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A Disquisition on Euler's Formula: Derivation Techniques

and Application to Various Mathematical Disciplines

Reycris A. Masanque
ram2022-9496-28465@bicol-u.edu.ph

INTRODUCTION

The Euler's formula, which bears the name of the illustrious mathematician Leonhard Euler, is
one of the most powerful equations that is directly related to the integration of trigonometric
expressions. To put it briefly, the theorem states that e ix =cosx +isinx , where x is a real number, e is the
base of the natural logarithm, and i is an imaginary unit. The essential connection between
trigonometric functions and exponential functions is established by Euler's formula. It can be
conceptualized geometrically as a technique of connecting two complex plane representations of the
same unit complex number.
The following shows how the following important values of Euler's formula relate to the
locations on the trigonometric/unit circle:

 For x=0, we have e 0=cos 0+isin 0, which gives 1=1. Which is true because, as we already know,
an angle of 0 on the trigonometric circle equals 1 on the real axis, which is what we obtain in
this instance.
 For x=1, we have e i=cos 1+isin 1. As a result, it appears that e i is the circle's unit point where
the angle is exactly 1 radian.
iπ /2 π π
 For x=π/2, we have e =cos +isin =i. This outcome is helpful in several physics
2 2
computations.
 For x=π, we have e iπ =cosπ +isinπ , which means that e iπ =−1. This result is equivalent to the
famous Euler’s Identity.
 For x=2π, we have e i(2 π )=cos 2 π +isin 2 π , which means that e i(2 π )=1, same as with x=0.

x
Rewriting the formula in the form ( e i ) =cosx +isinx can help in understanding the concepts
behind it. This simply means that the right-hand expression can be thought of as the unit complex
number with an angle, and the left-hand expression can be thought of as the 1-radian unit complex
number raised to x.

1
 Bicol University | College of Engineering | Masanque

I. Derivation ix x 2 ix 3 x 4 ix 5 x 6 ix 7 x 8
e =1+ ix− − + + − − + …
There are a minimum of three 2! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 !
approaches to establish Euler's formula. The
We can rearrange its terms without
first derivation uses power series to show that
changing its value since the power series
the formula is valid by expanding the
exponential, sine, and cosine functions as expansion of e z  is absolutely convergent. The
power series. following results from combining the real and
Calculus is used in the second imaginary terms:
derivation of Euler's formula so that both sides

( ) ( )
2 4 6 8 3 5 7
of the problem can be considered as functions ix x x x x x x x
e = 1− + − + −… +i x− + − +…
and differentiated correspondingly. The 2! 4! 6! 8! 3! 5! 7!
discovery of a shared characteristic follows,
which may be used to demonstrate that both NOTE:
functions are actually equal.
Power series of sine and cosine:
A. Power Series x3 x5 x7
sinx=x − + − + …
3 ! 5! 7 !
Power series are used in one of the
simplest derivations of Euler's formula. It 2 4 6 8
entails increasing the exponential, sine, and x x x x
cosx =1− + − + −…
cosine power series to arrive at the conclusion 2! 4 ! 6 ! 8 !
that the equality is true.
This method comes with the caveat that Plugging in the power series of cosx and
it assumes perfect convergence of the sine, sinx gives the last equation, e ix =cosx+isinx ,
cosine, and tan power series expansions
which is the statement of Euler’s formula.
everywhere. It also has the benefit of
demonstrating that Euler's formula is valid for
B. Calculus
all complex numbers.
Another clever method for proving
For a complex variable z , the power
Euler's formula is to think of both a and b as
series expansion of e z is
2 3 4
functions of before differentiating them to
z z z z z discover a common property.
e =1+ + + + +…
1 ! 2! 3 ! 4 !
The functions e z , cosx , and sinx ,
however, must be presumed to be defined and
All values of z will now be replaced
differentiable for all real numbers x and
with ix . As z gets raised to increasing powers, i
complex numbers z in order for that to occur. It
also gets raised to increasing powers.
is also easy to demonstrate that Euler's formula
holds for all complex numbers by presuming
With z=ix , the expansion of e z becomes:
that these functions are differentiable for all
2 3 4
complex numbers.
ix (ix) (ix) (ix) First, let f 1 ( x ) and f 2 ( x) be e ix and
e =1+ ix+ + + +…
2! 3! 4!
cosx +isinx , respectively. Differentiating f 1 via
chain rule then yields:
NOTE:
ix
The first eight powers of i are the following: f 1 ( x )=ie =if 1 (x )
i 0=1 i 4=1
1 5
i =ii =i Similarly, differentiating f 2 also yields:
i 2=−1 i 6=−1
3 7 f ' 2 ( x )=−sinx+icosx=if 2 (x)
i =−i i =−i

Extracting the powers of i , yields: The differential equation f ' ( x )=if ( x) is

therefore satisfied by both functions.

2 | A Disquisition on Euler’s Formula: Derivation Techniques and Application to Various Mathematical Disciplines
 Bicol University | College of Engineering | Masanque

f1  The unity 1
Consider the function , which is well-
f2  The Pi constant π
defined for all x (since f 2 ( x )=cosx+ isinx  The base of the natural logarithm e
corresponds to points on the unit circle, which  The imaginary unit i
are never zero). With this, using the quotient
rule on this function results in:
These include three different sorts of
numbers: integers, irrational numbers, and

( )
' ' '
f1 f ( x ) f 2 ( x )−f 1 ( x )f 2 ( x) imaginary numbers. Additionally, addition,
( x )= 1 2
f2 [ f (x )] multiplication, and exponentiation are three
2

if 1 ( x ) f 2 ( x )−f 1( x)if 2 (x) examples of fundamental mathematical

¿ 2 operations.
[f 2 ( x )]
¿0 Starting with Euler's formula, we determine
Euler's identity
The resulting derivative, 0, implies that
f1 ix
the function must have been a constant from e =cosx+isinx
f2
the very start. By plugging in x=0 into the and by setting x=π and sending the
function, the value of this constant can be subsequent −1 to the lefthand side. The
found. intermediate form

( )
f1
f2
( 0 )=
ei 0
cos 0+isin 0
=1 e 1 π =−1

 is common in the context of trigonometric unit

In other words, we must have that for all x: circle in the complex plane: it relates to the
point on the unit circle whose angle with
respect to the positive real axis is π .
( )
f1
f2
( x )=
e ix
cosx+isinx
=1
B. Complex Numbers in Exponential Form
which, after cross-multiplication, results in the It is known to all that a complex number
famous Euler’s formula. z can be expressed in Cartesian coordinates as
x +iy , where x and y are the real and imaginary
part of z , respectively.
II. Application
Euler's formula, one of the most This same complex number can likewise
significant mathematical equations, has a be expressed in polar coordinates as
number of remarkable applications in a variety r (cosθ+isinθ), where r is the magnitude of its
of fields. These include the well-known Euler's distance to the origin, and θ is its angle with
identity, the exponential form of complex respect to the positive real axis.
numbers, and alternative trigonometric
function definitions. With the use of Euler’s formula, every
complex number can be expressed as a complex
A. Euler’s Identity exponential as follows:
The equation known as the most
beautiful equation in mathematics is the Euler’s z=r ( cosθ +isinθ )=r eiθ
Identity. It is written as e 1 π + 1=0, and it
showcases five of the most important constants To go from (x , y ) to (r , θ), we will use
in mathematics. These are: the formulas

 The additive identity 0 r =√ x + y

2 2

3 | A Disquisition on Euler’s Formula: Derivation Techniques and Application to Various Mathematical Disciplines
 Bicol University | College of Engineering | Masanque

θ=atan 2( y , x) For example, by subtracting the e−ix

equation from the e ix equation, the cosines
(where atan 2( y , x ) is the two-argument cancel out and after dividing by 2 i, we get the
arctangent function with complex exponential form of the sine function:

atan 2 ( y , x ) =arctan ( yx ) whenever x >0) sinx=

e ix −e−ix
2i
Reciprocally, to go from (r , θ) to (x , y ), we use
the formulas Likewise, by adding the two equations
x=rcosθ together, the sines cancel out and after dividing
y=rsinθ by 2, we get the complex exponential form of
the cosine function:
Similar to how rectangular coordinates
ix −ix
make addition simpler, multiplying complex e +e
cosx=
numbers is greatly facilitated by the 2
exponential form of complex numbers.
Tangent function, on the other hand, is
sinx
defined to be , so in terms of complex
Example : cosx
For example, given two complex exponentials, it becomes:
iθ1 iθ2
numbers z 1=r 1 e and z 2=r 2 e , we can now
multiply them together as follows: eix −e−ix
tanx=
i ( e ix +e−ix )
z 1 z 2=r 1 e iθ1 ×r 2 e iθ2
¿ r 1 r 2 ei (θ 1+θ 2)
We can also divide the same two
numbers as follows:
iθ 1
REFERENCES:
z1 r 1 e
= Euler's Formula: A Complete Guide. (2022,
z2 r 2 eiθ 2
r 1 i(θ 1+θ 2) May 18). Math Vault. Retrieved October
¿ e 6, 2022, from https://mathvault.ca/euler-
r2
formula/
Euler’s Formula - Math Images. (2012, July
20). Math Images. Retrieved October 9,
C. Alternate Definition of Trigonometric
2022, from
Functions
https://mathimages.swarthmore.edu/inde
Aside from extending the domain of
x.php/Euler's_Formula
exponential function, Euler’s formula can also
Lea, S. M., & Lea, S. M. (2004). Mathematics
be used to derive a similar equation for the
for Physicists. Brooks/Cole-Thomson
opposite angle −x .
−ix Learning.
e =cosx +isinx
Woan, G. (2000, July 10). The Cambridge
This equation, together with Euler’s
Handbook of Physics Formulas.
formula, constitute a system of equations from Cambridge University Press.
which we can isolate both the sine and cosine Woit, P. (2019, September 10). Euler’s
functions. Formula and Trigonometry. Math
Columbia. Retrieved October 8, 2022,
from
Example : https://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/e
ulerformula.pdf

4 | A Disquisition on Euler’s Formula: Derivation Techniques and Application to Various Mathematical Disciplines