by the laboratory.
1. Replacement Standing order-- is as annual contract in which the
2. Increased workload company agrees to deliver goods at a predetermined
3. Cost reduction price and on an established schedule
4. New and / or improved methodology
The priority of need is categorized as follows : Receiving and accounts payable
1. Essential –needed immediately 1. Goods should be unpacked and inspected
2. Necessary –greater leeway 2. Damaged or defective goods should be identified
3. Desirable –reducing cost early in order to assure replacement credit
4. Others –improving working conditions
Choice of proper instrument Payable systems
1. The purchase request must agree with invoice
Basis for selection of instruments are : 2. The invoice must agree with the packing slip
1. Use 3. They must all agree with the final bill from the
2. Volume company
3. Cost
4. Ease of operation Records and inventory control :
5. Longetivity Inventory system :
6. Inherent accuracy 1. The low level - supplies are sufficient to carry the
7. Expected downtime laboratory through until goods on order are received.
2. The upper limit – laboratories requirements for a
Supply Ordering Process longer period of time.
Procurement cycle
1. Review selection Inventory Management
2. Determine needed quantities Inventory control
3. Reconcile needs &funds -- It means stocking adequate number and kind of stores,
4. Choose procurement method so that the materials are available whenever required
5. Select suppliers and wherever required. Scientific inventory control
6. Specify contract terms results in optimal balance.
Functions of inventory control Projection Of Budget Supply Cost
1. To provide maximum supply service, consistent with Objective of material management
maximum efficiency & optimum investment. Primary :
2. To provide cushion between forecasted & actual · Right price
demand for a material · High turnover
· Low procurement & Storage cost
Economic order of quantity · Continuity of supply
EOQ – Average Monthly Consumption X Lead Time (in · Consistency in quality
months) + Buffer Stock – Stock on hand · Good supplier relations
-- re-order level : stock level at which fresh order is · Development of personnel
placed · Good information system
-- average consumption per day x lead time + buffer Secondary :
stock · Forecasting
-- lead time : Duration time between placing an order & · Inter-departmental harmony
receipt of material · Product improvement
-- ideal – 2 to 6 weeks · Standardization
· Make or buy decision
Storage · New materials and products
1. Store must be of adequate space · Favorable reciprocal relationships
2. Materials must be stored in an appropriate place in a
correct way Elements of material management
3. Group wise & alphabetical arrangement helps in 1. Demand estimation
identification & retrieval 2. Identify the needed items
4. First-in, first-out principle to be followed 3. Calculate from the trends in consumption during last 2
5. Monitor expiry date years
6. Follow two bin or double shelf system, to avoid stock 4. Review with resource constraints
outs
7. Reserve bin should contain stock that will cover Functional areas of material management
8. Lead time and a small safety stock 1. Purchasing
2. Central service supply
Storing procedures 3. Central stores
1. Ensure proper records of both in and outgoing items 4. The pharmacy
from the laboratory. 5. Dietary & Linen services
2. Accepting items for storage have :
The stock records -- this can give the running total Purchasing laboratory materials
Bin cards -- contain similar information to that of stock 1. Purchasing of the laboratory materials should be done
records. by the person who is
3. All items getting out of the store should require a familiar with all the laboratory equipment’s
requisition form 2. In purchasing laboratory equipment’s one is to keep in
mind the following:
Stock Taking > Knowledge of the supplier
1. Account must be taken for stock in hand : > Self knowledge of each laboratory item
> To estimate the value of the items in the stock > Seek quotations from various suppliers
> To detect the deteriorations
2. Stock taking can be done annually or perpetually Purchasing
3. The important thing is to know what to stock, how to 1. Specification ex: of time and quantity
stock, when to record and how much record. In this case 2. Ensure delivery
you can divide the stock into working and bulky stock 3. Administration, e.g. checking the item delivered,
certifying invoices for payments, legal etc
A Bin Card
-- bin cards contains all the information required for an Purchasing Policy
efficient and simple method of stock control. 1. Buy at the lowest price without sacrificing the quantity
-- bin cards contain the following details : 2. Buy at right time to take advantage of price movement
> Name of item 3. Use the most appropriate buying methods
> Issuing unit 4. Buy the most appropriate amounts
> Maximum stock
> Minimum stock Purchasing Routine
Bin Cards 1. Using a requisition forms
· Details of items received or issued 2. Using a standard order forms to suppliers
· From whom they are received or to whom issued 3. Goods received should be checked and recorded
· Quantity ordered accordingly
· Invoice no/requisition No/order No 4. Invoices should be checked to ensure that the right
· The quantity received price have been charged.
· The quantity issued 5. Make follow-up to ensure that goods are received on
· The balance held in stock time.
· Price
IX. QUALITY ASSURANCE
Background On Concepts Of Quality
Process control is an essential element of the quality
management system, and refers to control of the
activities employed in the handling of samples and
examination processes in order to ensure accurate and
reliable testing. Sample management and all quality
control (QC) processes are a part of process control.
QC monitors activities related to the examination
(analytic) phase of testing. The goal of QC is to detect,
evaluate, and correct errors due to test system failure,
environmental conditions or operator performance,
before patient results are reported.
An assessment, or audit, allows the laboratory to
understand how well it is performing when compared to
a benchmark or standard. Any gaps or non
conformities in performance can show if the policies
and procedures that the laboratory has set require
revision or are not being followed.
A laboratory needs this information about its
performance for:
> planning and implementing the quality system
> monitoring effectiveness of the quality system
> correcting any deficiencies that are identified
> working toward continuous improvement
Audits should include the evaluation of steps in the
whole laboratory path of workflow. They should be able
to detect problems throughout the entire process.
Types of assessment utilize in the laboratory
External audit – are assessments conducted by groups
or agencies from outside the laboratories.
-- they can include assessments for the purpose of
accreditation, certification or licensure.
Internal audit -- where staff working in one area of the
laboratory conduct assessments on another area of the
same laboratory.
-- this provides information quickly and easily on how the
laboratory is performing and whether it is in compliance
with policy requirements
Audits should include the evaluation of steps in the
whole laboratory path of workflow. They should be able
to detect problems throughout the entire process.
The findings are compared with the laboratory’s internal
policies and to a standard or external benchmark. Any
breakdown in the system or departure from procedures
will be identified.
The value of a well-designed audit is that it will reveal
weaknesses in the pre-examination, examination and
post-examination phases. During audits, information is
gathered about :
> processes and operating procedures
> staff competence and training
> equipment
> environment
>handling of samples
> quality control and verification of results
> recording and reporting practices
LABORATORY PRACTICES ON QUALITY CONTROL
Control of tests
Selection of tests should be based on four factors :
1. The result produced should be useful in a time-
reference frame.
2. The procedure should be feasible for the particular
laboratory.
3. The value produced should be acceptable to
clinicians.
4. The reports forwarded to clinicians should be uniform.
***A good report should be compact, consistent in
terminology and format.
Control of specimen
Collection of proper specimens is extremely important.
Those involved in the blood collection know the proper
way to collect a specimen and the correct details
concerning :
--Name of test,
--Containers and labels,
--Time of delivery,
--Preparation of patients,
--Preservation or anticoagulant,
--Handling or storage of specimen
Before delivery to laboratory and if with special
instructions. A good way to assure proper specimen, is
the distribution of specimen collection manual to those
involved in collection.
Control of reagents and supplies
Reagents should be purchased only from reliable
suppliers. Buy only the quantity you can use in a
reasonable time, date it upon receipt and again when
opened for use.
In microbiology laboratory and blood bank where testing
is large the identification of unknowns (qualitative),
frequent assessment of reagents and material quality
provide the only means of assuring reliable test results.
In chemistry and hematology laboratories, where testing
is largely quantitative of specifically requested
constituents, biological controls containing the same
constituents provide an alternative one step-method for
assuring total integrity of test performance.
Control of equipments
There is usually some variation in the performance of
equipment. The error can be exaggerated if the
equipment is improperly calibrated or malfunctioning.
Control of staff
The work of any laboratory can be as good as the
quality of its workers. Therefore, the laboratory should
seek to attract and keep only the best employees.
Three important ingredients are :
1. Maintaining an atmosphere of professional challenge
2. Offering fair wages
3. Providing a means for obtaining continuing education
To be sure the staff is working at maximum efficiency
neither underutilized nor overloaded – a system of
workload reporting is necessary.
Non-Analytical Quality Control Functions
1. Physician request –all physician request should be
made clearly
2. Request specification :
a. Time specifications :
Routine –response and test results within 24 hrs, but
may take longer for some procedures as culture
Today –response and test results within 8 hrs
Stat –response within 10 mins, no delay in test
performance
Specific time –specimen collection within + / - 5 mins
time designated, no delay in test performance
b. Condition specifications : pre-op, pre-admission, etc.
c. Patient category specifications : “in-patient”, “out-
patient”, etc.
3. Worksheets –they are used most commonly for
recording test results and other informative
data not usually reported
4. Patient Identification –the customary practice is to
attach identification band to all patients. The exact
match from patients information on request with that on
the bracelet should be done
5. Distribution of Test Result –in most instances, the
recipients of the laboratory data included :
a. nursing station personnel (patient chart attachment )
b. hospital business office (patient bills)
c. attending physician (personal use)
d. laboratory clerical section (department)
6. Specimen reassignments –reassigning specimens
to a reference laboratory is considered only after the
capabilities and cost of in-house performance are
determined.
Factors to consider in selection of reference lab :
a. range of available services (brochure listing)
b. quality (staff, facilities, etc.)
c. location (transportation mode)
d. turn-around-time (periodic review)
e.fee schedule (comparison with laboratories of
comparable structure)
Quality Monitoring and Assessment Tools
Quality Control is the sum total of all those activities in
which the laboratory is engaged to ensure that the
information generated is correct. It includes all aspects
of lab activities that affect results such as the choice of
methods, education of personnel, handling of specimen
and reporting of results.
Division of laboratory practices on quality control
1. Preventive
--are those activities done prior to the examination of
specimen or sample and are intended to establish
systems conducive to accuracy in analytical system
such as :
--preventive maintenance and calibration of instruments
--testing of media
--orientation
--training of personnel
2. Assessment
--are those activities done during the testing to
determine whether the test systems are performing
correctly such as the use of standards and controls and
maintenance of control charts.
3. Corrective
-- are those activities done when error or possible error
is detected to correct the system such as equipment
trouble shooting, recalibration, of instruments, etc.
The assessment factors for method evaluation and
selection
1. Precision –maybe defined as the extent to which
measurements are repeated.
2. Accuracy –maybe defined as the extent to which
measurement approach the “true” quantity of the
constituent being analyzed.
--must be conducted on a reference material having a
known composition and concentration
3. Sensitivity –maybe defined as either :
a. the extent to which the minimum amount of
constituent can be measured or
b. the reliability of a test to be positive in the presence of
the disease it was design to detect
4. Specificity –maybe defined as either :
a. the extent to which measurements are those of a
single constituent or
b. the reliability of a test to be negative in the absence of
a disease it was design to detect
Management of Quality
Quality Control is the part of quality management
focused on fulfilling quality requirements (ex : ISO
certification, etc. ). Examining “control” materials of
known substances along with patient samples to
monitor the accuracy and precision of the complete
analytic process. QC is required for accreditation
purposes.
In 1981, the World Health Organization (WHO) used the
term "internal quality control" (IQC), which it defined as
“a set of procedures for continuously assessing
laboratory work and the emergent results”. The terms
QC and IQC are sometimes used interchangeably;
cultural setting and country may influence preferences
for these terms. In the past few years, "internal quality
control' has become confusing in some settings
because of the different meanings that have been
associated with the term. Some manufacturers of test
kits for qualitative tests have integrated "built-in"
controls in the design of their kits, which they
sometimes refer to as “internal controls”, meaning that
the materials are meant specifically for that
manufacturer’s kit. Finally, some people refer to any
quality control materials that are used in conjunction
with test runs as IQC, as in the 1981 WHO definition.
To avoid confusion, the term "quality control" will be
used in the laboratory is to use of control materials to
monitor the accuracy and precision of all the processes
associated with the examination (analytic) phase of
testing. Quality control processes vary, depending on
whether the laboratory examinations use methods that
produce quantitative, qualitative or semiquantitative
 results. These examinations differ in the following
ways :
1. Quantitative examinations -- measure the quantity
of an analyte present in the sample, and
measurements need to be accurate and precise. The
measurement produces a numeric value as an end-
point, expressed in a particular unit of measurement.
For example, the result of a blood glucose test might
be reported as 5 mg/dL.
As a part of the quality management system, the
laboratory must establish a QC program for all
quantitative tests. Evaluating each test run in this way
allows the laboratory to determine if patient results are
accurate and reliable. The steps for implementing a QC
program are :
> establish policies and procedures
> assign responsibility for monitoring and reviewing
> train all staff in how to properly follow policies and
procedures
> select good QC material
> establish control ranges for the selected material
> develop graphs to plot control values—these are
called Levey–Jennings charts
> establish a system for monitoring control values
> take immediate corrective action if needed
> maintain records of QC results and any corrective
actions taken
Quality Control Charts
-- Control of charts assist in monitoring avoidable and
unavoidable error.
Quality Control Charts are used in :
1. Identifying sporadic errors that are generally caused
by the analyst
--control values falling out of acceptable range are
rejected as avoidable errors that must be identified and
corrected
2. Determining subtle problems manifested by trends
and shifts
--a trend occurs when control values continue to
increase or decrease over consecutive days,
suggesting reagent or equipment alteration.
--a shift is formed by control values that maintain a
constant level on one side of mean value line,
suggesting an incorrectly prepared reagent.
2. Qualitative examinations -- are those that measure
the presence or absence of a substance, or evaluate
cellular characteristics such as morphology. The results
are not expressed in numerical terms, but in qualitative
terms such as “positive” or “negative”; “reactive” or
“nonreactive”; “normal” or “abnormal”; and “growth” or
“no growth”. Examples of qualitative examinations
include microscopic examinations, serologic
procedures for presence or absence of antigens and
antibodies, and many microbiological procedures.
2. Semiquantitative examinations -- are similar to
qualitative examinations, in that the results are not
expressed in quantitative terms. The difference is that
results of these tests are expressed as an estimate of
how much of the measured substance is present.
Results might be expressed in terms such as “trace
amount”, “moderate amount”, or “1+, 2+, or 3+”.
Examples are urine dipsticks, tablet tests for ketones
and some serologic agglutination procedures. In the
case of other serologic testing, the result is often
expressed as a titre—again involving a number but
providing an estimate, rather than an exact amount of
the quantity present. Some microscopic examinations
are considered semiquantitative because results are
reported as estimates of the number of cells seen per
low-power field or high-power field. For example, a
urine microscopic examination might report 0–5 red
blood cells seen per high-power field.
Conducting QC for many of these tests is not as easily
accomplished as with quantitative tests. Therefore, it
becomes essential that other processes within the
quality system are carefully conducted, in addition to
traditional QC methods. The following are some
important overarching concepts for quality that apply to
qualitative and semiquantitative tests.
> Sample management is important in all laboratory
testing. Examinations that are dependent on a viable
organism in the sample may need closer monitoring
and better communication with nonlaboratory staff
> Dedicated, professional staff who understand the
principles of QC are key to quality.
> Incubators, refrigerators, microscopes, autoclaves and
other equipment must be maintained and monitored
carefully
> Positive and negative controls must be used to
monitor the effectiveness of test procedures that use
special stains or reagents and tests with end-points
such as agglutination, color change or other non-
numeric results.
> Reagents should be stored according to the
manufacturer’s instructions, labelled with the date they
are opened and put into use, and discarded at the
expiration date.
> Keeping records of all QC processes and corrective
actions is necessary for continual improvement of the
laboratory quality system.
> When problems occur, investigate, correct, and repeat
patient testing.
***Note : If QC results are not what are expected, do not
report patient results.
Regardless of the type of examination that is performed,
steps for implementing and maintaining a QC program
include:
> establishing written policies and procedures, including
corrective actions
> training all laboratory staff
> ensuring complete documentation
> reviewing quality control data
Proficiency Testing
-- The major thrust is to improve the quality of laboratory
services by setting forth standards of
performance that must be met or exceeded
Reference Laboratory –is one of the recognized
competence, which examines in detail
proficiency testing samples or other material to
authenticate identification, content or
titer .
Referee Laboratory –is one of the recognized
competence and a general participant in the
proficiency program. It uses the same time schedule and
performs the examination
under the same conditions as well as all other general
participants.
The identity of these laboratories is not revealed.
Participating Laboratory –is enrolled in a proficiency
program and adheres to testing all
proficiency specimens in the identical manner employed
for patient testing.
X. SAFETY MANAGEMENT
Laboratory Safety Program
-- Are plans for preventing sickness and injury to
personnel and damage or destruction of physical
assets.
Safety program must include
1. Orientation of new employees to departments
attitudes and policies for assuring safe laboratory
conduct.
2. Periodic supervisory staff meetings for the purpose of
discussing safety
3. Orderly housekeeping standards for both laboratory
and housekeeping personnel.
4. Signs indicating need for special precaution in area
where posted; also strategically placed signs indicating
general need to avoid thoughtless and reckless
behavior.
5. Orderly storage and arrangement of supplies and
working materials; insistence on adequate space .
6. Policies governing eating, drinking,smoking and safe
attire within the department.
7. Periodic inspections by direction or designee for
purpose of indicating interest and concern for program.
8. Consideration of periodic programs by outside
persons with expertise in special areas of Laboratory
safety.
9. Consideration of hiring a full time or full time safety
officer.
10. Coordinated efforts with hospital for assuring
isolation of communicable disease, control of
nosocomial infections, and plans for dealing with fire
and disaster.
Hazards in the Laboratory :
1. Fire Hazard
-- A useful monitor for fire hazards is the smoke detector.
It gives the earliest warning of fire.
Classes of Fire Hazard
Class A Fire
--This is a fire of ordinary combustible for example paper,
cloth, wood, trash, etc.
Class B
--This is a fire of flammable liquids for example gasoline
or organic solvents. This kind of fire can be put out by a
dry chemical, foam or carbon dioxide fire extinguisher.
Never use water.
Class C
--This is an electrical fire, for example motor, wiring, etc.
Only dry chemical or CO2 type fire extinguisher should
be used. Water should not be used for this type of fire.
Class D
--This is a fire of combustible metals, certain chips,
shavings, turnings, etc. This kind of fire maybe
extinguished by dry-powder type extinguisher, sand or
NaCl.
2. Chemical Hazard
--The dangers which are associated with chemicals
arise from their toxicity and hazards due to burns, fire
and explosions.
Types of Chemical Hazards :
a. External – this is the result of caustic or corrosive
substances like acids, bases, strong salts and silver
nitrate
-- precaution should be taken to prevent accidents like
splashes and container spills
b. Internal– this is the result of the toxicity of substances
-- Benzidine, O-dianisidine, O-toluidine are known to
induce cancer of the bladder in man in some years
after the first exposure
3. Radiation Hazard
a. Radioactive isotopes – the use of radioactive
isotope is becoming widespread with the development
of radioimmunoassays
b. X-rays – the hazards from x-ray come primarily from
special instrument such as x-ray diffraction apparatus
c. Ultraviolet sources – the danger from uv arise from
the lack of proper shield and from human carelessness
-- it can easily be controlled using glasses because of its
shallow penetration to solid materials
-- uv lamps should be turned off after use to avoid
exposure (for control of microorganisms and to sterilize
objects)
4. Biological Hazard
-- The source of danger from biological sources ( CSF,
urine, blood etc.) is that they may harbor pathogens
that can be transmitted by various routes to the
laboratory staff by receiving, processing and disposing
them
5. Mechanical or Physical Hazard
-- These hazards are associated with structural or
mechanical defects as slippery floors, projections that
cause cuts and bruises like nails, inadequate lighting,
machinery with unprotected moving parts, etc.
6. Electrical Hazard
-- These hazards are attributed to improper grounding,
inadequate wiring or improper of equipments
7. Thermal Hazard
-- Laboratories have fire hazards because of their use of
flames, heating devices and electrical equipments
--Contact burns of individuals with hot equipments as
heaters and autoclaves are common problems
8. Explosions and Implosions
-- The hazards from explosions are always potential
when explosive chemicals particularly compressed
gases are used in the lab. with electrical and heating
equipment
--Glass containers used as traps in vacuum-filtering
devices may implode and shower the area with glass
and contents of vessel
9. Noise
-- It has an effect on the quality of the performance
through fatigue and distraction
--Sudden unexpected noise may produce deleterious
effects during critical manual procedures
10. Cryogenic Hazards
-- These are due to freezing and handling cold materials
such as dry ice
Protective Methods and Procedures
Programs for handling chemicals
1. Prescribe containers and adequate storage, shelving
and ventilation
2. Permanent container labels
3. Policies for transporting containers
4. Instruction for dispensing, transferring and disposing
all chemicals
Programs for handling biological materials :
1. Instruction for collecting, transferring, storing, and
disposing of all specimens
2. Policies for isolating test on specimen suspected to
contain infectious agents
3. Instruction for washing and care and cleaning of
surfaces
4. Instructions for cleaning and or disposing of specimen
collection equipment
Color Coded Waste Disposal
 Green - biodegradable (leftover foods, leaves,
twigs etc.)
 Yellow - infectious wastes (syringe with blood,
human wastes, etc.)
 Black - non biodegradable noninfectious (plastics,
Styrofoams, etc.)
Fire Prevention Program :
1. Physical facilities and operational practices that
satisfy fire code
2. Instructions for handling and storing combustibles;
container labels with “flash points”
3. Instructions for operating all heat-generating
equipment (gas burners, hot plates, etc.)
4. Well-conceived and rehearsal plans in event of fire
and include strategically placed and properly
maintained sand buckets, fire extinguishers and fire
blankets
Safety Equipment in the Laboratory
1. Fire Extinguisher
General Types :
a. Water type – which is useful for fires of ordinary
combustibles as wood, paper, rugs, etc.
b. Dry chemical type – which is effective against most
fires but particularly those involving flammable liquids,
metals and electric fires
c. Carbon dioxide type – which is useful for small fire
due to flammable liquids
2. Safety Showers
-- These must be conveniently located for use in
accidents involving acids, caustics and harmful liquids,
clothing fires, etc.
3. Eye Washes
-- These must be available to promptly flash the eyes in
case of accidents
4. Safety Shields
-- These protect workers from several type of potential
accidents such as exposure to radiation like laser
beams
-- Safety shields should be made of material that is
shatter proof, fire retardant and able to filter out harmful
radiations
-- One important type of safety shield is a chemical hood
Personnel protective equipments and materials
1. Clothing
2. Gloves
3. Safety shoes
4. Hard helmets
--they are required when there is overhead machinery in
the lab.
5. Safety eye glasses
6. Respirators
--these should be available in emergency situations
where dangerous gases, lke boron, dry fluoride,
dimethyl amine, ethylene oxide, hydrogen bromide are
used or produced
7. Face masks
--these are used by personnel handling animals infected
with pathogenic airborne organisms
Safety Codes
Safety codes are aimed to serve in form of a poster and
placed in strategic point in a laboratory so as to serve
as a reminder to laboratory workers to be safety
conscious at all times.
1. Use proper techniques.
2. Use safety devices and protective clothing where
necessary.
3. Do not smoke, eat, drink, bite nails or pencils or apply
cosmetics in the laboratory.
4. Assume that every chemical and biological material is
dangerous unless there is definite information to the
contrary.
5. Do not pipet with mouth.
6. Fooling around should never be permitted in the
laboratory.
7. Hands should be washed as often as needed.
8. Be tidy, clean up spillage immediately.
9. Keep hands dry to avoid shocks from contact with
faulty electrical switches, plugs and wiring.
10. Turn off burners when not in immediate use.
11. Do not work alone in the laboratory, a second
person should be within call.
Safety Management Program
A. Administrative organization and responsibilities
Every institution, irrespective of size, should have a
safety program. Such a program should be designed,
when appropriate, to ensure compliance with :
1.Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
requirements for health and safety,
2.Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requirements
for safe handling of radioactive isotopes,
3 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations
designed to implement the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA),
4. Relevant state and local regulations
5. Requirements of accrediting bodies, such as the Joint
Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
Organizations
Even when a safety program is already in effect, a new
laboratory activity may require that the program be
modified to address the following issues :
 the unique hazards introduced by the new activity;
 the methods of controlling these hazards;
 the new procedures needed (e.g., signs, waste
disposal, and personnel monitoring);
 the orientation of personnel; and
 ways of ensuring that the new procedures are
followed.
Laboratory Safety Program :
1. Goals of a Laboratory Safety Program
-- The goals of a laboratory safety program should be to
protect those working in the laboratory, others who may
be exposed to hazards from the laboratory, and the
environment. Hazardous materials should be handled
and disposed of in such a way that people, other living
organisms, and the environment are protected from
harm.
2. Responsibility for Laboratory Safety
--The ultimate responsibility for safety within an
institution lies with its chief executive officer, who,
along with all immediate associates (ex : vice
presidents, deans, department heads, laboratory
directors, and project directors), should have a
continuing, commitment to the safety program.
-- Safety awareness should be a part of everyone's
habits, and can only be achieved if senior and
responsible staff evince a sincere, visible, and
continuing interest in the prevention of injuries and
occupational illnesses. Laboratory personnel, for their
part, must accept responsibility for carrying out their
work in a way that protects themselves and their fellow
workers.
3. Safety Plans
-- Because experience has shown that voluntary safety
programs are often inadequate, prudent practice
requires clearly defined safety rules and monitoring for
compliance. These rules should be readily available in
writing to all involved in laboratory operations. This goal
is often accomplished by preparing a laboratory safety
manual.
-- Safety plans should be coordinated with institutional
and local community emergency services. Discussions
with the emergency groups should be held prior to any
need for their services, so that they can become
familiar with any potential problem areas (ex:
hazardous pathogens, radioisotopes, and chemicals)
that may be encountered when they are called for
assistance.
-- The institution has the responsibility to require that all
hazardous materials (ex : infectious agents, certain
chemicals, and radioisotopes) are properly labeled. In
addition, persons in the laboratory responsible for
handling an emergency should be designated, with
telephone numbers posted, so that emergency service
personnel and others, such as security guards, know
whom to contact at all times of the day or night.
4. Safety Meetings and Safety Committees
-- In the most effective safety programs, everyone
concerned with the laboratory becomes involved. This
involvement is usually accomplished by ensuring
maximum participation in planning, and by conducting
group safety meetings.
-- In large industrial research laboratories, it is common
practice to have monthly meetings of all scientists and
technicians reporting to a research supervisor. The
chairperson is responsible for developing the agenda of
safety topics relevant to the group's activities. Minutes
of the meeting are sent to the group members, to the
safety coordinator, and to higher management.
-- Small laboratories with no formal safety organization
should hold periodic safety reviews to discuss actual or
potential hazards and how to deal with them, in order to
maintain a safety awareness.
5. Safety Communications
-- Large laboratories often have regular safety
newsletters containing useful safety advice and
accounts of laboratory accidents along with the lessons
to be learned from them.
-- Safety posters are helpful, but less so than the other
kinds of safety communication. Posters should be
changed at least every month to catch people's
attention.
-- Reference books on laboratory hazards, occupational
health, and good laboratory practices should be readily
available. The Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
that chemical manufacturers must now supply should
also be readily available to all those working in a
biomedical laboratory.
-- The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard (the
"right-to-know" rule) requires that every employee be
trained to understand the hazards of the substances
with which they work, and that current toxicity
information be readily available.
6. Monitoring and Safety
--One of the essential elements of a good safety
program is the monitoring of the safety performance of
a laboratory. Observations of individual safety practices,
operability of safety equipment, and compliance with
safety rules should be part of the audit.
--Essential safety equipment, such as sterilizers and eye
wash fountains, should be tested periodically and a
record kept of their last inspection. Malfunctioning
equipment should be repaired promptly. Personal
protective equipment for use in an emergency should
be checked periodically, and the qualified users should
receive updated training.
B. Facilities
-- The physical facility is a secondary barrier, and it
should be designed to ensure a functional laboratory
environment that minimizes potential hazards to those
working in the immediate area and to others throughout
the institution. The design should control traffic, prevent
dispersal of aerosols to other areas, and provide for
safe movement of hazardous materials and waste.
> Laboratory Design :
1. Ventilation -- vital aspect of biosafety. Air handling
systems should be such that minimal dust accumulates.
Laboratories operating at Biosafety Level 3 or 4 must
 have directional airflow so that air from these
laboratories does not reach other areas.
2. Electrical -- Emergency power needs for laboratories
should be defined. Generally, biological safety cabinets
in Biosafety Level 2 laboratories will not be on the
emergency power system and thus cannot be used if
there is a power failure. Circuits providing emergency
power should be readily identifiable.
3. Water -- The water supply system should be
designed so that back siphonage cannot occur; all
faucets that might allow reflux to occur should be
equipped with vacuum breakers. If there are both
potable and nonpotable water sources in the laboratory,
each should be clearly labeled. Safety showers may be
needed for emergencies involving certain biohazards or
combined hazards.
4. Sewage -- Disposal of waste through the sewage
system is frequently an effective way of eliminating
material posing a low level of biohazard, although, if it
is not placed in the drain properly, there is a potential
for splatter or aerosolization.
5. Vacuum -- If there is a vacuum system serving
multiple areas, care should be taken that there are
filters in the system, and that there is an overflow trap
containing an appropriate disinfectant to prevent entry
of contaminated material into the piping system and
pumps. It is often best to use either a stand-alone
pump-type vacuum system, or to use a water siphon
vacuum system that is attached to a faucet (provided
that measures are taken to prevent back-siphonage).
6. Waste Handling -- The layout of the physical facilities
should facilitate handling of biohazardous waste and
should minimize the likelihood of contamination of
clean material by such waste . Contaminated material
must be segregated from noncontaminated material by
physical facilities or appropriate containers.
7. Safety Equipment -- Biological safety cabinets,
autoclaves, and other biosafety equipment should be
properly installed and checked to ensure correct
operation. The equipment should be recertified if it is
moved to another location.
8. Traffic Flow Pattern -- The pattern of traffic flow
within the facility should be such that the more
hazardous areas are remote from other types of
operations. Access to a Biosafety Level 3 laboratory
through two sequential doors is required. In addition,
unnecessary traffic into the laboratory should be
discouraged. Doors to laboratories of Biosafety Level 2
or higher should be kept closed when work is in
progress in the laboratory.
9. Laundry -- Laboratory clothing and towels originating
in Biosafety Level 3 and 4 facilities should be routinely
decontaminated before being sent to the laundry.
Clothing and towels from all other laboratories can be
sent to the laundry without special treatment.
10. Storage Areas -- Storage areas for infectious
materials, including stock cultures, actively used
infectious materials, and biohazardous waste, should
be designed to control access and minimize the
likelihood of contamination of personnel or the
environment. It is desirable that all hazardous
chemicals be stored below eye level. Freezers,
especially liquid nitrogen freezers, present a particular
problem because vials or other containers of infectious
agents may break and contaminate the liquid nitrogen
or a portion of the storage system. Storage in the gas
phase of liquid nitrogen freezers is recommended. To
decontaminate the freezer, the contents should be
removed, the nitrogen allowed to evaporate, and the
contaminated areas disinfected and cleaned
appropriately.
> Constructing, Remodelling and Decommissioning
of a Laboratory :
-- During construction or remodeling of laboratory areas,
there should be careful documentation
of the architectural features of the constructed area,
and permanent files of the blueprints (as-
built drawings) should be maintained.
> Maintenance
-- The physical plant or engineering group of the
organization is generally responsible for maintaining
the physical facilities.
> Housekeeping
-- Housekeeping personnel generally do not have a
scientific background or a good understanding of
various biohazards. It is best that their responsibilities
be clearly defined and generally limited to the cleaning
of floors, the handling of nonhazardous waste, and
other periodic housekeeping activities such as washing
walls and windows.
C. Operations
-- Operations refer to the day-to-day activities of an
ongoing safety program. Managing the operational
aspects of a safety program requires clear definition of
the responsibility and the authority of safety personnel
and designation of the chain of command.
1. Safety Orientation and Continuing Education for
Employees
2. Evaluation of Laboratory-Associated Hazards
3. Policy and Procedure Manuals
4. Accident Reports and Investigations
5. Record keeping
6. Auditing
7. Registry of Agents -- a central registry should be
maintained of the identity and location of the various
infectious agents being handled throughout the facility.
It may be helpful to list, on the hazard warning signs on
the laboratory doors, the agents, the common names of
the diseases caused by them, and the names and
telephone numbers of persons to be contacted in the
event of an emergency.
8. Waste Management
9. Signs -- These biohazard signs should be posted at
the entrances to areas if there are
special conditions for entry.
D. Medical Program
-- The extent of the medical program for employees with
potential exposure to infectious agents should be
based upon the specific risks and hazards of the
laboratory activities, as well as on the overall medical
program of the organization of which the laboratory is a
part.
1. Conditions Increasing Employee Risk of Adverse
Health Outcome
a. Deficiencies of Host Defenses
b. Reproductive Hazards
c. Allergies
2. Program Design
3. Preplacement Examination (PPE) -- The primary
goal of a preplacement examination (PPE) For a
prospective employee is to reveal any medical
condition that might put the worker or coworkers at
increased risk because of certain job exposures or
activities.
a. Medical History
b. Occupational Health History
c. Physical Examination
d. Laboratory and Other Testing
e. Serum Bank -- The potential usefulness of a
serum bank will depend upon the agents to which the
employees may be exposed, the likelihood that apparent
or inapparent infection will cause a change in the level of
humoral antibodies, and the availability of diagnostic
tests for the agents being handled.
4. Immunizations
5. Periodic Monitoring Examination (PME) --
detection of patterns of disease in the work force that
may indicate work-related problems and suggest the
need to evaluate the effectiveness of control measures.
6. Postemployment Evaluation (PEE) -- A
postemployment evaluation (PEE) may be desirable
immediately before an employee leaves the laboratory
of the employer.
7. Agent-Specific Surveillance
8. Accident Reporting
9. Record keeping and Result Notification -- Workers
should be informed of the results of their occupational
medical evaluations.
10. Resources -- The medical program should be
designed and supervised by a qualified individual, such
as a physician or nurse practitioner.
E. Emergencies
1. Preparation and General Procedures
2. Evacuation Procedures
a. Emergency Alarm System
b. Evacuation Routes
c. Shutdown Procedures
d. Start-Up Procedures
e. Drills
f. Power failure
3. Fires
4. Spills and Releases
5. Other Emergencies -- Laboratories should be
prepared for problems resulting from severe weather or
loss of a utility service.
F. Regulation and Accreditation
XII. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Laboratory Budgeting Process
Financial management
--involves planning the procurement and utilization of
funds and controlling the financial operation to assure
effective utilization of funds. “Fund” is often used to
money or cash.
Financial planning
--is concerned with the setting of financial goals, the
determination of future financial requirements and the
possible sources of funds which should be available at
the least cost when needed. The tool of management in
financial planning is the budget.
Budget
--is the systematic programming of organizational
activities based on their costs and on the amount of
resources available.
Kinds of Budget :
1. Master Budget –which is prepared for the entire
organization
2. Detailed Budget –which is prepared for the various
units in the organization
How to Prepare A Budget
Budget is divided into :
1. Income –can be projected on the basis of patient
days, services rendered per patient day and the charges
that may be made for these services.
2. Expenses –involve personnel costs which amount to
about 70% of total expenses, materials, leases and
contracts and overhead costs (include interest on
indebtedness, utilities, phone, building maintenance and
various other costs that cannot be allocated to a specific
area)
Personnel costs –are defined in larger part by the
salaries of permanent employees who are already
working at the start of the fiscal year.
Supplies –can be estimated on the basis of previous
experience, new and changes in the supplies can be
figured into totals already established
Chart of Accounts
 The grouping of expense categories for budgetary
purposes is often termed as “chart of accounts”.
 Laboratory budgeting is an ongoing process that
culminates annually with the expense projections
for the forthcoming fiscal year.
 The forecasts are made in accordance with chart of
accounts and are divided into quarters.
 These three-month intervals represent the best
times for expenditure modifications.
Tools For Fiscal Decision Making
1. Laboratory Workload Reporting
2. Cost Finding
Laboratory Workload Reporting
Workload unit
–is defined as one minute of technical, clerical and aide
time
Cost Finding
Tools For Fiscal Decision Making
1. Laboratory Workload Reporting
2. Cost Finding
> Laboratory Workload Reporting
Workload unit :
–is defined as one minute of technical, clerical and aide
time
> Cost Finding :
-- is a means by which a laboratory documents its costs
for performing a particular procedure and then
 establishes its changes based on the involved direct
and indirect costs.
-- should be done by laboratory personnel in
consultation with fiscal staff of the hospital, since the
laboratory staff can analyze steps involved in
performing procedures
1. Direct vs. Indirect Costs
Types of Costs :
a. Direct costs –are costs of materials supplies and
personnel time directly attributable to specific
measurement or examination
--equipment leasing is a direct cost
b. Indirect costs –are costs necessary to operate a
laboratory that are not directly attributable to specific
measurements or examinations
--includes allocated portion of utilities, laboratory and
institutional administrative expenses, building
depreciation and janitorial service
2. Fixed vs Variable Costs
--fixed and variable costs is useful in analyzing the
effects of changing volumes of determinations or
expenses and revenue.
--fixed costs in a laboratory are constant overtime
regardless of volume of determinations.
Ex : depreciations, supervisor salaries and rental
charges
--variable costs are those costs which will vary in
relationship to the volume the volume of determinations.
Ex : supplies and reagents
Job Costing
Wage and salary administration
-- Concerned with establishing and implementing
policies and practices of employee compensation.
-- Determines physical needs of employees and social
status
-- Wage is the remuneration paid for the service of labor
in production periodically to an employee / worker
-- Payment made to labor is generally referred to as
wages.
-- Wages – refer to hourly rate paid to such group of
production and maintenance
-- Salary refers to the periodically rates paid to clerical,
administrative and professional
employees.
-- Money paid periodically to person whose output
cannot be measured is generally
referred as salary
Factors influence wage and salary administration :
1. Government legislation and public policy
2. Organizations ability to pay
3. Labor supply and demand
4. Going wages and salaries
5. Cost of living
6. Productivity
7. Job requirement
8. Management attitude about wage to be paid
System of wage and salary payment
Two basic system :
1. Time wage system – an employee is paid a define
amount of money for a specific period of work
2. In piece wage system – an employee is paid fixed
rate per unit produced of job completed
Basic Pay :
-- The basic pay determines many other payment such
as allowances, advances and certain fringe benefits
-- Allowances are paid in addition to basic wage to
maintain the value of basic wage over a
period of time
-- Advances – supply money or good on credit
-- Fringe benefits – additional benefit provided to an
employee
Ex : a company car or health insurance
-- Straight time – billing rates for hours worked apply to
eight (8) per day or forty (40) per week
-- Overtime billing rates – apply to hours worked in
excess of eight (8) hours per day or forty
(40 )hours per week
-- Withholding of taxes – agencies are responsible for
withholding taxes
Principles of wage and salary administration :
1. External Equity -- ensure that jobs are fairly
compensated in comparison to similar jobs in the labor
market
-- factors/variables extent to organization influence
levels of compensation
> demand and supply labor
> market rate
2. Internal Equity -- organizations have various jobs are
relative in value term
-- the compensation system should ensure that more
difficult jobs should be paid more
3. Individual Worth -- this principles, an individual
should be paid as per his/her performance
-- the compensation system, enables the individual to be
rewarded according to his contribution to the
organization
XII. DECISION MAKING
Problem
-- defined as a deviation or an imbalance between what
“should be” and what “actually is” happening.
-- a problem could be answered by question, “what is
wrong that needs correction”
Problem solving
The problem-solving process involves thoughts,
discussions, actions, and decisions that occur from the
first consideration of a problematic situation to the goal.
The problems are varied, but some common problems
include budgeting funds, raising funds, planning events,
addressing customer or client complaints, creating or
adapting products or services to fit needs, supporting
members, and raising awareness about issues or
causes.
Categories of Problems
1. Causality-based problem
-- they have well defined boundaries
-- elements are connected primarily through cause and
effect
-- Ex : intercoms failure to work

2. Meaning-based problem
-- boundaries are poorly defined
-- elements are rarely linked directly by cause and effect
-- Ex : financial proceeds of the laboratory is declining
Participative of Unilateral Problem Solving
Managers begin by determining whether group
participation in problem solving is desirable.
1. Will acceptance or rejection of the solution by any
employees involved in implementing the solution make a
difference in how well it is implemented ?
2. Does the quality of the solution make the difference ?
Steps in Problem Solving
1. Find the problem -- define the problem by
considering the three elements shared by every
problem : the current undesirable situation, the goal or
more desirable situation, and obstacles in the way . At
the end of this stage, the group should be able to
compose a single sentence that summarizes the
problem called a problem statement . This step
involved exploring the “what” related to the problem .
Avoid wording in the problem statement or question that
hints at potential solutions .
Here are some good questions to ask during this stage:
> What is the current difficulty?
> How did we come to know that the difficulty exists?
> Who/what is involved?
> Why is it meaningful/urgent/important?
> What have the effects been so far?
> What, if any, elements of the difficulty require
clarification?
2. Diagnose the problem -- this step focuses on the
“why" of the problem . At this stage, group
members can discuss the potential causes of the
difficulty . They also want to begin
setting out an agenda or timeline for the group’s
problem-solving process, looking forward to the next
steps . Once the problem has been analyzed, the group
can pose a problem question that will guide the group as
it generates possible solutions .
3. Develop alternative solutions -- during this step,
group members generate possible solutions to the
problem . Solutions should not be evaluated at this
point, only proposed and clarified. Since many
problems are multifaceted, it is necessary for group
members to generate solutions for each part of the
problem separately, making sure to have multiple
solutions for each part. The question should be what
"could" we do to address this problem, not what
"should" we do to address it.
4. Evaluate alternative solutions -- during this step,
solutions can be critically evaluated based on their
credibility, completeness, and worth. Once the potential
solutions have been narrowed based on more obvious
differences in relevance and/or merit, the group should
analyze each solution based on its potential effects—
especially negative effects. While there are several
fairly similar models for problem solving, there are
many varied decision-making techniques that groups
can use. For example, to narrow the list of proposed
solutions, group members may decide by majority vote,
by weighing the pros and cons, or by discussing them
until a consensus is reached.
5. Select the best solution – the final decision-making
point and their performance determines how decisive
managers will be. Once the final decision is reached,
the group leader or manager should confirm that the
group is in agreement. It may be beneficial to let the
group break for a while or even to delay the final
decision until a later meeting to allow people time to
evaluate it outside of the group context. Before
implementation, groups should also determine how and
when they would assess the effectiveness of the
solution
6. Implement the solution after developing a plan --
implementing the solution requires some advanced
planning, and it should not be rushed unless the group
is operating under strict time restraints or delay may
lead to some kind of harm. Although some solutions
can be implemented immediately, others may take
days, months, or years.
7. Evaluate feedback and take corrective action
where needed to ensure the problem is solved .
-- Observe the effectiveness of the solution and how
people react to it.
-- Once a solution has been reached and the group has
implement it, it should proceed deliberately and
cautiously, making sure to consider possible
consequences and address them as needed.
Major types of decision
 Considered decisions –those that have a major
effect on the total operation
--they are complicated and require considerable
reflection
 Operational decisions –are the routine kinds of
things we do on day-to-day basis
 Swallow hard decisions –the kind that are often
personally uncomfortable, they usually deal with
interpersonal relationship and must be decided by
the managers
-- employees may not like the decision but they can
understand why it is was made
 Ten-second decisions –are dictated by pressure
-- they may involve nothing more than an employee
requesting an hour off that day