T.R.

GEBZE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

THE EMERGENCE OF NEW BIO-METHODOLOGIES IN

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

DENİZ GİZEM MANAVOĞLU

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

GEBZE
2021
 T.R.
GEBZE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

THE EMERGENCE OF NEW BIO-

METHODOLOGIES IN ARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN

DENİZ GİZEM MANAVOĞLU

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

THESIS SUPERVISOR
ASSOC. PROF. DR. LEVENT ARIDAĞ

GEBZE
2021
 T.C.
GEBZE TEKNİK ÜNİVERSİTESİ
FEN BİLİMLERİ ENSTİTÜSÜ

MİMARİ TASARIMDA YENİ BİYO-

METODOLOJİLER

DENİZ GİZEM AMANAVOĞLU

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ
MİMARLIK ANABİLİM DALI

DANIŞMANI
DOÇ. DR. LEVENT ARIDAĞ

GEBZE
2021
 YÜKSEK LİSANS JÜRİ ONAY FORMU

GTÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yönetim Kurulu’nun 08/07/2021 tarih ve 2021/32 sayılı
kararıyla oluşturulan jüri tarafından 28/07/2021 tarihinde tez savunma sınavı yapılan Deniz
Gizem MANAVOĞLU’nun tez çalışması Mimarlık Anabilim Dalında YÜKSEK LİSANS
tezi olarak kabul edilmiştir.

JÜRİ
ÜYE
(TEZ DANIŞMANI) : DOÇ. DR. LEVENT ARIDAĞ

ÜYE : DR. ÖĞR. ÜYESİ CAN BOYACIOĞLU

ÜYE : DR. ÖĞR.ÜYESİ ZÜLAL NURDAN ERBAŞ KORUR

ONAY
Gebze Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yönetim Kurulu’nun
...…/.…../……… tarih ve ….…/…..... sayılı kararı.

İMZA/MÜHÜR

1
 SUMMARY

Since the early ages, nature has been an inspiration for humanity and imitation
of the nature also appears in architecture. In order to understand nature, we use biology
and technology and with the advancements in these fields; architecture, along with
other fields, are affected greatly. Advances in genetics along with the digital design
technology, offers new possibilities to designers for the creation process in
architecture. Space, which is the central concept in architecture, has been affected by
these biological and technological developments and the way we perceive architectural
space has undergone a transformation. The integration between biology and design
creates new spatial possibilities and design evolves into consisting programming and
controlling cellular structures that grow, evolve, and eventually mutate. The physical
environment is transformed by feeding on the principles of biology, and in this process,
the perception of space also changes.
This study explores parallelism with architectural design by exploring existing
biological material and observing its dynamic structures. Case studies in the thesis are
projects that inspires the designer to create inter-scale interaction, hybridized
structures with biological substances, and semi-living systems with unpredictable
nature. The creation of semi-living architectural structures offers the opportunity to
activate the sensitivities of natural dynamic mechanisms that are missing in the
artificially produced systems and to benefit from natural systems.
The original value of this study is to read the relationship between space and
biology through sustainability and to fill the biodigital architectural design gap in the
sustainable architecture literature with the theoretical and practical information
obtained as a result of the study.

Keywords: Biodigital Architecture, Time-Based Architecture, Post-Parametric,

Generative Systems, Semi-Living Architecture, Hybrid Space

v
 ÖZET

Doğa, ilk çağlardan bu yana insanlık için büyük bir ilham kaynağı olmuştur ve
doğayı taklit mimarlıkta da karşımıza çıkar. Doğayı anlamak için kullandığımız
biyoloji ve teknolojideki ilerlemeler mimarlık başta olmak üzere diğer alanları da
etkiler. Özellikle genetik alanındaki gelişmeler; dijital tasarım teknolojisiyle birlikte,
mimarlığın yaratım süreçleriyle ilgili tasarımcılara yeni olanaklar sunar. Mimarlığın
ana merkezindeki kavram olan mekân, bu biyolojik ve teknolojik gelişmelerden
etkilenmiş, mekânı algılayış biçimimiz bir dönüşüme uğramıştır. Biyoloji ve tasarım
arasındaki bütünleşme yeni mekânsal olanaklar yaratır ve tasarım; büyüyen,
evrimleşen, sonunda mutasyona uğrayan hücresel yapıları programlama ve kontrol
etmeye doğru evrilir. Fiziksel çevre, biyoloji ilkelerinden beslenerek dönüşür ve bu
süreçte, mekân algısı da değişir.
Bu çalışma, mevcut biyolojik materyali keşfetmek ve dinamik yapılarını
gözlemleyerek mimari tasarımla paralelliği araştırır. Yarı-canlı mimari yapıların
yaratılması, yapay olarak üretilen sistemlerde eksik olan doğal dinamik
mekanizmaların duyarlılığını devreye sokma ve doğal sistemlerden yararlanma fırsatı
sunar.
Bu çalışmanın özgün değeri; mekânla biyoloji arasındaki ilişkiyi
sürdürülebilirlik üzerinden okumak ve çalışma sonucunda elde edilen teorik ve pratik
bilgilerin sürdürülebilir mimarlık literatüründeki biyodijital mimari tasarım boşluğunu
doldurmaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Biyo-Dijital Mimarlık, Zamana Dayalı mimarlık, Post-

Parametrik, Kendini Üreten Sistemler, Yarı Yaşayan Mimari, Hibrit Mekânlar

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Levent ARIDAĞ for all his
guidance, patience and sincere support with valuable comments and suggestions
throughout the thesis. I would also like to thank jury members Assistant Professor
Zülal Nurdan ERBAŞ KORUR and Assistant Professor Can BOYACIOĞLU for their
constructive critics and valuable comments.
Big thank you to my family and friends for all the support I received for this task
would not have succeeded without my friends' and family's endless love,
encouragement and patience. I would like to express my gratefulness to my mother,
Yücel MANAVOĞLU, who always supports me during every difficult time of my life,
and to my father, Tuncer MANAVOĞLU, who believes in my success. Special thanks
to my brother, Ali Bora MANAVOĞLU for keeping me motivated and encouraging
me to work on my goals.

vii
 TABLE of CONTENTS

Page
SUMMARY v
ÖZET vi
ACKNOWLEDMENTS vii
TABLE of CONTENTS viii
LIST of ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS x
LIST of FIGURES xi
LIST of TABLES xiv

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. DISCOVERY OF BIO-ARCHITECTURE 3
2.1. Architecture and Biology Relationship 3
2.1.1. Biomorphic Formations 5
2.2. Early Architecture Theories Inspired by Nature 7
2.2.1. Art Nouveau 7
2.2.2. Organic Architecture 10
2.2.3. Metabolism 12
2.2.4. Biomimesis 16
2.2.4.1. Design Approaches in Biomimicry 18
2.2.4.2. Levels of Biomimicry 19
3. TWO APPROACHES IN BIO-ARCHITECTURE: DIGITAL AND 24
ORGANIC
3.1. Digital Approach: 20th Century Digital Architecture Theories 25
3.1.1. Evolutionary Architecture 25
3.1.2. Genetic Architecture 29
3.2. Organic Approach: 21st Century Theories That Form the Concept of 32
Hybrid-Space
3.2.1. Digital Botanic Architecture 32
3.2.2. Neoplasmatic Design 36
3.2.3. Biodigital Design 43
4. EXPERIMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF BIO-ARCHITECTURE 45
4.1. Digitally Crafted Experiments 46

viii
 4.1.1. Embryological Houses 46
4.1.2. Interactivator 49
4.1.3. Bionic Pavilion 51
4.1.4. Programmable Biological Structures 53
4.1.5. Bio-Interfaces 56
4.2. Hybrid Space Experiments 59
4.2.1. Neoplasmatic Design Experiments 59
4.2.1.1. Cyborgian Interfaces 60
4.2.1.2. Synthetic Neoplasms 61
4.2.1.3. Contaminant 62
4.2.2. EcoLogic Studio Projects 65
4.2.2.1. Photo. Synth. Etica 65
4.2.2.2. HORTUS 67
4.2.2.3. HORTUS XL 69
4.2.3. Algae Tower 71
4.2.4. Plant Anima 72
4.2.5. Tokyo Subway System 74
4.3. Evaluation of Example Projects 76
5. BIO-PARAMETRICAL STUDIES 78
5.1. Fungal Surface 79
5.2. Neoplasmic Space 85
6. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS 90

REFERENCES 94
BIOGRAPHY 98

ix
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Abbreviations Explanations
and Acronyms
AD Magazine : Architectural Design Magazine
D•BA2 : Digital Botanical Architecture
DNA : Deoxyribonucleic acid
PP : Physarum polycephalum
RNA : Ribonucleic Acid

x
 LIST of FIGURES

Figure No: Page

2.1: Frederick Kiesler, Endless House, 1950. 3
2.2: Examples for ornamentation in Art Nouveau. 8
2.3: Casa Battlo. Antoni Gaudi, 1904. 9
2.4: Interior of Casa Battlo. 9
2.5: Casa Mila. Antoni Gaudi, 1906-1910. 10
2.6: Johnson Wax HQ by Frank Lloyd Wright. 11
2.7: Johnson Wax HQ-Frank Lloyd Wright, 1936-1939. 12
2.8: Helix City Project sketch by Kisho Kurokawa. 13
2.9: Kisho Kurokawa Helix City Project, Tokyo, Japan (1961). 14
2.10: Tokyo Bay Development Plan. Shukan Asahi, 1960. 14
2.11: Marine City Projects. Kiyonori Kikutake, 1958-1963. 15
2.12: Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tokyo by Kisho Kurukowa, 1972. 16
2.13: Japanese trains mimicking birds. 19
2.14: Self-cooling, termite mound inspired building in Zimbabwe. 20
2.15: Zira Island Master Plan, BIG Architects, 2009. 21
2.16: Living Pod (1966), David Greene. 22
2.17: Turning Torso Tower (1999), Santiago Calatrava. 23
3.1: Evolutionary process through generations. John Frazer, 1995. 28
3.2: Jeffrey Goldstein (1999) Emergent. 31
3.3: BioTower. Dennis Dollens, 2009. 34
3.4: BioTower's leaf-cluster systems. 35
3.5: eTrees. 35
3.6: Synthetic Neoplasm, Marcos Cruz (2008). 37
3.7: Algaeculture, Steve Pike (2001). 38
3.8: Interaction Vessel. 39
3.9: Colonial growth can be seen in the monitor cell. 39
3.10: Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in Architecture. 41
3.11: The Molecular House, 2000. 42
3.12: Genetic Barcelona Project, Alberto T.Estevez, 2003-2006. 44
4.1: Computer renderings of Embryological Houses, 2002. 47

xi
4.2: Evolutionary process of the houses. 48
4.3: Architectural model of Embryological House. 48
4.4: Data space (collected by visitors) and the environment. 49
4.5: Seeds and growth. 50
4.6: Evolution and model. 50
4.7: Evolutionary process of Interactivator. 51
4.8: Bionic Pavilion by 3deluxe, Hannover, 2000. 52
4.9: Scape, Expo 2000. 52
4.10: Diagram showing the design process of Scape. 52
4.11: Design process shown by diagram. 54
4.12: Human kidney embryo cell used in experiments, 2019. 54
4.13: Cell morphology. 55
4.14: Illustration of cell structure. 55
4.15: The biological layer of Camden / London. 56
4.16: Growth models of the habitat created in Houdini software. 57
4.17: Morphological studies, 2019. 58
4.18: Marcos Cruz, Cyborgian Interfaces, 2005-2007. 60
4.19: Marcos Cruz, In-Wall Creatures 1, 1999–2001. 61
4.20: Stefanie Surjo, Synthetic pet growth, 2004–2005. 62
4.21: Monitor vessels. 63
4.22: Monitor vessels and bacteria create a hybrid-space. 64
4.23: Formal processes. 64
4.24: London undergroung system. 65
4.25: EcoLogic Studio founders Claudia Pasquero and Marco Poletto. 66
4.26: A close-up image of covers that contain algae for energy production. 66
4.27: Diagram for algae cover-built environment relationship. 67
4.28: Dirt can be seen as “red algae” on the left side of the image. 67
4.29: H.O.R.T.U.S.-Hydro Organism Responsive to Urban Stimuli, 2012. 68
4.30: A prototype of H.O.R.T.U.S. 68
4.31: Interaction between people and H.O.R.T.U.S. 69
4.32: H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g., 2019. 69
4.33: The interior of H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g. 71
4.34: Algae Tower, Make Architects Max Fordham Consulting Engineers. 72

xii
4.35: Plant Anima, Venetian Lagoon, Italy, 1999. 73
4.36: 15 years projection of Hybrid Landscape formation. 73
4.37: Aniko Meszaros’ “Anima Project” technical sketch. 74
4.38: Slime mould-Tokyo Subway System comparison. 75
4.39: Growth process of the slime mould. 75
5.1: Image of a cell during mitosis which is a form of autopoiesis. 78
5.2: Bread mold cell structure and microscopic images. 80
5.3: Food decay and the appearance of molds. 80
5.4: Images showing the distribution of cells. 81
5.5: Delaunay triangulation of the first mold. 81
5.6: Delaunay triangulation of the second mold. 82
5.7: Regional sketch showing the density of population. 82
5.8: Fungal Surface front view. 83
5.9: Fungal Surface Perspective view. 83
5.10: Fungal Surface reacting in a natural disaster scenario. 84
5.11: Concept sketch of Neoplasmic Room. 85
5.12: Sketch showing the single module (cell) and the modular structure. 85
5.13: Formation process of Neoplasmic Space. 86
5.14: Cellular framework of Neoplasmic Space. 86
5.15: Point Cloud system of Neoplasmic Space. 87
5.16: Surface articulation of Neoplasmic Space. 87
5.17: Perspective views of Neoplasmic Space. 88
6.1: Neoplasmic Mars Vision. 93

xiii
 LIST of TABLES

Table No: Page

2.1: Biological concepts and their relation with architecture theories. 5
2.2: Formations in Biology-Inspired Architecture. 6
2.3: Chronology of Bio-Architecture. 7
2.4: Nine Main Principles of Nature. 17
2.5: Depths of Biomimetic Design. 17
2.6: Current life cycle and features of existing ecosystems. 18
2.7: Imitation Levels in Biomimicry. 21
2.8: Biomimetic Approach in Design. 21
3.1: Digital Space vs. Physical Space. 24
3.2: Map of Influences for Biodigital Architecture Theories. 25
3.3: Evolutionary Design Process. 27
3.4: Geological Eras. 30
3.5: Steps for the design process. 33
3.6: Analysis of Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in 40
Architecture.
4.1: Bio-Method Formats. 45
4.2: Analysis of Programmable Biological Structures. 56
4.3: Analysis, Summary and Questions regarding Bio-Interfaces. 58
4.4: Analysis of Example Projects. 77
5.1: Bio-Parameters and their definitions. 79
5.2: Qualities of Neoplasmic Space. 89

xiv
 1. INTRODUCTION

The understanding of architectural space is changing constantly and the biggest

inspiration for that change is the connection between biology and architecture. Our
culture is moving away from classical mechanism and reductionism, and a more fluid
spatial understanding dominates design with today's technologies. Physics as a model
has dominated the classical understanding for about five hundred years, however, it’s
now replaced by the biological model [Kwinter, 1993].
Biology is a model and measure for all disciplines. We need to use the
knowledge of biology not to learn about nature, but to learn from nature by integrating
with the ecosystem [Benyus, 1997]. Biology and the principles of nature exemplify
architecture in a variety of ways and the distinction between natural and artificial is
becoming increasingly blurred. The biological approach to architecture places the
traditional static model in a more advanced system of dynamic organizations [Lynn,
1999]. As a result of the biologicalization of our world and the increase in
interdisciplinary working methodologies, new definitions in architecture are sought
and a design understanding that leads to hybrid technologies, new materials and living
forms emerges [Cruz, 2008].
As human species, we are part of a wide ecosystem and communication network.
This communication network is not limited to the creatures we see around us, it also
includes the microbiological realm that we do not see, and the ecosystem consisting of
connections is damaged by the environment we design. In this period when we are
further away from nature with industrialization, we can change this situation by turning
to nature and learning from it in order to turn the life span of the planet in our favor.
As architects, we must go beyond analogy to the design methods on which we are
based on nature, and for this, we must turn to the joint work of biology and architecture.
The integration between biology and design creates new spatial possibilities and
design; it evolves towards programming and controlling the growth, evolution, and
mutation of biological structures. The physical environment transforms by feeding on
the principles of biology, and in this process, the perception of space also changes. The
effort to strike a balance between biology, the environment and architecture is
important when it is really wanted to design, plan, or understand sustainable
environments. This work uses exploring and manipulating existing biological material

1
as a design method. It explores the parallelism with architectural design by observing
the self-organizing processes and dynamic structures of living organisms.
Valuable lessons can be learned about symbiotic relationships and sustainable
systems as a result of research. As a form generation and organizational structure
resource or as a conceptual catalyst for biomimetics, the scope of work at the biology-
architecture interface is extremely important.
This study will dissect the evolution of the impact biology has on design and
shed light into new paradigms in architecture. It is aimed to map out a chronological
view on bio-architecture beginning from 20th century to present. The evolution
process of biomimetic approach will be evaluated in terms of space-time and emerging
methodologies will be discussed considering the infiltration of biology into design.
The evolutionary process of biological systems and their connection with architecture
will be analyzed starting from the 20th century, while considering the emphasis of bio-
time. It is expected that the theoretical and practical knowledge obtained as a result of
the study will fill the bio digital architectural design gap in the sustainable architecture
literature.

2
2. DISCOVERY OF BIO-ARCHITECTURE

Mankind has been inspired by nature for hundreds of years. The most notable
early inspirations can be found in Leonardo da Vinci’s works, and his studies on birds.
After the 17th and 18th centuries, which focused on systematic biology, classification
and comparative study of living things, the 19th century witnessed the birth of
evolution and cell theory, the beginning of modern embryology, inclination to plant
anatomy and the discovery of heredity laws.
Kiesler, unlike Le Corbusier, described his designs not as a reference to machine
aesthetics, but as human bodies. His utopian project, Endless House, is, in his own
words, “a living-blooded organism”.

a) b)

Figure 2.1: Frederick Kiesler, Endless House, 1950.

The architect aimed to design this project as a continuation of the human body.
The inconsistency between the ambitious and distinctive potential of Kiesler’s models
and the fairly static architectural designs is one of his biggest flaws (Figure 2.1a, 2.1b).

2.1.Biology-Architecture Relationship

The concept of the proportion of the human body gave architectural design a
natural ecological view, followed by acknowledging the influence of natural sciences
on architecture, and finally led to an evolution of biological formation up to
biomimesis.

3
 Biology and the principles of nature exemplify architecture in a variety of ways.
The application of anthromorphic principles to buildings creates the link between
nature and architecture. Günther Feuerstein defines this approach as «biomorphic
architecture». Le Corbusier and his followers claimed that buildings are living
organisms and suggested that rules in living systems can guide the building’s
organization. Many people, including Buckminster Füller, Frei Otto, Eero Saarinen,
examined biological occurrences in terms of morphological circumstances and applied
biological concepts to design new structural and formal systems.
According to Selçuk and Sorguç (2007), inspiration from nature in the design-
production process in architecture is done in two ways. First one is, using analogy to
transfer the natural form to the structure. The second way is; observing the natural
form and its emergence and using experimental data to transfer this knowledge into
architectural form. From the first examples of the history of architecture until the first
half of the 20th century, it is possible to say that usually the first method was adopted
by designers. Inspirations from 4atüre range from birdhouse-built huts to complex
structures.
In 1969, Charles Jencks in his book “Architecture 2000: Predictions and
Methods”, made a prediction implying that in 1990 biology will become an important
metaphor in the years and a source for the most prominent architectural movements.
Multidimensional developments in the relationship between biology and architecture
show that where this subject is used as a metaphor or analogy in architecture and where
it is used as a source of inspiration should be well analyzed [Frazer, 1995].
The developments in biology and genetics found their reflections in architecture
as well as in design in a short time (Table 2.1). The argument that the architectural
structure is a living organism, which some architects frequently include in their future
discourse, is the clearest indicator of this reflection. Eugene Tsui in his book
“Evolutionary Architecture” states that to be inspired by living creatures means taking
their adaptive and living skills as examples.

4
 Table 2.1: Biological concepts and their relation with architecture theories.

Genetic Architecture/ Evolutionary Architecture Biodigital Architecture

• Morphogenesis • Symbiosis
• Evolution • Self-organization
• Mutation • Adaptation

Raudovski expresses the architectural interpretation of morphogenesis with three

basic elements. According to him, architectural design tries to solve similar problems
solved in nature, takes living things as an example, uses adaptation development
concepts and systems in nature, and uses learning by modeling development and
adaptations in virtual environment. Concepts such as “morphogenesis” or “morpho-
ecology”, which are the concepts of Genetic Architecture, refer to the process during
the formation of the form, therefore form-finding is key to the morphogenesis concept.

2.1.2. Biomorphic Formations

In Biomorphic Architecture, it is aimed to investigate the workings of a living

form and to benefit from the working principles of that organism. There are four types
of formations used in architecture that are derived from nature (Table 2.2). These
formations follow as:

• Plantformism / Phytomorphic formations

They’ve been around since the beginning of time, and the most common use has
been as decorations and ornaments. Botanical motifs were used in macro and micro-
scale architecture until the second half of the twentieth century. They were used at the
column heads in Roman and Greek architecture and on the façades during the Art
Nouveau era.
• Animalformism / Zoomorphic formations
Zoomorphism has been seen in a variety of fields up to now. The structure of
animals is used to construct macro-scale houses, bridges, structures, and roof covers.
At the same time, animal motifs, which are common in Art Nouveau buildings, are
often used on decorative columns and building facades.
• Humanformism / Anthropomorphic Forms

5
 It entails ascribing human attributes and qualities non-living things such as cars
and buildings in order to realize the design. Female and male bodies have been used
successfully in facade, carrier, plan, and building design from the past to the present.
• Microscopic / Micromorphic configurations
Microscopic species such as viruses, cells, and DNA configurations were used
to inspire the designs.

Table 2.2: Formations in Biology-Inspired Architecture.

Formation Type Example Inspiration

Plantformism Bahai Temple (1986), Siamak Lotus Flower

Hariri

Animalformism Barcelona Olympic Pavilion Fish Anatomy

(1992), Frank Gehry

Humanformism L’Hemesifèric (1998), Santiago Human eye (sketch by

Calatrava Calatrava)

6
 Table 2.2: Continued.

Microscopic Institute for Nanobiomedical Mitochondria

Technology and Membrane

2.2. Early Architecture Theories Inspired by Nature

From the end of 19th century until today, Architects were inspired by nature as
well as technological advancements. Especially the new findings in biology influenced
design theory (Table 2.3). One good example would be the discovery of the DNA and
its impact on Genetic Architecture theory.

Table 2.3: Chronology of Bio-Architecture.

2.2.1. Art Nouveau

This French word, the New Art, is an art movement that lasted for 25 years in
the history of art at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, but left
deep traces in spite of this period. Art Nouveau has created and realized thinkers and
artists who believe in the need and freedom to express as a historical position, and it

7
has been determined as the name of an art and thought movement that seeks new
models of understanding, a new ethic, and gradually tries new forms and fictions as a
new century approaches. It’s also a protest against 20th century environmental
pollution. Ornamentation is heavily used in Art Nouveau (Figure 2.2a, 2.2b). The
visual features of this style, which covers all design arts such as architecture, interior
design, industrial design, and graphics, include lines and forms using natural
components. These are; floral motifs, curved, oblique forms, animal figures, female
body, organic forms and flowing round lines [Batur, 1996].

a) b)

Figure 2.2: Examples for ornamentation in Art Nouveau.

Antonio Gaudi’s architecture includes works from nature and it has been
carefully resolved mathematically. Gaudi stated that he studied the human skeleton
and learned the structures from the human skeleton (Figure 2.3).
In Casa Batllo, one of Gaudi’s examples, the small mosaic pieces on the façade
resemble the bubbles over the waves (Figure 2.4). Also, the biological analogy made
by the human skeleton to the pelvis bone is striking. These analogies have completely
turned into decorative elements in Gaudi’s hands. Gaudi did not make forms to copy
nature, he merely took advantage of it [Zerbst, 2019].

8
 Figure 2.3: Casa Battlo. Antoni Gaudi, 1904.

Figure 2.4: Interior of Casa Battlo.

Gaudi was influenced by the thoughts of John Ruskin, who said “Decoration is
the source of architecture”. He started to examine the trees in nature, realized that
there’s no Euclidean geometry in nature, and in his works, he used soft and curved
lines by using the harmony in nature. According to Gaudi, the real problem in Art
Nouveau is not to create forms that are separated in nature, but to create forms that can
respond to the principles of the structure in nature. Forms in nature were used in
abstraction and decoration. However, accepting the decoration as a natural element of
the building, not as an ornament patched on the building, brought this behavior closer
to the medieval mentality. In Gaudi’s structures, motifs and similes from nature are
frequently encountered, and they are examples of biomorphic structures. For example;

9
in his work Casa Mila, Gaudi was inspired by the rocks in northern Barcelona shore
(Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.5: Casa Mila. Antoni Gaudi, 1906-1910.

2.2.2. Organic Architecture

While there are examples of organic architecture from the 1900s, it was only
possible to make solid designs at the end of the century, when material technology
adapted to new design trends. Frank Lloyd Wright, one of the most prominent names
in modern architecture, reveals the principles of organic architecture in 1908. These
principles are; simplicity, structure design being organic, using colors in harmony with
natural forms and the environment, revealing the nature of materials and the structure
having its own unique character.
Frank Lloyd Wright identifies this approach with the way nature works. Wright
takes Sullivan’s discourse of “form follows function” further, and deals with form and
function as a whole. He says that the best examples of this combination can be seen in
nature. In addition, Wright was the first to use the word organic to describe this new
approach. He sees the building as an organism which grows as its environment shapes
it. He expresses that nature perfects the geometries and forms it produces and that this
flawless shaping work develops from the inside out. For this reason, it emphasizes the
necessity of architectural structures to develop from their location to their
surroundings, to their context, and to have a form that is compatible with their
surroundings (Figure 2.6a, 2.6b). In this development from the inside out, he argues

10
that the function must be thought before form, but must exist in harmony with the form
[Wright, 1908].
Even before the definition of organic architecture, Wright defines nature as a
force that inspires his designs. He used natural light, plants and water in his buildings
with his organic architectural approach (Figure 2.7). As a result of years of studies and
experiments, organic architecture has begun to define Wright’s design ideology. Some
of the basic principles of this philosophy are:

• A building must grow and develop easily from where it is located

• Choosing a dominant form nature building and integrating this form throughout
the building
• Using natural colors
• Revealing the nature of the materials to open gaps and to provide space for natural
vegetation [Wright, 1939].

a) b)

Figure 2.6: Johnson Wax HQ by Frank Lloyd Wright.

11
 Figure 2.7: Johnson Wax HQ-Frank Lloyd Wright, 1936-1939.

Antoni Gaudi (1852-1926) describes a unique organic architectural space quite

different from Wright. Like Wright, he was influenced by Ruskin and Viollet-le-Duc.
He adopted the gothic style of Viollet-le-Duc and applied it with his own interpretation
of organic architecture in his buildings. He argues that he finds the Gothic style form-
generating way functional and aesthetic, and that the language of nature is the channel
of transferring it to architecture. While determining the form of the buildings, it was
inspired by the organic geometries of nature. Contrary to Wright, he does not attempt
to integrate the building with the land and its surroundings. He investigated the latent
static forces in natural forms, the principles of geometry. In addition, he used a lot of
color in his structures. Because he found the colorful state of the building natural.

2.2.3. Metabolism

1960 Tokyo World Design Congress, where the emergence of electronic

consumer goods took place, brought together talented and intellectual Japanese
architects Kenzo Tange, Fumihiko Maki, Kiyonori Kikutake, Kisho Kurokawa. By
this gathering they formed the Metabolist group. Metabolists focused on issues that
reflect the needs of society undergoing economic and technological changes and
proposed solutions for them. Electronic device diversity according to metabolists, has
changed the distinction between individual and public spheres. Believing that this

12
approach will have serious effects on social life, Metabolists interpreted houses as
technology-filled capsules, public institutions as information processing networks and
meeting places, and cities as playgrounds where new encounters were experienced.
After 1970, there were breaks from the group.
The Metabolists believed that just as living organisms have metabolisms, so do
the cities. And just like organisms, architecture can grow and have metabolisms. They
imagined an architecture connected to the organizations and systems of the natural
world. The architecture of natural metabolisms, or the spatial and material arrangement
of a system for capturing, transforming, and conveying energy, is the starting point of
the research.
Kisho Kurokawa collected his thoughts on the Metabolist stream and the
philosophy of symbiosis in his book “From the Machine Age to the Age of Life”.
Symbiosis, which means “common life”, can be defined as the coexistence of more
than one living species under certain conditions. Symbiosis is a proposition to live
together. This is a common area where cohabitation can feed on each other, live
without harming each other, and thus evolve. Kurokowa has chosen metabolism,
metamorphosis, symbiosis as key words and ideas in explaining the principle of life.
Inspired by the structure of DNA, which was newly announced in 1953, Kisho
Kurokawa prepared the Helix City Project (Figure 2.8, Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.8: Helix City Project sketch by Kisho Kurokawa.

13
 Figure 2.9: Kisho Kurokawa Helix City Project, Tokyo, Japan (1961).

Kenzo Tange’s Tokyo Bay Development Plan (Figure 2.10) is another important
project of metabolists who were working on cities that can self-replicate and where
new and living elements can be added (Sharp, 1998).

Figure 2.10: Tokyo Bay Development Plan. Shukan Asahi, 1960.

Another Project by the Metabolists was Marine City Projects (Figure 2.11). The
Project proposed the idea of a new human community living in the sea since there’s a
limited area on land. It was a new urban paradigm which involved living on the sea.
The proposal is reminded of a city floating on the sea.
14
 Figure 2.11: Marine City Projects. Kiyonori Kikutake, 1958-1963.

In 1965, the group gathered again and the concept of “metamorphosis” was
introduced here. The group aimed for a symbiotic architecture that will invade and
colonize towns and cities. This type of symbiosis (or coexistence) is also an
opportunity for cyborg-architecture which means living together interactively by
adding the space to its user as a single body. This concept is further developed by
Marcos Cruz in his Neoplasmatic Design projects. However, the coexistence of
organism and cybernetics as a concept is used for the first time by Kisho Kurokawa in

15
Nakagin Capsule Tower (Figure 2.12a, 2.12b). It was built in 30 days and the capsules
can be re-attached and removed at will. It’s a great example of self-organizational
processes in nature, applied to architecture.

a) b)

Figure 2.12: Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tokyo by Kisho Kurukowa, 1972.

2.2.4. Biomimesis

The word "Biomimesis", which corresponds to imitating life, entered the

literature at the end of 20th century. People started to discuss the ways of being
inspired by nature, learning from it and applying it to new fields. Steele coined the
term "bionic" in 1960, and it is still widely used in German-speaking countries. Otto
Schmitt first proposed the idea of biomimetics in 1969.
Biomimicry was officially introduced by the founder of Biomimicry Institute
Janine M. Benyus in her 1997 work, Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. She
described biomimicry as designing by analyzing and taking inspiration from natural
processes. In basic terms, biomimicry is taking inspiration from nature and applying it
to design. In her book, Benyus conceptualized and extensively explored the idea of
biomimicry (Table 2.5). With her book, imitation of nature, which had been the most
common paradigm up to that point, has given way to natural learning, motivation, and
interpretation. In contrast to organic, ecological, and sustainable architectural
approaches, biomimesis emphasizes that learning from nature should be based on
concrete evidence and that the mechanism of nature should be understood beyond
analogy [Benyus, 1997].

16
 Table 2.4: Nine Main Principles of Nature.

According to Michael Pawlyn, biomimicry is taking the unusual excitations

found in biological organisms as an example to produce new design solutions. It’s
based on understanding how organisms work, not just their shape.
Calladine (2000) pointed out that the natural structures in biology provide many
subtleties that stimulate our creativity from all scales of the biological models.
In the biomimicry approach, it is essential to learn and borrow from an idea and
find solutions instead of harvesting from nature or domesticating and using organisms.
The original of the inspired source does not suffer any harm and continues to exist in
its context to be a source of inspiration for other problems [Benyus, 2009, 2013].

Table 2.5: Depths of Biomimetic Design.

Biomimetics is a multidisciplinary approach that entails comprehending,

analyzing, and abstracting biological principles in order to apply them to human
designs in a variety of fields such as electronics, robotics, informatics, medicine,
biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, art, architecture, and many others. Biology,
according to Jeanine Benyus (1997), can serve as a model, measure and mentor for all

17
sciences. It's at this time that we stop learning about nature and start learning from it
by integrating with the ecosystem (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6: Current life cycle and features of existing ecosystems.

2.2.4.1.Design Approaches in Biomimicry

Biomimicry as a design method is usually divided into two groups. The first step
is to define a human need or design problem and then search for solutions in other
species or ecosystems. This approach is called design to biology. Also known as the
problem-based approach, it proposes that designers search for solutions in the living
environment. This method also allows designers to identify issues and then have
biologists match them to species that have solved similar problems. Designers
effectively run this method by defining the design's initial objectives and parameters
[Zari, 2007]. This strategy could pave the way for a shift in the built environment from
unsustainable to productive to successful (McDonough & Braungart, 2010).

18
 The other approach, called biology to design is translating a trait, action, or
feature in an organism or environment into human designs [Benyus, 1997]. Biology
influencing design, is also called as the solution-based approach. “When biological
information affects human design, the collaborative design process is initially reliant
on people having knowledge of applicable biological or ecological science rather than
on decided human design problems,” Zari explains. The lotus flower, which emerged
clean from swampy waters and later helped to discover several inventions, is an
example of this approach.

2.2.4.2.Levels of Biomimicry

Zari argues that the three key levels of Biomimicry can be applied to
architecture: form, behavior, and ecosystem, according to a generally accepted
classification. Nature may provide a solution by analyzing the organism or ecosystem,
the structure, and operation. It's crucial to figure out which aspects of biology would
be mimicked for this application [Zari, 2007].

• Organism level
The organism level investigates the creative ideas of the whole organism or a
portion of it, then mimics them in order to provide new, long-term solutions to human
problems [Zari, 2007]. In organism stage the external appearance (natural form) of the
creature is transferred. Japan has the world's longest railway lines, known as "Ballet
Trains," which are thought to be an organism level of learning from nature (Figure
2.13).

Figure 2.13: Japanese trains mimicking birds.

19
• Behavior level
The behavior level can be described as an action that organisms take in order to
survive in nature by coming up with creative solutions [Zari, 2007]. In Behavior stage
(natural production) the behavior or characteristics of the living thing are transferred.
An example would be the Eastgate Center in Zimbabwe, which was inspired by termite
mounds (Figure 2.14). Termite mounds are physical structures that allow passive
cooling to maintain indoor temperature consistency. Termites build massive mounds
inside which they cultivate fungus for food. During the day, the fungus must be kept
at 30° C when termites open and close a set of heating and cooling openings in the
mountain. The ventilation mechanism functions in a similar way, with termites digging
new openings and clogging the old ones to regulate the temperature.

Figure 2.14: Self-cooling, termite mound inspired building in Zimbabwe.

• Ecosystem level
To learn and imitate current ecosystems in nature, you must first understand what
values and factors are required to function and how they function effectively.
Ecosystem phase: The place, posture, positive and negative aspects of the living thing
to be transferred from nature in the ecosystem are investigated and applied. The master
plan for the island of Zira which was designed by Bjarke Ingels, (BIG Architects) in
2009 appears to be a good example of biomimicry ecosystem level biomimicry (Figure
2.15).

20
 Figure 2.15: Zira Island Master Plan, BIG Architects, 2009.

Table 2.7: Imitation Levels in Biomimicry.

Form how the design sample appears

Material what it is made of

Construction how it is constructed

Process how it functions

Function what it can perform

Table 2.8: Biomimetic Approach in Design.

Organism Level Behavior Level Ecosystem Level

Form The building looks The building looks The building looks
like a termite. like it was made like an ecosystem
by termites (ie: that termites live
termite mound). in.

Material The building The building is The building is

material mimics made of the made of the same
termite’s shell, material used by type of material
made out of the the termite (ie: from which a
same material as fine soil). termite ecosystem
the termite. consists (ie:
water).

21
 Table 2.8: Continued.

Structure The building The building is The building is

mimics a termite’s made with the made in the same
anatomical construction way a termite
system. techniques applied ecosystem is built.
by termites.

Process The building The building The building

works the same as works the same works in the same
a termite as an way a termite nest way that a termite
organism. works, or mimics ecosystem works
how termites work (ie: using solar
together. energy).

Function The building The building The building

functions like a works as if it was functions like a
termite. made by termites. termite ecosystem.

Archigram group’s projects were also inspired by biology. One of the group
members, David Greene designed Living Pod in 1966. His inspiration was the human
body. Living Pod is the most advanced capsule project amongst Archigram's other
projects (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.16: Living Pod (1966), David Greene.

Another architect who voiced inspiration from nature is Santiago Calatrava. He

has projects based on animal shapes and skeletal system. His 1999 housing block

22
project in Malmö, Sweden, is based on an auger-shaped human body sculpture (Figure
2.17a, 2.17b).

a) b)

Figure 2.17: Turning Torso Tower (1999), Santiago Calatrava.

Earlier bio-architectural works are inspired by nature’s form and fuction whereas
with the advancements in technology, new theories emerged and inspiration evolved
into morphogenesis which questions the relationship between form and behavior.
Architecture is mostly morphologically influenced by nature and limited to a
superficial area of imitation. Fortunately, the discipline of architecture, thanks to
today's technology, can go deeper than only the first level imitation (imitation of the
natural form) described by Benyus (2013). Thus, the form of architectural spaces, on
one hand, represents an organism form that is well adapted to similar problems in
nature, on the other hand, it can be integrated with the form solution by examining the
mechanical, physical and chemical properties of the organism. However, in order for
designers to reach this holistic design idea of nature and relate it to their own designs,
they need to know biology at a level that they can grasp natural processes and to
cooperate with experts from different disciplines.

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3. TWO APPROACHES IN BIO-
ARCHITECTURE: DIGITAL AND ORGANIC
Today, architects such as John Frazer, Eugine Tsui and Greg Lynn are taking the
movement and form in nature as an example and using them in their design philosophy.
Inventing new architectural systems that are natural; considering architecture to be a
part of nature are new ways to think about design. A parallel strategy encourages
interactions between architecture, biology, and industry, enabling designers to join
industrial and manufacturing development to produce new biomaterials.
According to the bio design approach of William Myers (2018), bio design
allows the discovery of new, hybrid typologies beyond imitating nature in terms of
melting the boundaries between the natural and the built environment. In bio design,
living organisms or ecosystems are included in the design as essential components.
Material alternatives in which bacteria are integrated into concrete construction
systems are being discussed in order to extend the service life of concrete construction
elements and not consume more energy and resources due to ecological reasons. By
creating hybrids from living and non-living materials, designers are pushing the clear
boundaries drawn between the modernist approach and the built environment and
nature.
There are two types of space that genetic architecture can occur: digital space or
physical space (Table 3.1). Digital space contains artificial DNA therefore it creates a
mechanical structure. Physical space contains real DNA therefore it creates organic
structures. Living materials are being used in hybrid-space experiments.

Table 3.1: Digital Space vs. Physical Space.

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3.1. Digital Approach: 20th Century Digital Architecture
Theories

To create biological information by using computer technologies in the field of

biology, new biological research areas such as bioinformatics and computational
biology has been developed (Table 3.2). Understanding the molecular structures and
biological processes have made important improvements in the field of biology
amongst other disciplines. Being able to prepare DNA, RNA and protein sequence
models provided architects to access biological models of natural processes. John
Frazer and Greg Lynn are top architects who include natural metaphors in their
designs, make metaphorical connections with models for explaining biological
systems and aim to develop a new tool that will constitute the design process itself.

Table 3.2: Map of Influences for Biodigital Architecture Theories.

3.1.1. Evolutionary Architecture

“Evolution is how well a creature is adapted to its environment” said John Frazer
in his 1995 book “An Evolutionary Architecture” where Evolutionary Architecture
theory was first introduced. The theory stands in the intersection between biology,

25
architecture and computer sciences. There are 4 elements of evolution which can be
listed as diversity, genetics, reproduction and natural selection.
The term "evolutionary architecture" refers to processes that evolve and adapt in
response to the user and the environment. So the architectural result is a mechanism in
this case. It's a manufactured way of life, can even be called an artificial life. It seeks
to achieve equilibrium by balancing metabolism and common behaviour in their
natural environment. In evolutionary architecture, morphological processes in nature
are taken into consideration rather than imitating nature. According to Frazer,
ecological approach in architecture doesn’t have to mimic ecosystems. Therefore, the
theory supports modeling the inner logic behind nature, not its form or structure. The
modeling process consists of simulating a mechanism akin to Darwinist evolution. The
algorithms used during the process are similar to human DNA.
DNA cannot describe the phenotype, which simply means the outer appearance
of organism. DNA generates instructions that describe the process that constitutes the
phenotype of the structure, including the material and the assembly process. It involves
the division and differentiation of the cell by making enzymes for the production of
nucleotides. Just like genes in human structure are not for shape; but for the structure,
the code in Evolutionary Architecture is not for form; but for the process. This process
is sensitive to the environment and implemented rules define it. The rules are fixed,
however, the result will vary depending on the material or environmental conditions.
[Frazer, 1995]. Architectural principles can be chosen as a set of rules, and their
evolution and progress can be digitally coded. The genetic code is responsible for the
form's creation and the data is carried by the code. Cells or seeds that carry knowledge
evolve by differentiating in evolutionary form creating techniques.
There are four stages of the process. It goes as coding, mapping, translation and
projection. To be able to construct these processes the computer is used as an
evolutionary accelerator and a productive force.
Frazer (1995) states that his projects under the name Evolutionary Architecture
was meant to produce a new design theory. Evolutionary Architecture is inspired by
the logical mechanism behind nature, form and structure in nature and morphological
processes.
Evolutionary Architecture's analogy with the evolution theory should not be
perceived as development solely in the direction of natural selection. The self-
organized view of evolution has an even more important place than natural selection.

26
The concepts of breaking morphology, morphogenetics, and symmetry, as well as the
thermodynamic laws of metabolic motions and operations in natural processes, are at
the core of study. Charles Darwin established a new world in which Newton's model
of equilibrium was disrupted, and continuous improvement and evolution took place
[Frazer, 1995].
In the 1960s, Rechenberg introduced the concept of "Evolutionary Computing"
in his book "Evolution Strategies". This situation started the virtual evolution in the
computing environment. A decade later, in the 1970s, Prof. John Holland have begun
to use genetic algorithms. John Holland tried to find a common solution for the
optimization of different problems involving complexity and uncertainty.
In this design approach, there’s no need to use a living organism. Frazer states
that the artificial evolutionary model is enough to mirror a successful natural evolving
system. DNA is made up of instructions that explain the process of creating the
phenotype, such as instructions for producing all of the components, then sorting and
assembling them (Table 3.3). It’s an environmentally sensitive procedure. The
principles are perpetual, but the results vary depending on the materials or
environmental factors. It’s not about evolving the form rather it’s about evolving the
principles that generate the form.

Table 3.3: Evolutionary Design Process.

The model is aware of the coded instructions for its own self-development. It
possesses intellect. Many of the components of the model work together, so it can be

27
called an organism; however, it can only completely function as such if it is part of an
emerging system of organisms interacting with one another and with the environment.
There’s a symbiotic relationship between the environment and its inhabitants and in
this symbiosis there should be a balance between the development of architectural
concept and the environment's external factors.
Natural selection, mutation, morphogenesis, genotype, phenotype, homeostasis,
symbiosis, evolution are biological concepts that inspire Evolutionary Architecture
theory. By applying natural principles during the modeling process, symbiotic life
activity and metabolic equilibrium (homeostasis) in the built environment is achieved.
Different parameters are used in a sequence structure similar to the chromosome
structure in nature. The computer language processes the shape, creating shape
grammars (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Evolutionary process through generations.

28
 The inspiration behind John Frazer's research is to produce an artificial
environment with symbiotic behavior and metabolic balance similar to that of the
natural environment. He asked the following question: “Is it possible to co-evolve the
environment in which epigenetic evolution can take place?” [Frazer,1995].

3.1.2. Genetic Architecture

Genetic Architecture is an evolutionary conception of architecture that is

growing, evolving, changing and dying. The term was first used by Karl Chu in 1995,
in his article titled Modal Space from AD Magazine’s “Architects in Cyberspace”
issue. He states that computation is the setting stone for physical universe.
With the graduate program opened in the field of Genetic Architecture in
ESARQ (Escola Tecnica Superior d'Architectura), it has become a center in the field
of Genetic Architecture. The director of the program, Alberto Estevez, stated that the
architect of the future will lead the genetic engineers. With the tissues developed by
genetic engineers, buildings that develop and grow on their own can be realized.
Genetic engineering of plant forms or living organisms can be used as a method to
create forms suitable for human habitation.
Estevez (2005) points out that genetic architecture is based on biomorphism. He
also mentiones that genetic architecture can only be real genetic architecture if
architects use genes for the design. Living organism contains its code in its genes and
genetic architecture is about the code containing its form. So, the code creates the form.
Whenever the code changes, the form changes.
Genetic architecture and computational sciences are related. Computational
sciences aim to change materials, make the physical world the most advanced type of
organic intelligence, and create artificial life and intelligence systems. Hensel (2004)
states that thanks to the universal language of computational thinking, the sharp
borders that separate disciplines have begun to disappear.
Evolutionary techniques is a part of long researches that examine the digital
mechanisms of form production. Form creation takes place by the use of genetic code.
The function of genes in the structure of living things is undertaken by algorithms and
codes in the computer environment. Genetic algorithms have a chromosome-like

29
structure in which the rules of replication and mutation are dictated. Parameters are
added to these chromosomes and changes in their values are seen throughout the
design. They are a search and optimization method based on natural selection
principles. The genetic algorithm is a method aimed at survival of the fittest, based on
the principles of natural selection mechanism. It is a method that is concluded with
computer simulation and it starts with individuals. Each individual represents a point
in the parameter space. Eligibility values are determined and new assets are obtained
by selecting individuals according to these values. New solutions are developed based
on the suitability of individuals. It’s basically an artificial type of natural selection.
John Frazer's research into genetic architecture aims to create structures that can
learn from their material, learn from their errors, and provide input to a gene pool for
potential structures. Genetic architecture approach is not after the finished architectural
product since biology is never ending and always evolving, growing.
Genetic Architecture differs from biomimicry in terms of both purpose and
material. Earlier works show that the aim of biomimicry is to use artificial materials
to replicate the natural structure (which already exists in nature). However, Genetic
architecture makes use of organic materials and embraces the shape that appears as a
result of a random, unpredictable processes. It's not about making a structure that
appears to be alive but isn't, or, in other words, a structure that looks “living” but isn’t
living. Its aim is to create a living creature and in order to construct the structure
biological tissues are needed.
The history of the world is divided into geological eras (Table 3.4). These
periods are divided into three sub-periods, under the Phanerotic (known or visible life)
period as Paleozoic (Old Life), Mesozoic (Middle Life), Cenozoic (New Life).

Table 3.4: Geological Eras.

30
 Chu says that the Hyperzoic Era has begun. This period concentrates and
transforms into layered types of artificial life. In Hyperzoic Paradigm, there’s a semi-
mechanical way of life. Chu realized that the Internet, which is described as a
"biomechanical" organism, is developing "its own temporary dynamics. He stated that
"Unlike all previous architectural forms that prioritize space over time, it can be seen
that the Internet evolves and transforms organically within its own time bases” (Chu,
1998). These new time bases provide a context for Chu to explore dynamically
evolving architectures. He uses the term genetics. Although it is a term derived from
biology, within the framework of Genetic Architecture, genetics refer to the basic logic
based on the interconnected logic of recursion and self-replication, whose
philosophical foundations extend beyond the boundaries of molecular biology.
If a certain genetic manipulation, which makes it possible to use living beings in
architecture in line with the wishes of the designer, is included in the design, this type
of design will begin to become real genetic architecture. The forms in which architects
such as Estevez and Frazer described as living organisms that can change and develop
on their own, remain as forms that we can only see with computer technologies in
today's architectural environment.

Figure 3.2: Jeffrey Goldstein (1999) Emergent.

31
3.2. Organic Approach: 21st Century Theories That Form
the Concept of Hybrid-Space

We are capable of creating exceptional architectures in 21st century that

immerse themselves in their distinctive features. These conditions can be intensely
ecological, systematically open ended, intellectually founded, facilitating, time and
period concerned, synthetic with natural landscapes, and use computational power
not only as a means of representation, but as a spatial editing engine.

3.2.1. Digital Botanic Architecture

Digital Botanic Architecture was first coined by Dennis Dollens in his 2005 book
with the same title. It's a digital design approach that mimics natural growth processes
and incorporates them into architectural design. An influence for his theory was Louis
Sullivan.
Louis Sullivan (1967), discussed the idea of architectural decoration that
resembles growth. He took geometric shapes, boxes, circles, straight lines with simple
drawing edits and used them to create a geometrical base. Dollens (2001) considered
this idea of Sullivan as a basic development for the geometry. He then used the idea
of plant growth (which correlates with some of the X-frog's enhancement potentials)
to advance their geometries. Development, intergrowth and overgrowth; he saw that it
could serve as a template for design thinking. Dollens (2006) explains how design and
digital production biomimetics can be integrated with the procedures used to design,
visualize, create and model architecture, and to what extent this process can be
improved, working on forms and processes in nature.
For creating, evaluating, and incorporating architecture into nature, software and
scripting become interpretive tools. Dollens has adapted a software named Xfrog that
was used by botanists to conduct laboratory research in the digital environment, into
architecture. There is a reverse process here. Because the program is peculiar to
architects, it was not created for them to produce forms. It has been developed for
botanical scientists to monitor the development of a plant in a laboratory environment
and to conduct various experiments. After Dollens’ adaptation, simulating plant
morphology became possible. Xfrog could now being used to create forms based on
botanic characteristics, such as branching, leafing, and spiraling, by imparting selected

32
attributes of living organisms to its 3D files. The software (technology) is used for
translation of biology to architecture. Branching in trees, for example, can be
transformed to create experimental structures of botanic efficiency and heritage.
Experimental systems that were digitally simulated and projected were bio-
climatically operative. By using biological roles, new bio-aesthetics emerged.
Environmental responses were acknowledged by observing plants. One example
is morphing facades rearranging themselves as the temperature changes. Claus
Mattheck supports this approach by stating that trees are instructors for designers
[Dollens, 2005]. The concept behind this type of design approach is to combine
botanical beauty, biological function, computer programming, and structural
performance—looking first to natural types and animals, then discovering useful
properties, and eventually implementing the data into the design of a Project (Table
3.5).

Table 3.5: Steps for the design process.

Biological concepts were combined with architectural forms in order to create

new systems and then to express the new design into parts and pieces capable of
sustaining and sheathing experimental structures. This results in a hybrid architecture.
Remote sensors, robotic actuators, and artificial intelligence are currently viable
solutions, but biological living materials, prosthetic organs, and hybrid semi-living or

33
semi-mechanical systems will be needed in the future. Scientists use information from
microscopes in highly professional ways; designers may react in similarly valid,
though differently visualized, ways (but do not usually have channels to such
information). Designers can wrestle with visualized translations of biomechanics for
architectural structures, materials, and fabrication methods using information from
microscopy, thus re-envisioning molecular and cellular nature for hybridizing
buildings with embodied biological functions.
The BioTower project by Dollens emerges from forking botanical nodes, where
pods and polygons expand exponentially out of proportion, becoming roomlike before
being reprogrammed from pod to cube to architectural capsule. Form experiments
were studied on Xfrog software (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: BioTower. Dennis Dollens, 2009.

Air filtering and ventilation, sound baffling, and heat/light management are all
provided by the BioTower's leaf-cluster systems (Figure 3.4).

34
 Figure 3.4: BioTower's leaf-cluster systems.

Digitally crafted eTrees showing the branching processes and these branching
structures forming loops in order to be stable enough to work as a beam or column.
The eTree's complex branching increases from the first simple tree with two gnarly
branches until models show architecture that’s scaled to habitable spaces (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: eTrees.

D•BA2 proposes a hybridized architecture based on algorithmic plant

simulation, generative design, and botanic information. This theory explores and
explains an induced evolution of new design methods realized through plant-to-

35
architecture morphology realized through machine simulation. The resulting digital-
botanic architecture manifests itself in the form of prototype concepts, structures,
textures, components, and processes. Drawings, renderings, and STL models are used
to keep a record of the work.

3.2.2. Neoplasmatic Design

Interdisciplinary work approaches, shared between physicians, biologists, and

engineers, as well as artists and designers, are increasingly occuring, resulting in
hybrid technologies, new materiality, and previously unknown potentially alive forms.
We are regularly exposed to mainstream media coverage of biology-related topics and
confront them on a regular basis, and neoplasmatism is part of a phenomenon that
could be called the "biologicalization" of our world. Nonetheless, architecture is still
perceived as fundamentally separate from such phenomena, especially when it is
viewed as a discipline only concerned with the built environment [Cruz, 2008].
'Neoplasmatic Design' issue of 'Architectural Design' (AD) magazine published
in 2008 poses the question, “Where does 'architectural design stand in terms of
neoplasmatic design?”. "Neoplasm", taken from the medical literature, refers to an
abnormal tissue mass that arises from cells present in the body, lacking a specific
function, but with an independent and unlimited growth potential. Neoplasm is related
to plasma, which indicates a form. It’s also related to the formation of growth
conditions outside the constraints of the human body (Figure 3.6).
Interdisciplinary studies have initiated the formation of hybrid technologies, new
materials and new forms that contain the potential to live, and this has led to the
development of a new design concept. The "neoplasmatic" resulting from these
conditions consists of partly designed object and partly living materials. The line
between natural and artificial is now blurred. Neoplasmatic Design refers to "semi-
living" entities that require entirely new definitions, rather than scaled analogies
between biological conditions (cellular structures) and larger-scale structures
(architecture). This design theory supports the biology process of architecture. Marcos
Cruz (2008) says that architecture has undergone a series of innovations, so architects
need to rethink its parameters, both professionally and educationally. As a designer,

36
our approach to creating semi-living systems with structures that hybridize with
biological materials and unpredictable nature is changing.

Figure 3.6: Synthetic Neoplasm, Marcos Cruz (2008).

Neoplasmatic Architecture is a new region that explores contemporary

biological applications and their effects on the field of architecture. In this context, the
concept of neobiology is also gaining importance. Kevin Kelly, who introduced the
concept of neobiology in his book "Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines,
Social Systems and the Economic World", argued that our physical environment will
increasingly merge with the principles of biomatics. In his mind, there are future
mutated buildings, living silicon polymers, software programs developing offline,
adaptable cars, rooms filled with evolutionary furniture, biological viruses created to
cure diseases, cybernetic body parts, and simulated personalities. Although the
neoplasmatic design admits that this wild scenario is possible, it does not reveal a
scenario in which there is a world that is so different from the present. Contrary to the
scenario where architecture is completely replaced by neobiological conditions, it
presents a scenario that will infiltrate a traditional environment, create new hybrids
and more mixed living environments.
The environment that surrounds us is teeming with an incredible variety of
micro-organisms. Their microbial domain presents us with notions of form,
organization, material and composition bearing considerable relevance to the
environment we inhabit. The manner in which these micro-organisms colonize their
environment, how they communicate, organize and negotiate their territory, along with
the mechanisms and purpose they employ, provide metaphorical parallels with human
colonization [Pike, 2008].

37
 Pike (2008) along with Cruz (2008) declares that changes are occurring in
architecture that demand to be understood outside the traditional disciplinary
boundaries. Pike (2008) states that by observing the behavior of micro-organisms with
various experiments, new spatial possibilities can emerge. He works with biologists in
his experiments and tries to combine the biological knowledge into architecture.
Studies conducted in the context of neoplasmatic design are on the manipulation of
microorganisms. There are works that study and analyze micro-biological processes
and micro-organic materials and examine the suitability of these materials to be a
design component or tool. It has been observed that microorganisms manipulated in a
controlled environment give different responses according to the different
environments they are in. The program and use of the space had an impact on the
region-specific colonization. Example works can be followed below.

• Algaeculture
Algaeculture is a research that studies and analyzes micro-biological processes
and micro-organic materials, and examines the suitability of these materials as design
components or tools (Figure 3.7). Architect Steve Pike uses cyanobacteria, also known
as blue-green algae, due to its vibrant green appearance and phototropic properties. In
the same environment he puts the fungi Alternaria brassicicola and Penicillium
digitatum, which colonize their territory by spreading their spores into the air.
Different microorganisms are manipulated in a controlled environment.

Figure 3.7: Algaeculture, Steve Pike (2001).

The Interaction Vessel provided a regulated environment in which selected

microorganisms could be manipulated while the more unpredictable situation of

38
multiple colonial occupation was observed (Figure 3.8). There are metaphorical
distinctions made between territorial conquest, encounter, and negotiation.

Figure 3.8: Interaction Vessel.

• Non-Sterile
In this project, the user activity is seen as bacteriological trace since humans are
also used as a habitat for micro organisms, in this case bacteria. Designed as an
installation to shake the understanding that air has an empty and sterile space,
Nonsterile was made to examine microbial colonization and its potential to modify the
environment (Figure 3.9). Zygomycetes rhizopus (a variety of fungi) was multiplied
in a Monitor Cell and filled the cell almost completely. Growing without special
manipulation, this fungus spreads in colonies, exhibiting complex structures and
communication networks.

Figure 3.9: Colonial growth can be seen in the monitor cell.

39
• Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in Architecture
Since nature is chaotic and unpredictable, the self-organizational process of
micro organisms challenges the designer. Programming the matter could help solving
this issue. The micro organisms won’t lose their ability to self-organize but the
designer would be the one to decide its behavior and therefore manipulate the matter.
The microbial domains of microorganisms offer us the concepts of form,
organization, material and composition that are largely similar to the environment we
live in. The way these microorganisms colonize their environment, how they
communicate, how they organize and negotiate their territories, provides metaphorical
parallels with human colonization, along with the mechanisms and purposes they use.
When addressing morally sensitive issues of growth manipulation and behavior
control, valuable lessons can be drawn on symbiotic relationships and sustainable
systems (Table 3.6).

Table 3.6: Analysis of Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in

Architecture.

Symbiotic relations It can be between the design and the

material since it’s a living material and
also between the hybrid design and the
user.

Designing with living material and Partially living architectural hybrids

exploring its potential

Manipulation of material Since the material is bacteria/or cells,

by controlling the environment
designers can also manipulate the
growth of bacteria and therefore the
material. Controlling the environment
could mean setting some environmental
rules and the living material will grow
or behave according to these rules set
by the designer. The growth can be
observed by an experiment or it can be
simulated by using computer
technology.

40
 Table 3.6: Continued

Organic data The data gathered from organisms.

Pre-Programmed species The cells of an organism can be coded

using a computer, pre-programmed by
the designer and the material a.k.a. the
cell will grow and behave according its
code.

Self-organization Self-organizational processes of living

organisms challenges the designer since
the designer will lose their authority and
their absolute control over the design.

As a form generation and organizational structure resource or as a conceptual

catalyst for biomimetics, the scope of work at the biology-architecture interface is
extremely important. In below image, colonial growth is shown on left (Figure 3.10a).
The micro-scale of organisms of this colony can be seen on the right (Figure 3.10b).

a) b)

Figure 3.10: Manipulation and Control of Micro-Organic Matter in Architecture.

Another example project called the Molecular House can be seen in below image
(Figure 3.11). The image consists of a diary showing the processes of this molecular
engineered house.

41
Figure 3.12: John M Johansen and Mohamad Alkayer, The Molecular House, 2000.

In these cases there’s an architecture that changes in time and responds to its
surroundings. It’s not fixed, it’s evolving and it’a a part of the environment with other
active systems. This evolution, however is designed artificially. The process is
controlled and manipulated unlike natures chaotic unpredictability. As a semi-living
entity, neoplasm takes place in a spectrum ranging from other bio-architectural
composites to real tissues. These studies, which are mostly fed by medical science, are
carried out on real living things and real tissues created in the laboratory environment.
Neoplasmatic Design challenges the idea that architecture is frozen in time/fixed
and invites a new approach where a building can be composed with both non-living
and living material, turning it into a hybrid, a semi-living entity. This new entity could
be constructed with the use of technology but it could also emerge as how an organism
would do. These new hybrid beings need new definition as well as the practice of
architecture in this case. The design method changes and turns into exploring the
biological matter/material and manipulating it. The integration between biology and
design, therefore creates new spatial possibilities and demand new vocabulary to

42
express the environments that are potentially half grown half manufactured [Cruz,
2008].

3.2.3. Biodigital Design

Forms also have a life of their own; they emerge as a result of accumulations by
changing over time under the influence of various factors. Nature is a continuous
formation and keeps this active environment alive. The interactions and creative
movements in this formation process, both living and non-living, manifest themselves
in the forms of the components within the system. Living things adapt and evolve to
survive as a result of the pressure of environmental factors. The changes they undergo
during this continuous formation are reflected in their physiology. The basic
orientation that activates the development of form in nature is to strengthen the
physical capacity and equipment of the creature in order to fulfill its vital activity and
function in the ecosystem the best way.
The physical characteristics of the living thing must be suitable for its function
within the system and the effects of environmental factors. In other words, the basic
drive in the formation of the physical characteristics of living things is fitness or in
biological terms, natural selection. If it can survive in the living system, that life form
is fit. Nowadays, this threshold can be crossed and the molecular level can be passed,
even by reshaping the genetic design and programming chains, natural living elements
can be created from these elements. This situation allows a direct comparison with the
"cybernetic-digital world" in Estevez's (2003) words. For this reason, programming
chain design can be perceived as a concept that will create artificial digital elements
based on itself.
If DNA itself starts to be used directly instead of the software that can generate
the form here, it will be genetic architecture in the real sense (Figure 3.12, 3.13).
According to Estevez (2003), when this happens, it may be called "Cybernetic Digital
Design". Or, from another point of view, if architects who adopt digital organism use
their own codes of DNA, this may be "Cyber Eco-Fusion Design". The difference
between the two is that one uses material and the other uses software. Artificial
software is software produced by computers. Natural software is software in which the
codes of DNA are used. Estevez gives more examples of the architecture produced by

43
Dennis Dollens. As mentioned under the title Digital Botanic Architecture, Dollens
uses, manipulates and processes the DNA data of plants as information. This can also
be done using the DNA of other living things. The main issue here is the difficulty of
working with real living elements in today’s conditions. These studies only prepare
the infrastructure of real genetic architecture.

Figure 3.12: Genetic Barcelona Project, Alberto T.Estevez, 2003-2006.

44
4. EXPERIMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF BIO-
ARCHITECTURE
In this chapter, experiments regarding bio-architecture will be analyzed. These
experiments, since they consist two different method and approaches are divided into
two categories under digitally crafted experiments and hybrid space experiments.
Differences between bio-methodologies are in the table below (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Bio-Method Formats

Classical Method Hybrid Method Living Method

Chronology …20th century 21st century A possible Future

onwards (22nd century)

Movement Biomimesis Biodigital Design Neoplasmatic Design

System type Controllable Changes with user Maintains its

needs and thinks on existence and can be
behalf of the user controlled by the user

Motion Motionless Motionless or semi- Mobile and the

mobile. The motion motion can be
can be controlled controlled with
mechanically. genetic techniques

Behavior Protects against Responds to nature Responds to natural

unwanted natural the way the user conditions through its
conditions and wants. Limited by reflexes. The user
isolates from the user insights. can program the
environment response during
production stage.

Relationship Men dominate the Men dominate the Men and building
with Men building, nature is building, building interact with nature.
outside the can respond to
equation. nature.

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 Table 4.1: Continued

Relationship Abstract attitude Functionally Creates artificial

with Nature against nature or responsive nature
similarity in terms
of form

Recyclability Not recycable Not recycable Recycable

Vitality Nature=living Nature=living Nature=living

City=semi-living City=semi-living City=semi-living

Building=non- Building=semi- Building=unthinking-

living living living

Men=living Men=living Men=living

Production Masonry or Masonry/structure Unthinking,

system structure with with cover and programmed
cover sensors organism

Material Traditional Hybrid material, Living organism as a

system building material Traditional building material
material mixed with
living organism

4.1. Digitally Crafted Experiments

Experiments under the title Digitally Crafted consist of examples project that
were made using technology and computational skills with the combination of biology.
These experiments are usually earlier works of Biodigital Design, since with the
improvements in technology, the methods and materials changed and are still
changing.

4.1.1.Embryological Houses

Greg Lynn is one of the pioneers using Computational Design techniques in

architecture. With the Embryological Houses project, Greg Lynn's contributions to

46
Evolutionary Architecture were explored. This project is a research funded by the
International Design Forum and the Wexner Center for The Arts. CNC machines were
provided and academic support was received from Los Angeles UCLA's Department
of Architecture and ETH Zurich. The embryological houses project can be defined as
a space production strategy that provides a variety, individual adaptation, continuous,
flexible production and assembly.
In the initial phase of the project, 6 houses with different genetic structures were
created (Figure 4.1). As a result of the crossing and natural selection processes made
with the genetic codes of the 6 houses designed at the initial stage, many different
alternative embryological houses were derived from the 6 main houses. All system
elements are interconnected. Any gap that may occur in any part also affects other
parts simultaneously. Deformations on the house also affects the ground. For this
reason, gaps also affect the garden. For example, a pit that can be formed in the house;
may cause plateau formation or soil rise in the field. Deformations in the house affect
the plot [Lynn, 2000].

Figure 4.1: Computer renderings of Embryological Houses, 2002.

In below image (Figure 4.2) the combination of sketches and diagrams can be
seen. It shows the houses interacting with each other as well as the evolutionary
process of splines and houses.

47
 Figure 4.2: Evolutionary process of the houses

The interior of the embryological house is like the inside of a car, it is

mechanical. The equipments of the house are designed by taking into account a
movement that can realize the transformation stages of an embryo within its own
structure. Tables, chairs, bathtubs, tanks and cabins are not absolute objects in this
sense, but multi-program objects with their dynamic characters. Cork, artificial leather,
stainless steel, rubber, carpet and ceramics are recommended for the floors of the
embryological house [Lynn, 2002].
It is defined as a strategy used for the production of space related to the concept
of housing, which includes features such as diversity, continuity, personal suitability,
flexible production and application. The production logic here is to select and match
the character genes in a gene pool and adapt this match to nature, just as the
information in the genes of a parent is transferred to the child. This project represents
the transition from the modernist and technical forms of the recent past to the living,
growing and evolving biological models of the present (Figure 4.3).

48
 Figure 4.3: Architectural model of Embryological House.

4.1.2.Interactivator

Interactivator has been designed in an evolving environment, to respond to

visitors and the environment. The environment is established in order to influence and
simulate the evolving model’s performance. It’s modelled with an adaptive strategy
that specifies successive structural modifications in response to environmental
changes.
The developmental system responds to environmental signals and each
individual's genetic code, sends messages to the environment of the suggested
environmental response, and provides data for the genetic algorithm to make selections
(Figure 4.4). The system as a whole is capable of learning.

Figure 4.4: Data space (collected by visitors) and the environment.

49
 The nature of the evolutionary model relies heavily on the code. The design is
process-driven and it starts with a genetic code. The code is the building block of the
structure and it takes shape according to the information that the code contains. The
genetic code is the script of a seed and is bred into populations that are formed into
abstract models that can be tested in a simulated environment (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Seeds and growth.

It is important not to code the form but rather code specific instructions for the
modeling process. In response to a simulated world, the genetic code is mutated and
formed into a series of models by a computer program. The models are then tested in
that setting, and the code of succesful models is used to repeat the cycle until a specific
stage of development is chosen for a real-world prototype. The real-world prototype is
supposed to be able to respond to changing environments in real time, but this is not
required from the theoretical model. Computer modeling and simulation are used for
prototyping and feedback (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6: Evolution and model.

Certain conditions must be met in order for natural selection to succeed. The
genetic material must be replicated precisely. Variation and mutation should be
generated by using genetic crossover. These variations must also be capable of
replication and, when represented as a phenotype, must have an advantage. Also, a

50
vast overproduction of phenotypes is needed (Figure 4.7). Selective rivalry must exist
in specific settings before replication of the genetic code.

Figure 4.7: Evolutionary process of Interactivator.

The idea of intelligent buildings reorganizing themselves gives opportunity for

the building itself to decide its structure for the good of the users rather than the users
themselves. That intelligence works as consciousness in buildings. If a building had
such consciousness, it might become depressed and want to end its life by demolishing
itself.

4.1.3.The Bionic Pavilion

The architecture of the Bionic Pavilion is like a living organism (Figure 4.8). It
symbolizes the unification of biology and technology. Principles such as life,
communication, perception, and intelligence were adopted in the design. Computer
simulation and optimization of growth and development processes, which have
chemical and physical effects, were carried out. The results have been achieved with
evolutionary software while energy generation, life, and communication processes
progress on the time axis. Development is provided by computer simulation and
complex formation has been tried to be achieved with minimum variety (Figure 4.9).

51
 Figure 4.8: Bionic Pavilion by 3deluxe, Hannover, 2000.

Figure 4.9: Diagram showing the design process of Scape.

Its organic structures embodied the fluid combinations of the virtual space.
"Scape" is designed as a multi-stage algae center that can enable physical and virtual
experiments (Figure 4.10). Visitors could change the atmosphere of their environment
by means of interactive equipment. With these interactions, the realistic space “scape”
was clouded with the virtual communication space “Visionscape”. "Visionscape"
eliminated the region and time constraints of the project and ensured global
accessibility.

Figure 4.10: Scape, Expo 2000.

Machines operating on hydrogen power with a nature-friendly approach will be

an alternative to today's standard technologies. Energy is taken from water for
bioluminescence, which is defined as the ability of some living organisms to produce
biological light as a result of chemical reactions, occurs due to nutrition, reproduction

52
and protection. For example, deep-water fish use bioluminescence to attract their prey
towards them and squids use it both to hunt and escape. The size and tone of the light
is adjusted according to the size of the animal, the condition of the prey and the
instrument.
In the Bionic Pavilion, it is aimed to give an example of a metabolism that
releases its own energy and produces energy. In the bioenergy concept, renewable
materials that do not generate waste were used.
Some octopus species communicate with others through color changes and
movements in their bodies. Likewise, the Bionic Pavilion ensures communication
through the membrane layer. The membrane that has provided the communication
creates the whole architecture with the complex light and sounds collected by laser
reflecting and perceiving from the environment in 3 dimensions. In this process, the
pavilion is integrated with visitors on a micro and macro scale. The bright trace on the
fluorescent floor behind the visitors initiates a reaction in the interior and visitors can
communicate with the building at any intersection. Symbolically the living surface
establishes an analogy with nature and biology.
The architectural design of the Bionic Pavilion is based on the vision of Genetic
Architecture. The construction is made up of organic, growing and developing
materials. On the dome-shaped roof of the pavilion above the big screen, there are
solar cells or equipment for generating electricity. Natural forms consist of simple
shapes such as triangles and begens, including those with high complexity. In the
Bionic Pavilion, the foldable structure of the roof reveals the general principle of the
construction, such as being in molecular form and being derivable from simple forms.
The staircase in the form of a double helix DNA produced by computer simulation
goes up to all floors. The Bionic Pavilion project sets a different example with its
function and context questioning the relationships between architecture, virtuality and
nature.

4.1.4.Programmable Biological Structures

Synthetic biologists design the rules of intercellular interaction in a multicellular

tissue, and add these rules to cells through synthetic DNA circuits, just as architects

53
consider interactions between people and construct space, thus enabling biological
structures (never before seen in nature) to construct themselves (Table 4.2).
Providing the fictional constructions of biological tissues to the physical wholes
that architects have designed may make it possible to establish living systems that have
never been observed in nature and even to produce structures that construct themselves
[Gümüşkaya, 2019]. Related to this, a research project has been carried out at MIT.

Figure 4.11: Human kidney embryo cell used in experiments, 2019.

Figure 4.12: Design process shown by diagram.

The aim of this project was to inject local interaction rules describing a particular
target architecture into a group of cells through synthetic DNA circuits, thereby
enabling this cell collective to self-construct into a predetermined geometry. As a
result of the experiment, the cells were able to establish a three-dimensional sphere
morphology described by the synthetic interaction rules in their DNA within 24 hours
by communicating with each other (Figure 4.12). While this result shows that cells can
be programmed to construct structures autonomously, it also revealed that such
structures cannot exceed an average of 1 millimeter in diameter since nutrients and

54
oxygen do not reach the cells in the middle of the structure after a certain distance
[Gümüşkaya, 2019].

Figure 4.13: Cell morphology.

The rules defining the limb morphology were added to the genetic locality rules
that define this sphere morphology, and the self-construction of the "one-armed"
spherical organism was provided. The purpose of adding such a synthetic limb
morphology is to allow different types of chelating proteins to be generated at the ends
of these limbs. Different numbers of such limbs can come together and build larger
structures. The different colors on the tips of the limbs represent different docking
proteins, which allows to control the form of the structure. By means of these
interconnected interlocking proteins, spherical building blocks with various numbers
of limbs will be able to come together, interlock with specific configurations, and
construct centimeter-scale structures in a controlled and autonomous manner (Figure
4.14). The strength of these structures can be achieved by integrating genetic networks
that enable the production of mineral-based biological materials such as bone and
cartilage tissue into the DNA of the cells.

Figure 4.14: Illustration of cell structure.

55
 Table 4.2: Analysis of Programmable Biological Structures.

Environmental Rules Since the design gets shaped by environmental

rules, we can call this process as adaptation.

Synthetic Biology Synthetic biologists define rules to the DNA

circuits and let the biological structure build
itself, like self-building. So they (synthetic
biologists or in this case architects) define the
building block and let it create the structure
based on given rules that were decided
beforehand by the designer.

Self-Building Structures/Self- Programmable cells can build the structure

constructing architectures autonomously and these biological cells are
infinite supplies of building material due to
their growth capacity.

Genetically modified cells Programmable bio-structures

4.1.5.Bio-Interfaces

Every person has a community of microorganisms in their body, and this

community called microbiota is different in every person, just like a fingerprint. We
leave a part of our microbiota wherever we are and these invisible traces give our body
a meaning other than what we describe (Figure 4.15). Although we know that we
interact with surfaces in different ways, our interaction with urban space on a
microbiological scale is a reality that we are unaware of. This bacterial interaction in
the urban area can be a data for the design. These invisible marks can be the direct
subject of the design.

Figure 4.15: The biological layer of Camden / London.

56
 In this research, a fictional proposal is presented to create various biological
interfaces between humans and the built environment. The purpose of the biological
interfaces proposal is to contribute to biodiversity by defining scales, information,
ecologies, morphologies, and transitions between materials.
The first product of this research "Wearable Habitats" is based on the
redefinition of the human body phenomenon through the relationship between
biotechnological research and design (Figure 4.16a). In this project, which is drawing
a future scenario in a world warmed by climate change, the idea of people carrying
their resources with them in order to survive and therefore to design a wearable
interface that hosts micro habitats is presented. It is aimed to make the human body a
carrier of pollen and create a habitat for beneficial bacteria or different species. Thus,
man turns into a body that will contribute to biological diversity (Figure 4.16b).

a) b)

Figure 4.16: Growth models of the habitat created in Houdini software.

D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson defines form as the diagram of forces

[Thompson, 1917]. Form in nature has a meaning and knowledge resides in geometry.
In the form studies based on this theory, it has been focused on simulating different
morphological formations in nature by analyzing and using the principles of cell
division and growth. The natural forces and the proliferation of cells are represented
using digital tools. In this process, various controlled form catalogs based on surface
growth principles were produced (Figure 4.17).

57
 Figure 4.17: Morphological studies, 2019.

The purpose of these breeding experiments is to try to understand the geometric

relationship between living things and their morphologies with the designed habitats.
These morphology studies are far from being a method of producing forms that mimic
nature, they are form experiments aimed at discovering more appropriate geometries
for living things to survive.
It is aimed to analyze, understand, characterize, produce and transform the three-
dimensional principles of the forms in nature in order to understand the geometric
conditions of living spaces in these computer-aided studies, which focus on micro-
scale geometric potentials and possibilities (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Analysis, Summary and Questions regarding Bio-Interfaces.

Bio-diversity and variety Can architecture and design feed biology and enable
bio-diversity as opposed to disabling it?

Network and Living beings make collaborations with each other and
Collaboration, Nature’s create networks of information. Bacterial interaction
way (interaction between bacteria-human, bacteria-plant,
bacteria-city) could perhaps provide data for design?

58
 Table 4.3: Continued

Invisible prints/bio-prints Via these networks, trails are made. Every creature has
a bio-print of their own, it’s unique to every single one
of them.

Urban Bio-Layer The city has a layer of biological diversity we both see
and cannot see. Perhaps adding a bio-layer to human
bodies and bodies becoming architecture themselves?

Adaptation Adapting to changing environmental conditions.

Adaptive behavior of plants, bacteria or other
organisms could also provide data for the designer.

Growth What if architecture can grow, like a living thing. We

can simulate growth via computer programming.

Cell division&Growth as inspiration to modular design

Productive forms-self-
sufficient forming

Humans have a tendency to leave their mark on earth. Instead of doing it by

corrupting nature, it can be done in alignment with it. A symbiosis where humans feed
nature and nature giving back the same. With collecting data from nature and
integrating it to architecture, ecological design benefiting both humans and other living
environments could be possible.

4.2. Hybrid Space Experiments

Microorganisms are very small and are not perceived from human size, but
collectively their colonial progression can be noticeably evident. Micro and macro
scales offer the most visually evident potential. Micro includes a broader category on
a larger scale than the cellular scale macro. Design at micro scale (cells and their
accumulating colonies) is mainly applied by controlling environmental conditions.
The concept of macro-scale design can be extended to include the devices and
infrastructure needed to support the composite result. This cross-scale interaction
inspires the designer to create structures hybridized with biological materials and semi-

59
living systems of unpredictable nature. Creating semi-living architectural structures
offers the opportunity to engage the sensitivity of natural dynamic mechanisms lacking
in artificially produced systems and to take advantage of natural systems.

4.2.1.Neoplasmatic Design Experiments

4.2.1.1. Cyborgian Interfaces

Marcos Cruz claims that ones room and home will become a part of them, and
they will become part of the home [Cruz, 2008].
Biological systems are implanted in certain zones of the architecture in
Cyborgian Interfaces, which are hybrid structures. The walls are more than just walls;
they're explorable interfaces with a variety of service devices which includes Gestural
Tentacles, Storage Capillaries, In-Wall Seats, Relaxing Cocoons, Communication
Suits Essential home functions such as sitting, sleeping, and chatting are relocated
from traditional room space to the walls through these wall interfaces (Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18: Marcos Cruz, Cyborgian Interfaces, 2005-2007.

60
 Cyborgian Interfaces is a domestic environment with wall embedded service-
devices. These devices follow as:

• Communication Suits
• Relaxing Cocoons with embedded synthetic neoplasms
• Storage Capillaries
• Gestural Tentacles
• In-wall Seats
• Back access through wall orifices
• External circulation
• Internal circulation
• Technical appliances
• Structure

Another related work with Cyborgian Interfaces is Cruz’s In-Wall Creatures.

Situations of ‘Living in’, ‘living in-between’ and ‘living along’ walls were examined
in this project. It’s a proposal for a neo-biological living environment with hybridized
biological and non-biological structures.

Figure 4.19: Marcos Cruz, In-Wall Creatures 1, 1999–2001.

4.2.1.2. Synthetic Neoplasms

In contrast to Lynn's generative and constructive blob models, neoplasms appear

to share features with what French philosopher George Bataille called "informe": a
sense of carnal "horizontality," the use of a "basematerialism" of flesh with a formless

61
and even scatological dimension, the emergence of an internal biological "pulse," and
the potential to become entropic. Here, two biological systems are mixed together,
resulting in the crossbreeding of organic and artificial life. An example Project is
Synthetic Pet Growth (Figure 4.20). The drawings show the evolution of hair growth
on an artificial pet.

Figure 4.20: Stefanie Surjo, Synthetic pet growth, 2004–2005.

4.2.1.3. Contaminant

In this experiment, which demonstrates region-specific colonized growth, each

design is placed in spaces with different functions. Microorganisms placed in different
conditions reacted differently according to the environment in which they were found.
The program and use of the space had different effects on these surfaces. The aim was
to monitor the growth of micro organisms, more specifically, it’s made to observe site-
specific colonial growth. In other words, they’re local micro organisms. The locations
are: Dwelling, Grocery, Building Site, Flower Market, Bakery, Airport (Figure 4.21).
Monitor vessels are used in order to observe colonial progression and growth.

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 Figure 4.21: Monitor Vessels.

Aspergillus, a fungal species commonly found in the tissue of our built

environment, and Micrococcus, the bacteria that fills the surface of our skin, were
multiplied in all of the Monitor Cells. Apart from these, depending on their
environment, different microorganisms emerging in fruits, plants, bread or dairy
products have led to visual transformations that reveal an almost visual
epidemiological history.
The aim of the study is to monitor the movement of microbes in any intervention
and to see the morphological aesthetics created by their response through action in an
emergency. For this, an object was designed that embraces the disciplines of
architecture and engineering, as well as microbiology and mycology. The monitoring
capabilities of this setup, designed to recognize and enhance locally existing microbes
and reveal the resulting morphological aesthetics, have been investigated (Figure
4.22).

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 Figure 4.22: Monitor vessels and bacteria create a hybrid-space.

The form of the assemblies derives from spatial advances. The non-Euclidean
volumetric form has been formed as a result of the parameters of the sequential array
and the progress of the irregular string of data points in increasing amounts (Figure
4.23).

Figure 4.23: Formal processes.

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 The monitor cells support infrastructure and semi-viable mounting assembly of
captured microbial growth are positioned to interrupt and utilize the vascular network
of the London Underground System (Figure 4.24). The equipment installed is
equipped with conditions (humidity and heat in the underground station) that facilitate
the capture and incubation of local mushrooms. At the end of the study, organic data
were collected by monitoring urban activity and movement.

Figure 4.24: London undergroung system.

4.2.2. EcoLogicStudio Projects

4.2.2.1.Photo.Synth.Ethica

EcoLogicStudio is an architecture office based in London and it has architectural

products that make use of biological materials and use algorithms and computational
methods (Figure 4.25). One of them is the urban cover project called
Photo.Synth.Etica. This work covers two floors of the Printworks Building in Dublin
and captures and stores carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. It stores about 1 kilogram
of carbon dioxide per day, which corresponds to the amount that 20 large trees will
store.

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 Figure 4.25: EcoLogic Studio founders Claudia Pasquero and Marco Poletto.

In this project, 16 bioplastic modules were used and algae, a bacteria capable of
photosynthesis, were injected into the tunnels inside the modules (Figure 4.26). Today,
algae are used in many of these hybrid studies. One of the most important reasons for
this is that algae can convert waste materials into nutrients and raw materials, in other
words, converting carbon dioxide into oxygen and food (Figure 4.27).

Figure 4.26: A close-up image of covers that contain algae for energy production.

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 Figure 4.27: Diagram for algae cover-built environment relationship.

After the dirty air enters the base of the facade and rises in bubbles from the
water in the panels, it comes into contact with the carbon dioxide in the air and the
algae that absorb and store the air pollutants (Figure 4.28). The byproduct of
photosynthesis is oxygen released into the atmosphere above each front.

Figure 4.28: Dirt can be seen as “red algae” on the left side of the image.

4.2.2.2. HORTUS

Designed as a biodigital garden prototype, H.O.R.T.U.S. is a series of

photosynthetic sculptures and urban structures that create artificial habitats for
cyanobacteria integrated into the built environment. H.O.R.T.U.S. (Figure 4.29a).

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 a) b)

Figure 4.29: H.O.R.T.U.S.-Hydro Organism Responsive to Urban Stimuli, 2012.

The cyanobacteria in it absorb not only photosynthetic machines but also

emissions from building systems (Figure 4.29b). They form a new active layer of both
urban and natural metabolic cycles, thereby reconnecting the green and dark sides of
ecology.
Biodiversity within H.O.R.T.U.S is provided by lakes and ponds in central
London. As algae organisms need carbon dioxide to grow, visitors are invited to
contribute by blowing air into various containers (photo-bioreactors) and adjusting the
content of their nutrients; consequently, it feeds oxygen, bricole (bioluminescent
bacteria) and other organisms in the room (Figure 4.30).

Figure 4.30: A prototype of H.O.R.T.U.S.

H.O.R.T.U.S. is equipped with ambient light sensing technologies and a

specially designed virtual interface. It encourages the emergence of new material
applications and related spatial narratives (Figure 4.31a, 4.31b). Energy streams (light

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radiation), Matter (biomass, carbon dioxide, protein) and Information (data streams,
images, tweets, statistics) are triggered during the 4-week growth period, which affects
self-regulation mechanisms and leads to new forms of self-organization.

a) b)

Figure 4.31: Interaction between people and H.O.R.T.U.S.

4.2.2.3.HORTUS XL

In the digital age, a new interaction is emerging between creativity and the fields
of biology, neuroscience and synthetic biology, and the concept of "vitality" is
evolving into a new artificiality. H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g confronts the
dictations of human rationality with the effects of proximity to bio-artificial
intelligence [Poletto, 2019]. The Project has been developed in collaboration with
living organisms (Figure 4.32a). It is a large-scale, high-resolution 3D printed bio-
sculpture that is sensitive to both human and non-human life (Figure 4.32b).

a)

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 b)

Figure 4.32: H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g., 2019.

In this study, which was developed as a biological artificial intelligence, a digital

algorithm was used to simulate growth. With this digital algorithm, the growth of a
substrate inspired by collective coral morphogenesis is simulated. Physical production
has been with the help of three-dimensional printers. Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are
inoculated into individual triangular cells or bio-pixel on a biogel medium and form
the biological intelligence units of the system. H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g is an
example of the fusion of the digital and biological mind.
The metabolism of the cyanobacteria that’s been used, with the enhancement by
photosynthesis, converts radiation into oxygen and biomass. The intensity value of
each bio-pixel is digitally calculated to optimally arrange photosynthetic organisms
along the iso-surfaces of the gradual radiation (Figure 4.33). Among the oldest
organisms in the world, the unique biological intelligence of cyanobacteria was
combined with design as part of a new biodigital architecture.

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 Figure 4.33: The interior of H.O.R.T.U.S. XL Astaxanthin.g.

4.2.3.Algae Tower

A similar experimental project in terms of algae use is by Make Architects and

Max Fordham Consulting Engineers. Algae on the surface absorb carbon dioxide
during the day and the collected carbon dioxide is filtered and placed in a bio-reactor.
The bioreactor turns this into biodiesel fuel. The building surface, which consists
entirely of vibrant greenery, was used not for aesthetic purposes, but for shading and
cooling the building (Figure 4.34).
In the project, the buildings are considered both as a city and as a power plant
that absorbs carbon dioxide and produces biofuel. Inside the tubes, the algae
surrounding the exterior of the building are considered. Different types of algae reflect
different colors, and some have bioluminescent properties.

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 Figure 4.34: Algae Tower, Make Architects Max Fordham Consulting Engineers.

4.2.4. Plant Anima

In this study conducted by Aniko Meszaros and Sean Hanna in the industrial port
of the city, a new hybrid region was created by combining the organic life and urban
life with the intertwining of machinery and plants (Figure 4.35).
This hybrid organism develops through biotechnology, and an automated
laboratory is its generator. It collects pre-existing vegetation, modifies genetics, and
reconstructs it to create new, susceptible species that can lift human weight, repair
themselves, bloom when touched, and accelerate growth (Figure 4.36).

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 Figure 4.35: Plant Anima, Venetian Lagoon, Italy, 1999.

Figure 4.36: 15 years projection of Hybrid Landscape formation.

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 A pressurized hollow cable and fiber optic network serves as infrastructure for
planting and maintenance (Figure 4.37). This extends from the central automated
laboratory backbone towards the shore. Seeds and spores are extracted in the
laboratory, manipulated and redistributed based on data from field sensors.

Figure 4.37: Aniko Meszaros’ “Anima Project” technical sketch.

4.2.5. Tokyo Subway System

A group of researchers led by Toshiyuki Nakagaki from the Hokkaido University

in Japan, placed Physarum polycephalum, also called as slime mould, in a petri-dish
scattered with oat flakes. The position of food scraps was deliberately placed to
replicate the locations of some of the most visited site in Tokyo. In the first few hours,
the slime mold’s size grew exponentially, and it branched out through the entire edible
map. Within a few days, the size of its branches started to shrink, and the slime mold
established a complex branching network between the oats on the petri-dish. Despite
growing and expanding without a central coordination system like the brain, the mould
had re-created an interconnected network made of slimes that looks almost exactly like
the efficient, well-designed Tokyo subway system (Figure 4.38).
These organisms consist a primitive form of collective intelligence and they map
out their territory. Slime mould accumulates traces in the environment that form a
distributed spatial memory, its outsourced brain (Figure 4.39).

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Figure 4.38: Slime mould-Tokyo Subway System comparison.

Figure 4.39: Growth process of the slime mould.

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 Through multiple local interactions among nuclei and environment that PP’s
overall morphology emerges; these low-level interactions are critical for higher-level
collective intelligence to evolve in the absence of a nervous system. PP’s networked
body grew to resemble urban detour networks, the ones that typically evolve in
hundreds of years of urban growth and that connect all relevant resources with the
minimum overall expenditure of energy.
The slime mold can form efficient networks and it can be used as a biological
computer. It reacts to its surroundings and disseminate the information throughout the
cell. David Reeves mathematically modelled and algorithmically analyzed, replicated
and simulated the movement of the slime mold to decode its biological principles to
understand its computational rules and apply it to architecture. This creature is a great
example for bacterial communication. Three things to learn from it would be
community, collective behavior and communication. Since these are all related with
groups and communities, this can lead to using swarm bodies. Further research and
experiment is needed in order to apply the principles and biology of the slime mould
to architectural design.

4.3. Evaluation of Example Projects

This chapter contains bio-architectural studies done under two different

methods: digital and hybrid. Computer science and simulations are important tools for
digital methods. Two important projects, “Programmable Biological Structures” and
“Bio-Interfaces” focus on a future idea of creating artificial nature, however; both
projects use digital tools in their initial stage of design so they were not analyzed under
hybrid methods. Almost all projects under hybrid methods were realized. Although the
examples were analyzed under two approaches, further analysis include subcategories
that were divided regardless of their approach (Table 4.4). To explain further, some
digitally made projects were mobile, and some hybrid projects (containing hybrid
material systems) were motionless. One would expect a semi-living project to store
some type of motion in its metabolism. H.O.R.T.U.S. XL is one of those projects.

Below table shows all the categories and sub-categories these projects were
examined under. The categories were selected from table 4.1 Bio-Method Formats, in

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which they were also defined. This analysis table shows which project kept its promise
and which project exceeded expectations.

Table 4.4: Analysis of Example Projects.

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5. BIO-PARAMETRICAL STUDIES

Natural means living. How can we reflect liveliness into design? Is it about
imitating life or consisting life? How can we use the biological data for design? How
can we make time visible in buildings?
To see time in a biological structure equals to growth of an organism, which
leads us to buildings having a lifecycle. Although they have it, once a building is
destroyed, it doesn’t blend in with nature. With the usage of natural material, recycable
and composable buildings become a possibility. First step for such design starts with
having symbiotic relationships between living and the artificial. Crosbreeding organic
and artificial life leads to hybrid methodologies.

Figure 5.1: Image of a cell during mitosis which is a form of autopoiesis.

Mitosis is a biological process where a single cell divides into two identical cells,
and can also be called cell division. This process has similar qualities with autopoisesis
which is basically self-creation (Figure 5.1). This term refers to a system’s capability
to reproduce and maintain itself by creating its own parts and further components. This
self-creation process could be an inspiration for self-organized systems, even
autopoietic buildings.

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 Table 5.1: Bio-Parameters and their definitons.

BIO-PARAMETERS
Growth Progressive development of an organism
Morphogenesis Biological process that helps a cell define its
shape
Evolution Change in a generation of species as a result of
natural selection
Mutation Change or alteration in the genetic material
Symbiosis Variety of organisms sharing the same
environment and living together
Self-Organization The process of adapting to the environment for the
development of a particular function of the
internal order of a system without any external
control or direction
Adaptation Organisms adjusting their qualities such as
structure, genetics and physiology to fit their
environment

Biologically inspired design methodologies usually include qualities of

biological organisms. These qualities can be called bio-parameters and these
parameters can be used in bio-design (Table 5.1).

5.1.Fungal Surface

As a part of the experimenting and studying bio-parameters with relation to

design, two projects were initiated. The first one, Fungal Surface, consists of studies
on bread mold and using growth as a design parameter. The project encompasses a
future scenario where global warming and the big amounts of Sun rays disrupted
organic life and humans need to protect themselves from the Sun. In order to do that,
they need to live in underground cities, where moisture is enough for a mold to
multiply. In this scenario, the surfaces are made from genetically engineering molds
in order to avoid the harmful effects of the organism and control the growth.
First step for this study was to observe a bread mold and study the colonization
and the communication between different cells. The layers of bread mold was defined
considering to use them as a biological structure. Mycellium in molds consists of many
thread-like or fiber-like structures known as Hyphae (Figure 5.2a). It’s a reticulated

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structure that create communication networks and they move collectively (Figure 5.2b,
5.2c, 5.2d).

a)

b) c) d)

Figure 5.2: Bread mold cell structure and microscopic images.

Molds started appearing when food (bread) got deteriorated and they continued
to reproduce as long as there was food. With the help of the microscope, the
morphology and colonization of the mold was observed (Figure 5.3a, 5.3b).

a) b)

Figure 5.3: Food decay and the appearance of molds.

After a period of growth, the molds started to create a pattern and distribution
of density according to the location of the food source (Figure 5.4a). The density
amongst the colony occurs where there’s nutrition and the farther away a cell is from
food source, the harder it is for that cell to survive (Figure 5.4b).

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 a) b)

Figure 5.4: Images showing the distribution of cells.

To carry this experiment into the digital environments, observations were

translated into diagrams since visual language tools are important to convey concepts
for designers. The distribution of cells were marked with points which were then used
for Delaunay triangulation. Two different diagrams emerged from two molds fed from
the same food source and grew on the same environment (Figure 5.5, Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.5: Delaunay triangulation of the first mold.

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 Figure 5.6: Delaunay triangulation of the second mold.

The first mold was selected for the study since it contains differing densities that could
increase the chance of variety in design which would lead to originality. Different
levels of densities were divided into regions in a sketch (Figure 5.7). Later, this study
was carried into a digital platform for more precise calculations (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.7: Regional sketch showing the density of population.

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 Figure 5.8: Fungal Surface front view.

Figure 5.9: Fungal Surface Perspective view.

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 Fungal Surface is designed vertically to imitate a living wall system (Figure 5.9).
The parts of the system are fluid and respond and react to the environment. In case of
a natural disaster such as flood, the open parts of the system will be closed to avoid
water entering (Figure 5.10). Another example includes an earthquake scenario in
which the surface will bend and curl to protect the inhabitants and avoid any collapse.

Figure 5.10: Fungal Surface reacting in a natural disaster scenario.

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5.2. Neoplasmic Space

Neoplasmic Space is a continuation of Fungal Surface and proposes co-growth

of user and structure, establishing a relationship between the user DNA and the
structure’s DNA. As the user grows, the space grows simultaneously as a result of the
increasing movement in the area, taking form according to needs (Figure 5.11). Spaces
are interactive with the user and the environment. Building takes shape by responding
to user needs.

Figure 5.11: Concept sketch of Neoplasmic Space.

It’s designed as a modular structure since different modules embody different

qualities resembling the relationships between cells of an organism (Figure 5.12).
Modular structure consist unique modules integrating with each other. The modules
don’t have to resemble each other since they all have different codes so the system is
a symbiosis between them.

Figure 5.12: Sketch showing the single module (cell) and the modular structure.

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 Since Neoplasmic Space is a continuation of Fungal Surface, the previous model
was improved. The Delaunay triangulation process was supported with Voronoi
diagram technique (Figure 5.13a). After determining the centers of the triangles,
polygonal patterns were created by connecting them (Figure 5.13b).

a) b)

Figure 5.13: Formation process of Neoplasmic Space.

The modular framework is based on the Voronoi diagram study (Figure 5.14a,
5.14b). With the help of using the point cloud system (Figure 5.15) and having a
variety of levels according to previous observations about the mold, surface
articulation was made (Figure 5.16a, 5.16b, 5.16c).

a) b)

Figure 5.14: Cellular framework of Neoplasmic Space.

86
Figure 5.15: Point Cloud system of Neoplasmic Space.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 5.16: Surface articulation of Neoplasmic Space.

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 a)

b)

c)

5.17: Perspective views of Neoplasmic Space.

What Neoplasmic Space proposes is not a finish form but a fluid one that could
change depending on the environmental factors and user needs (Figure 5.17a, 5.17b,
5.17c). Each module communicate with each other as well as the environment and

88
users which makes the system work as a whole. Its self-sufficient quality allows it to
exist in all kinds of environments and produce energy if needed. Since it contains
living organism as a building material, it has the ability to renew and regenarete itself
in case of any damage. The system works as a whole like a collective intelligence
(Table 5.2).

Table 5.2: Qualities of Neoplasmic Space.

Qualities of Neoplasmic Space

Self-sufficient
Working as a whole
Communicating
Responding to needs
Renewing itself
Systems can be added or removed (like a modular structure)

With the integration and the emergence of hybrid methods, the line between
building and nature is blurring. These methods consist crossbreeding organic and
artificial life. Where the building ends and where nature starts will be hard to
differentiate. Although they have different textures, just like the skin of the face and
the skin of the body, how they blend together will hide the joints therefore the two
becomes one. In hybrid structures, just like living structures, there is a natural growth.
These organisms have unlimited growth potential, however the control should still be
on the designer. Therefore, programming these organisms using genetic engineering
is needed. A semi-living architecture can be achieved by trial and error and through
experimentation.

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6. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS

Biology is a discipline that includes life and constant change, while architecture
is a stable discipline that wants buildings to survive over the years. As architects, the
design methods we base 90ort h on should go beyond analogy, and 90ort he90, we
need to turn to the joint work of biology and architecture. An important quality that
90ort h has is its capacity to become endless and its evolutionary characteristics. With
evolution in mind, buildings won’t be static and won’t have an end form. These
growing buildings would include user interaction which leads to open-ended systems.
It is possible to produce advanced materials in architecture by giving biological
components or organisms new functions other than their original roles in their own
structures or ecosystems.
As a result of bio-architecture, the tools and methodologies we use are changing,
our aesthetic intention is changing, even the terminology we use is changing. Our
perception of the world also becomes biological as we are exposed to biological
themes by the media. We are particularly familiar with biological terminology and use
concepts such as “genetic engineering, cloning, transgenics, pharmaceutical design,
plastic surgery and bioterrorism” in the common language of society. When traditional
language is not enough to describe this new environment, we have to use biological
and medical terms. By using concepts such as “morphogenesis, homeostasis”, we are
actually starting to look at architecture from a different perspective through language.
With this study, it is aimed to blur the boundaries between the natural and the
artificial, and to think of architecture in a wider ecology. First step towards a new
future was biomimicry, the imitation of nature but its time is over and with the new
informations and technologies, the future of architectural design changes. Since there
can’t be a harsh transition from artificial space to organic space, hybrid spaces or semi-
living spaces come next. Early examples of this theory is discussed throughout the
thesis. As a prediction, the last step could be buildings being alive, however, not
thinking on their own. This is of course a matter of debate and should be considered
ethically since hybrid spaces and methodologies involve the use of living material as
a building block. In such an approach, human-induced alteration of bioheritage is in
question. Although altering the environment would be ethically questionable, it’s

90
actually been done since the agricultural revolution and we can see the results of
corruption especially with global warming. However, if the aim is to build a better
world, a positive kind of intervention shouldn’t be an issue. Nature has its own way to
survive and as human species and a part of that nature, we can develop new methods
in order to keep on living.
Two important methods in terms of bio-architecture were discussed in the thesis.
The first one, digital approach consists of Biodigital structures. Artificial “DNA”
(software) for the formation of biodigital structures is processed digitally with
computer elements. The resulting morphology can be observed by simulation. Here
the building material is inanimate (artificial). There is robotized production of digitally
designed architecture. Digital design and manufacturing is seen as a genetic process.
The second approach, Neoplasmatic Approach includes Hybrid Structures. With the
application of natural software (DNA) and real genetic processes with living elements
to architecture, the integration of living structures into architectural structures is
realized and thus hybrid structures are formed. It is used to obtain living elements,
building materials and useful living spaces for architecture. It becomes possible to
transform it into “directed” building materials and livable spaces through its special
genetic designs, thus producing 100% ecological, recyclable and sustainable
architecture that provides maximum energy savings and does not require manual labor
throughout the construction process.
Hybrid methodologies involve biological materials infiltrating the design and
not fully replace the building with an organism. The aim is to create a hybrid between
biology and design. Architectural products aren’t seen as a living system but it could
be with the blurring of the limits between architecture and biology. The building blocks
in design could be programmed as a cellular matter and since the cells acting like a
living organism grow and evolve, the building could also evolve even structure itself,
re-structure and adapt according to its environment. Change is the most noticable
quality of a living organism therefore seeing change in an architectural product could
turn it into a semi-living being almost. Understanding different biological processes
from the molecular level to their ecological roles will enable efficient use of resources
and more sustainable designs. It is stated that using molecular biology, structures can
be grown by following the instructions in their own genetic codes, and mutations can
be created in structures by adaptation of natural processes such as evolution or natural
selection to structures. This could be achieved by programming the cell and eventually

91
the structure or incorporating a living material with the structure and hyridizing the
design. The most important step in such a design process is that the designer can
develop the local rules that enable the self-fictional whole they planned to emerge and
define them through the spatial interfaces to the individuals (organisms) who make up
the system. Then all that remains for the designer will be to watch the whole build
itself.
In this way, we can produce living structures that are aware of their surroundings
and can interact with it, heal, develop, and most importantly, can be programmed to
construct their own specific target structures in a self-fictional way. Moreover, the fact
that the basic building blocks of such structures are living cells that can reproduce
themselves permanently means that the architectural material we have will constantly
renew itself. Such a technique will not only provide solutions to many problems on
our planet, but also contribute to space architecture.
Since there’s a global crisis going on and the life on Earth is starting to deplete,
thoughts of creating a colony in Mars is emerging. The anthropocene and architecture
in Mars is an important topic to discuss. Because the human body, or any other living
creature on Earth, is incompatible with Mars’ atmosphere, the first step would be to
alter Mars’ environment, including its atmosphere, to make it appropriate for
earthlings. Buildings that generate oxygen would contribute to this adjustment. Due to
the difficulty of getting out of the Earth’s gravitational field, the delivery of
construction materials and machines to space is not supported, as the loads transported
to space are at a minimum level. But it may be a good solution to leave orbit with a
tube of genetically modified cells, reproduce these cells during space travel and
transform themselves into architectural building elements. The fact that these systems
are derived from the bottom with the rules of inter-individual local interaction gives
us the opportunity as designers to change these rules and even inject new ones through
physical interfaces such as public space or genetic space (Figure 6.1).
The conclusion reached within the scope of the research is that hybridized
structures with biological materials will become widespread in the future. The
connection between the living and the artificial lays the groundwork for semi-living
architecture. With advanced technologies, it may be possible for the material to grow
and build itself which gives unique qualities to the design. No design will be the same
as the other, leading to one of a kind, original buildings that are locally specific and
that contribute to the environment, making life better for all creatures.

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Figure 6.2: Neoplasmic Mars Vision.

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 BIOGRAPHY

Deniz Gizem MANAVOĞLU was graduated from Bahçeşehir University,

Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture in 2016. In 2018, she started her
master's degree with thesis at Gebze Technical University, Institute of Science and
Technology, Department of Architecture. She’s currently working at an interior
architecture firm, since 2020.

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