Southeast Asian Vernacular in Cambodia and Vietnam

BACKGROUND
CAMBODIA
The country Cambodia is located on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia,
and it is a large land of plains and great rivers. These are used as overland and
trade routes that can link China to India and Southeast Asia. Most of the influence
of the cultures of Asia, the United States, and France could be seen more
prominently in their capital, Phnom Penh (pa-nom pen), which is considered one
of the urban centres of the country.

For 2000 years, the Cambodian civilization had taken influences from India and
China while also transferring them to other Southeast Asian civilizations. It ruled
over regions that are now a part of Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos from the
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Funan and Chenla (1st–8th century) until the classical
age of the Angkor period (9th–15th century). The Khmer empire had reached its
peak by the 12th century, which could be seen in the construction of massive
temple complexes, also known as Angkor Wat and Bayon, as well as the
imperial capital of Angkor Thom. After 400 years of decline, Cambodia became a
French colony and endured the tumult of war, Japanese occupation, postwar
independence, and political instability during the 20th century. The Khmer Rouge, a
rural communist guerrilla force, ruled the nation between 1975 and 1979, wreaking
havoc on the nation.

Cambodia started to recover with the help of a Vietnam-back regime from the
People’s Republic of Kampuchea from 1979-1989. In the 1990s, they could reclaim
their political independence and reinstate a constitutional government while
implementing free elections. They also coined the proverb, "Fear, not the future,
weep not for the past." which represented the nation’s way of life as their economy
continued to progress.

VIETNAM
Vietnam occupies the eastern portion of mainland Southeast Asia. Records of
Tribal Viets inhabiting the Red River delta had only been written in history when
China’s expansion to the south had reached them in the 3rd century. Most of
Vietnam's history includes its interaction with China which is the main source of
Vietnam’s high culture. The nation had sent lacquerware, animal skins, ivory, and
tropical products to the emperor of China as a means of tribute to them after they
had thrown off the Chinese rule in 938 CE.

Sinic culture permeated society thoroughly, although it had a more significant

impact on the aristocracy and mandarin families than on the peasantry, which
 retained unique practices, beliefs, terminology, lifestyles, and gender roles. Distance
from the capital reduced the Vietnamese state's ability to rule. The cliche "The
emperor's writ stops at the village gate" perfectly describes the refractory nature
of bamboo-hedged peasant communes.

Vietnam has a long history of affiliating with the dominant culture and applying
its ideas, institutions, and technological developments for local purposes. This
pattern of affiliation and adaptation was evident in Vietnam's historical ties with
China, and it reappeared when the descendants of mandarins responded to the
challenge of the West by rejecting tradition and becoming communist to combat
colonialism.

It was later seen again in the 20th-century artistic movements that portrayed western
forms as a means to promote social renovation. This movement has carried on since
the 1980s and acts as a driving force behind the integration of economic
liberalization and integration into the world economy. This strategic absorption and
adaptation aided Vietnam into becoming one of the world’s most populous
countries while having one of the most rapidly expanding market economies.

INFLUENCES
Geographical:
- It is located on the Indo-Chinese peninsula.
- Thailand and Laos border it on the north, Vietnam on the east and southeast, and
Thailand and the Gulf of Thailand on the west.
- 181035 sq. km. mostly made up of rolling plains and lush woodlands

Geological
- It is distinguished by a low-lying center alluvial plain bordered by uplands and low
mountains.
- In the delta area, timber was the primary building material with: laterite, sandstone,
and terra-cotta brick used in the hinterland.
A. Brick:
- The first Angkorian temples were mostly composed of brick. Decorations were
often carved onto stucco that was put to the masonry rather than into the brick itself.
(This was due to the fact that bricks were a softer material that did not lend itself to
sculpting as well as other types of stones such as sandstones and granites.)
Ex. temple towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya.
B. Laterite:
- For foundations and other concealed portions of buildings, a clay that is soft when
collected from the ground but hardens when exposed to sunlight. Laterite's uneven
surface made it unsuitable for ornate carvings unless it was first treated with stucco.
Laterite was utilized more often in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor.
 - utilized in the bottom layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (particularly the
bigger ones) to improve temple stability
C. Sandstone:
- sourced from the Kulen mountains
- employed for certain parts such as door frames at initially since its acquisition was
significantly more expensive than that of brick.

Climate
- It has a hot and humid tropical environment. Monsoons rule, with a mean
temperature of more than 27 degrees.
- There are two seasons every year: dry and wet.
* Beneficial to livestock farming and agriculture

Religion
- Brahmanism and Buddhism were introduced by Indian and Chinese merchants.
- The majority of ethnic Khmer are Theravada Buddhists, and the faith was formally
acknowledged as Cambodia's national religion.

Social and Political

- Years of conflict and social turmoil have resulted in 25 percent of families
being headed by women. The Khmer Rouge depopulated several Cambodian
towns, drove people to the countryside, and demolished the educational
system. The process of re-urbanization began in the early 1980s.

Historical
- Since prehistoric times, Khmer people have resided in lowland locations with fertile land.
- While others like to live on plateaus, Khmer people have traditionally built their buildings
with high columns to adapt to the tropical environment and protect themselves from floods
and predatory animals.
- Traditional Khmer constructions became depictions of Khmer cultural life during that
period.
- These cultural masterworks should have been passed down to future generations, but
instead they were gradually destroyed by nature, time, and conflict.
- Pol Pot's genocide regime - where many of the structures were dismantled and their land
was set aside for other uses

INFLUENCES (VIETNAM)
Geographical:
Vietnam is located on the eastern margin of the Indochinese peninsula and occupies
about 331,211.6 square kilometers, of which about 25% was under cultivation in
1987. It borders the Gulf of Tonkin, Gulf of Thailand, and Pacific Ocean, along with
 China, Laos, and Cambodia.

Geological
As one of the Indochina peninsula countries located in a tropical temperature zone, the
following architectural traits of Vietnam may be observed:
- Bamboo, wood, thatch, stone, brick, tile, paint, terrecotta, and lime have been
utilized as building materials.
- Vietnam and its built environment are intricately bound to the country's steep
and thickly wooded topography. The varying geography between the northern
highlands and the southern lowlands resulted in a varied environment,
requiring architecture to meet a variety of temperature and humid conditions.

Climate
- Located in both a tropical and a temperate zone, Vietnam is characterized by
strong monsoon influences, but has a considerable amount of sun, a high rate of
rainfall, and high humidity. The regions located near the tropics and in the
mountainous regions are endowed with a temperate climate.
- Building orientation: Hue ancient structures often face south, in line with the adage
"Get married to a woman, build a south-facing house." In reality, structures facing
south can avoid frigid winds from the north east in the winter and enjoy cool breezes
from the south in the summer.

Religion
- Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia and borders China to the north,
therefore it has been significantly influenced by Confucianism and Taoism
from China, as well as Buddhism from both China and India. These religions
were gradually Vietnamzed by subsequent rulers.
- In general, all three religions have coexisted and engaged with one another
throughout history. They contributed to the creation of religious architectural
works in many sections of the nation, from rural areas to cities and towns
(pagodas, temples, temples of literature, shrines, stupas, etc.) and also had
an impact on the architecture of dwelling buildings. The fifteenth and
sixteenth. Several centuries witnessed the entrance of Christianity and, in
some locations, the formation of Catholic churches. Cao Dai, a new religion,
appeared in Tay Ninh province in 1926. A few temples have an unusual
architectural style.

Social and Political

- From the end of the colonial era in 1954 to the present, Vietnam has seen
significant historical changes that have drastically affected ideology, cultural
 norms, and then architecture. A conventional concept of architectural history,
emphasizing on creative production and the expression of cultural
representation in particular structures, dominated contemporary Vietnamese
architectural debate and study. The relationship between socio-political
changes and modern Vietnamese architecture was frequently seen as a
result of changes in the professional and economic environment, while the
ideological basis and preferred cultural tradition, which formed a significant
dynamic of architectural symbolism, were frequently overlooked.
- In modern Vietnam, the idea of national/cultural identity serves as a link
between the two primary perspectives on architecture: as an art form and as
a socio-political product. From the postwar period until the present, the
manifestation of national/cultural identity has been regarded as one of the
most important factors in the evaluation of architectural aesthetics in many
postcolonial nations, as well as in Vietnam. In terms of politics, governing
regimes consciously pursued and promoted architectural symbols of national
identity, including representations of cultural heritage and modernism, in order
to legitimize their rule. In diverse circumstances, the architectural form used
and the accompanying conceptions of national identity were therefore
consistent with the appropriate prevailing ideology and culture.

Historical
- Traditional houses in Vietnam were characterized by wooden structures
topped by steep roofs. The roofs would be covered with fish-scale tiles
and curve outwards, while beams and rafters held up the main building. In
some places, stilt houses were built and the houses usually had an odd
number of rooms. However, the coming of various dynasties shaped
cultural landmarks in the country in different ways. Palaces, pagodas and
citadels flourished in Vietnam for over 500 years.
 A Traditional Vietnamese house, mounted on wooden stilts

- The Ly Dynasty of the 11th century, for example, was deeply influenced by
Buddhism and incorporated intricate reliefs and motifs into their
architecture. In 1031, a staggering 950 pagodas were constructed by the
reigning monarch Ly Thai Tong. During this period, rounded statues,
door-steps, decorated roofs and bannisters were common features of
Vietnamese architecture.

The Hanoi Citadel, a fine example of traditional Vietnamese architecture

The Imperial Citadel of Thang Long, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a must-see
for travellers wishing to immerse themselves in Vietnamese history. The citadel, located
in modern-day Hanoi, was the region's political center for 13 centuries in a row and will
fascinate history aficionados in particular. This majestic edifice is a wonderful example
of medieval Vietnamese architecture.
- Tran dynasty, which gained a foothold in the 13th century, brought its own set of
beliefs and customs that made its mark in Vietnam's architectural history.
Buildings became more complex and demarcated, and gardens became a part of
temples and places of worship. Tower-temples also emerged at this time; The
Pho Binh Tower in Nam Dinh province and Binh Son Tower in Vinh Phuc
province are relics from the Tran dynasty.

Binh Son Pagoda, a testament to the Tran Dynasty's influence of Vietnamese Architecture

- The Le Dynasty flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries, and saw the growth of
folk art and sculpture, which are still employed in modern carvings and paintings.
The most notable structures of this era are the Tay Phuong Pagoda and the Bang
Communal House.
- The last major Kingdom was the Nguyen dynasty, which shifted the capital from
Thang Long to Hue in central Vietnam. Although it retained the older tradition of
wooden houses, the structures built during this period appear to be slender and
lighter. These are also decorated with flowers, dragons and phoenix motifs, and
have multiple layers within the roofs. This is what gives the lighter appearance,
and the roofs would have up to 8 layers with the space between them (known as
co-diem) filled with porcelain and ceramic bits.
 The Citadel of Hue, one of the prime structures from the Nguyen Dynasty (Source)

Colonial French Architecture in Vietnam

- The French left their architectural imprint all throughout Vietnam during their
nearly 70-year colonial rule. The impact of French influences on Vietnamese
architecture is most noticeable in Hanoi and Hoi An, where numerous landmark
structures have become Vietnam's most famous tourist attractions. St. Joseph's
Cathedral in Hanoi, which serves four million Catholics, was inspired by Notre
Dame in Paris and continues to draw visitors with its neo-gothic architecture. The
Hanoi Opera House, inspired by the Palais Garnier, is another reinvention of a
French landmark painted in vivid yellow and white tones.

The Hanoi Opera House, one of the major landmarks displaying French architecture in Vietnam
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
Cambodia:
● Under the Khmer Empire, temples were created according to the rules of ancient
Khmer architecture and evolved in stages, as seen by the Angkor Temples' many
magnificent structures. Angkorian builders and architects designed temples with a
central sanctuary, courtyard, enclosure, and moat. Elements and themes were
inspired by the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism and their mythological animals.
However, not all of these characteristics were equally prevalent during the Angkorian
period, as many architectural styles followed one another.
- Most of the structures are made from sandstone with unidentified mortar, and
remains of gilded stucco have been found on some of the towers.
● Poorly exploited resources like wood were used to create dwellings and other
non-religious buildings throughout the Angkorian era, while stone was reserved for
temples and other religious structures.
- The traditional Cambodian homes are constructed on high wood pilings and
the roof was made of simple and familiar to the local farmers are thatched
leaves or straw, walls made of palm mats, and flooring of woven bamboo
strips resting on bamboo joists, and the normal way to access the houses is
with wooden ladders.
● The shaded room downstairs is used for storage and daytime relaxation. These
houses were built traditionally aligning to face the East because locals believed that
would bring back prosperity for them and a way to show respect to the sun. This is a
thousand-year-old traditional dwelling of the Cambodian people that is still in use
today, which explains the establishment of customs associated with living on stilts.
Cambodia's location in the lower Mekong makes it susceptible to flooding; near the
end of the dry season, flood peaks may reach heights of up to 15 meters. Therefore,
traditional Cambodian homes are useful for avoiding flooding. Furthermore, from
ancient times to the present, Cambodia has a variety of venomous snakes and wild
animals in the vicinity of their homes; the stilts are also effective for avoiding these
risks.
● The residences of affluent families are constructed with timber walls and tiled roofs,
but the fundamental layout remains the same. The French left their stamp on
Cambodia in the shape of neoclassical-style homes and government buildings,
complete with columns.
( Some of the finest examples of colonial architecture are located in Phnom Penh,
although the majority of provincial capitals feature at least one or two examples.
Battambang and Kampot are two of the best-preserved colonial-era towns, featuring
rows of charming shophouses and traditional governors' mansions.)
Vietnam:

Vietnam Architecture is influenced by China, India, the ancient Khmer Empire, and more
recently France and other Western countries have blended with indigenous styles, forming
an amazing variety of architectural delights in Vietnam. Traditional pagodas and temples
stand side by side with secular French colonial buildings.

● The majority of significant traditional Vietnamese buildings are single-story structures

with heavy tiled roofs supported by a strong timber framework (to withstand
typhoons). In rural areas, most dwellings are made of wood and placed on stilts,
elevating them above seasonal flooding (and away from snakes and wild animals).
As roofing materials, bamboo and palm leaves are also well-suited to the tropical
monsoon environment. Traditionally, homes are divided into sleeping, cooking, and
storage areas, while animals reside below the house.
● Several details and rituals must be performed during the construction of a Thai house
because superstition is a significant aspect of home building. Thais consider their homes to
be the first line of protection against ghosts and evil spirits. As a result, the traditional Thai
house is meant to fight off these feared entities and safeguard its people from possible
intrusions by nature.
- Material preparation involves taking into account the site and location of the home, the smell
of the soil, and the planted trees. Multiple rituals must take place before, during, and after the
building process. One of them consists of a rite done by a person of recognized spiritual
authority, who conducts a "blessing" when the first column is erected. When the house is
ready to be inhabited, dwelling involves the proper conduct of people when entering and
residing in the home.
● All structures must adhere to the idea of symmetry and balance, which stems from
early religious beliefs. Specifically, each house is a fundamental unit with an odd
number of rooms. The house's floor plan resembles a certain geometric figure such
as rectangle, square, hexagon, and octagon.

( The letter "nhat" represents the basic and initial house layout. In other, more elaborate
arrangements, an inside courtyard provides ventilation and additional light. Individual homes
are combined to make a huge architectural ensemble.)

TERMINOLOGIES OF BUILDING PARTS

Cambodia Historical Structures

Angkor Wat
The largest and best-preserved temple complex of its sort is located in Cambodia and is
called Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat's sand-colored structures rise to create five towers,
signifying the residence of the Hindu deities, and are very large and elaborately painted.
Throughout, friezes and sculptures may be seen representing religious occasions and
everyday life from the time it was erected.The Hindu deity Vishnu needed a somewhere to
call home, so the "temple-mountain" from the 12th century was created. The temple is a
work of art in itself, with bas-relief galleries along many of its walls and telling everlasting
stories of Cambodian myth and history.

Next is the..

Preah Vihear or Temple of the Sacred Mountain

Many Cambodians have a special place in their hearts for Prasat Preah Vihear, which has
been at the epicenter of warfare for decades. Fighting between Cambodia and Thailand for
possession of the holy place occurred until recent years when Preah Vihear sits on the
border between the two nations. The location was certified safe in 2015 and removed from
various international authorities' watch lists. Despite the heavy military presence, the temple
is well worth a visit. Prasat Preah Vihear is a collection of spectacular buildings constructed
between the 9th and 12th centuries by several monarchs without any of the crowds that
afflict Angkor. It has breathtaking views of the surrounding countryside as it precariously
balances on a 1,722-foot cliff in the Dângrêk Mountains.

Phnom Kulen Temple

Locals regard the vast national park around Phnom Kulen as the holiest mountain in
Cambodia. During public holidays and religious celebrations, locals from Siem Reap
province go to the location to pray, picnic, and spend quality time with their families near the
waterfalls. At the top of the mountain, there is a giant reclining Buddha. There are also
swimming-friendly waterfalls, secluded temples, and mountain where King Jayavarman II
declared independence from "Java" in 802 CE is regarded as the birthplace and initial
capital of the Khmer kingdom.

Bokor Hill Station

It is located in Kampot and it is a French colonial structures may be seen in southern
Cambodia. The French government envisioned the hill station, constructed in the 1920s
atop Bokor Mountain in what is now Preah Monivong National Park, to serve as a mountain
luxury resort and getaway for colonial people. National Highway 3 has a straight path that
leads to Bokor Hill Station. The hill station is now deserted. Visitors from outside and in
Cambodia are drawn to the partly signposted region. The skeleton of a huge hotel and
casino with high rooms, terraces overlooking the Gulf of Thailand, and a big ballroom. A
dilapidated cathedral and abandoned royal residences recall a decadent era.
Designed as a resort for the French in the early 20th century, Bokor Hill Station debuted in
1925 after nine months of rigorous labor that killed an estimated 1,000 men.

Vietnam Historical Structures

CO LOA CITADEL
The Cổ Loa Citadel is a significantly fortified village and archaeological site in the upper
plain north of the Hong River, approximately 17 kilometers north of modern-day Hanoi in the
Dong Anh district. This artifact is considered the unique cultural nexus of both Hanoi City
and Vietnam. Co Loa is a place to learn about Vietnamese culture and formerly the capital
of the Dai Viet kingdom in the era of Ngo Quyen dynasty and the Au Lac Kingdom the era of
An Duong Vuong dynasty, 3rd century BC back in the 10th century. Co Loa is a relic and a
notable piece of evidence that persists until today.

MY SON SANCTUARY
Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary is located in the center of Vietnam, on the hilly border of Duy Xuyen
District of Quang Nam Province. On the coast of modern-day Vietnam, from the fourth to
the thirteenth century, there existed a distinct society with spiritual roots in Hinduism from
India. The ruins of some majestic tower temples in a scenic location, which served as the
Champa Kingdom's religious and political center for most of its existence, provide a graphic
illustration of this.

TEMPLE OF LITERATURE or Văn Miếu

Văn Miếu is located in Quoc Tu Giam and is a temple dedicated to Confucius in Hanoi,
northern Vietnam. The temple also hosts the Imperial Academy, Vietnam's first national
university. Văn Miếu was built in 1070 at the time of Emperor Lý Thánh Tông. And one of
several Vietnam temples dedicated to Confucius, sages, and scholars.

Hội An
Also known as Faifo located in Quang Nam province. The central Vietnamese city of Hội An
is well-known for its restored Ancient Town surrounded by waterways. The historic port city's
architecture, a mix of ages and styles, from wooden Chinese shophouses and temples to
vibrant French colonial structures, beautiful Vietnamese tube houses, and the famed
Japanese Covered Bridge with its pagoda, reflects the city's multicultural heritage.

PROMINENT EXAMPLES

REFERENCES:
● Overton, L. (2022). Cambodia | History, Map, Flag, Capital, Population, Language, &
Facts | Britannica. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/place/Cambodia
● Duiker, W. (2022). Vietnam | History, Population, Map, Flag, Government, & Facts |
Britannica. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam
● 5 best historic sites in Cambodia. (n.d.). History Hit.
https://www.historyhit.com/guides/historic-sites-in-cambodia/
● Historic sites – Viet Nam’s landmarks. (n.d.).
https://vnembassy-oslo.mofa.gov.vn/en-us/About%20Vietnam/General%20Informati
on/Culture/Pages/HISTORIC-SITES-%E2%80%93-VIET-NAM%E2%80%99S-LAN
DMARKS.aspx
● Cambodian architecture - ancient khmer architecture. Cambodia Travel. (2020,
December 30). Retrieved July 17, 2022, from
https://cambodiatravel.com/cambodian-architecture/
● Cambodian architecture - ancient khmer architecture. Cambodia Travel. (2020,
December 30). Retrieved July 17, 2022, from
https://cambodiatravel.com/cambodian-architecture/
● Holidify. (2019, May 15). Architecture of vietnam: From wooden stilts to colonial
French. Holidify. Retrieved July 18, 2022, from
https://www.holidify.com/pages/architecture-of-vietnam-1309.html#:~:text=Traditional
%20houses%20in%20Vietnam%20were,an%20odd%20number%20of%20rooms
● Influence of religions on traditional Vietnamese architecture. (n.d.). Retrieved July
18, 2022, from
https://www.vietvisiontravel.com/post/influence-of-religion-on-traditional-vietnamese-
architecture/
● LONELY PLANET PUBNS. (2018). Lonely planet Vietnam.
● Palmer, A. L. (2008). Historical dictionary of architecture. Scarecrow Press.
● S. (2016, April 29). Influence of Religions on Traditional Vietnamese Architecture.
Viet Vision Travel.
https://www.vietvisiontravel.com/post/influence-of-religion-on-traditional-vietname
se-architecture/
●
● Saxena, R. (n.d.). Architecture of Vietnam: From Wooden Stilts to Colonial French.
Holidify.
https://www.holidify.com/pages/architecture-of-vietnam-1309.html#:~:text=Palaces%
2C%20pagodas%20and%20citadels%20flourished%20in%20Vietnam%20for%20ov
er%20500%20years.&text=The%20Ly%20Dynasty%20of%20the,reigning%20monar
ch%20Ly%20Thai%20Tong.
● Stephen. (2022, February 21). Vietnamese traditional architecture throughout
history. Indochina Tours. Retrieved July 18, 2022, from
https://www.indochina.tours/vietnamese-traditional-architecture-throughout-history/
● Thuan An, P. (n.d.). culture and music. Vietnamese Language and Culture.
http://www.seasite.niu.edu/vietnamese/vnculture/culture.htm
● Tuan, T. M. (2010). The changing concepts of national identity in modern
Vietnamese architecture. PhD thesis, Architecture, Building and Planning, The
University of Melbourne.