For Training Use Only

Student Guide

OUTLINE SHEET
RADAR PRINCIPLES

Introduction

In order to become an effective Surface Warfare Officer, the trainee must have a basic
understanding of Combat Information Center doctrine. This is necessary in order to understand
the operational requirements of combat systems. This lesson topic will introduce the principles
of radar systems. The trainee will also become familiar with the components of a radar system in
order to more effectively manage a CIC.

Enabling Objectives

3.14 DEFINE the following radio wave characteristics:

a. Wave
b. Cycle
c. Frequency
d. Radio Frequency Waves
e. Wave Period
f. Wavelength
3.15 IDENTIFY the function of the following components of the basic radar system:
a. Modulator
b. Transmitter
c. Antenna System
b. Receiver
e. Indicator
f. Power Supply
3.16 IDENTIFY radar system constants
a. Carrier Frequency
b. Pulse Width
c. Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR)
d. Rest Time
e. Power
f. Beam Width
3.17 DEFINE factors affected by system constants.
a. Maximum theoretical range
b. Minimum theoretical range
c. Physical size
d. Range resolution
e. Beaming resolution
f. Elevation resolution

3.18 IDENTIFY the effects of the following on the detection capability of radar:
a. Refraction

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b. Reflection
c. Diffraction
d. Attenuation
e. Trapping
f. Ship distance
3.19 DEFINE the following as they apply to radar propagation:
a. Sea return
b. Weather
c. Antenna height
d. Antenna rotation rate
e. Doppler
f. Moving Target Indicator (MTI)
g. Lobing
h. Fade areas
i. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
j. Radar clutter
k. Radar cross section
1. Target composition
m. Terrain
3.20 IDENTIFY the following types of radar.
a. Air search
b. Surface search
c. Height finding
d. Fire control
e. Airborne Early Warning Radar (AEW)

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Information

1. Radiowave Characteristics
a. The ability to understand radar requires an understanding of radio waves.
b. A wave is a disturbance or electromagnetic energy "flow" that alternates in a
repeating pattern.
c. A cycle is a complete series of events, at the end of which, conditions are as they
were at the starting point. A wave cycle is one complete wave made up of a
positive half and a negative half.
d. Frequency indicates the number of times something occurs in a certain period of
time. In electronics, frequencies are expressed in terms of how often cycles occur
each second. The unit of measure of frequency is HERTZ (HZ). In other words,
a radar that oscillates (repeats itself) at a rate of 1,000 times in one second is said
to operate at 1,000 HZ.
e. Radio Frequency (RF) waves are waves of electromagnetic energy that travel at a
constant speed of light, considered to be 164,000 nautical miles per second, or
328,000,000 yards per second.
1. Frequencies within 15 to 15,000 HZ are sound waves or audio frequencies
(AF) consisting of air pressure variations.
2. Radio frequencies are those frequencies above 15,000 HZ. The common
units used in speaking of frequencies in the radio frequency range are the
KILOHERTZ for 1,000 HERTZ and the MEGAHERTZ for 1,000,000
HERTZ. They are abbreviated kHz and MHz.
f. A wave period is the time required to complete one cycle.

Mathematically, the time for one cycle is the reciprocal of frequency. That is:

T = 1
F

A wave that has a frequency of 200 HZ has a period of

T = 1 = .005 seconds
200

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g. A wavelength is the distance from a point on a wave to the corresponding point

on the next wave. Mathematically, the wavelength is equal to the velocity of RF
waves (speed of light) divided by frequency.

Wavelength = VELOCITY (V)

FREQUENCY (F)

2. Basic Radar System Components

a. Modulator
1) Produces a trigger signal that turns the transmitter on for a short period of
time at a specified number of pulses per second.
a) Width of the pulse is measured in μsec (microseconds) and is
referred to as Pulse Width (PW)
b) Number of pulses per second is referred to as the Pulse Repetition
Rate (PRR)
b. Transmitter
1) Generates a short powerful burst of radio frequency energy called a pulse.
a) Transmitter peak power varies from 10 kilowatts to over two
megawatts, depending on radar's application.
b) Transmission of RF energy in pulses or bursts is referred to as
Pulse Modulation (PM).
c) Pulse width (determined by the modulator) varies from 0.1 μsec to
over 200 μsec.
2) Generation of high power at RF requires specially constructed tubes.
a) Magnetrons
b) Klystrons
c. Antenna System
1) One antenna used for both transmitting and receiving of RF energy.
a) Employs a duplexer "gate" which bypasses the receiver input
during the time the transmitter is on to prevent the receiver from
being damaged by the high power pulse.
2) Directional antenna forms RF energy into a beam pattern rather than
allowing it to be dispersed in all directions.
a) Most surveillance radars use antennas with a mechanically rotated
scan. This provides the capability for the radar system to give
bearing information as well as range information.
d. Receiver
1) Accepts the reflected RF energy, amplifies it, and shapes it into a video
pulse which will be displayed on the radar indicator.
2) Radar receivers are highly sensitive superheterodyne receivers.
a) RF energy losses from attenuation over distances are extremely
severe. Receiver inputs are measured in microvolts - compared to
the thousands of millions of watts that were transmitted.
e. Radar Indicators
1) Provide a scale visual display of the returned echoes.
2) Use a cathode ray tube for the display.

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3) Timing pulses for the display are taken from the modulator. This
synchronizes the display with the transmitter, and allows the measurement
of ranges to the contacts displayed on the scope.
f. Power Supply
1) Provides the necessary direct currents and alternating currents to all
components of the radar system.

a) Proper voltages are critical for the proper operation of the radar
system.

2) Derives its power from the ship's service turbogenerators, usually via a
motor-generator set.

3. Radar System Constants

a. The tactical use, accuracy requirements, range requirements, and physical size
limitations will determine the characteristics of any radar system.

b. In most cases, the characteristics of a radar are fixed, or can only be varied over a
small operating range.

c. Speed of radio waves is constant at speed of light.

d. Carrier Frequency

1) The frequency at which the transmitter operates.

2) Measured in Megahertz (millions of cycles per second).

3) Selection of carrier frequency for a given radar set depends on:

a) Desired range and directivity required of the radar

1. Lower frequencies experience less attenuation, and

therefore provide greater range capabilities.
2. The antenna can more easily direct higher frequencies
because their shorter wavelength doesn’t require large
antennas.
e. Pulse Width

1) The actual time (in microseconds) that the transmitter is turned on.

2) Determines the range resolution and minimum range of the radar system.

a) Range resolution = PW x 164

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b) Range resolution - the ability of a radar system to distinguish

between two contacts on the same bearing but at slightly different
ranges.

3) Long pulse widths enhance the radar's capability to detect contacts at great
ranges because more energy is transmitted with each pulse.

f. Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR)

1) The number of transmitted pulses per second.

2) Determines the "maximum theoretical range" of the radar system.

a) Maximum range = 82,000

PRR

Echoes returned from beyond the maximum theoretical range are lost
because the transmitter is generating the next pulse.

b) PRR is related to Pulse Repetition Time (PRT).

1. The time in microseconds between the start of one

transmitted pulse and the start of the next pulse.

PRT = 1
PRR

g. Rest Time

1) The time between pulses during the receiver is listening for returning
echoes.

h. Power

1) Peak Power

a) The useful power from the transmitter that is contained in the pulse
b) High peak powers enhance the radar's capability to detect contacts
at great ranges.

2) Average Power

a) The power dissipated during one Pulse Repetition Time

1. Usually very low, because the transmitter is off for a much
longer period of time than it is on.

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b) Average power determines the physical size of the radar system

components. Power must be dissipated as heat during the entire
PRT. Long rest times allow for smaller radar components.
c) Low average power allows smaller, more compact circuits and
transmitter tubes to be used.

i. Beam Width

1) Describes the area where the RF energy is concentrated.

2) Measured in degrees

3) Determined by the antenna design

a) Function of the frequency of the transmitter

b) Narrow beam width is easier to obtain with high frequencies

4) Measured and described in both horizontal and vertical dimensions

a) Horizontal beam width

1. Determines bearing resolution of the radar system

2. Bearing resolution is the capability of the radar to
distinguish between two contacts at the same range but on
slightly different bearings

a) Narrow horizontal beam width gives better bearing

resolution
b) Two targets must be separated by an angle greater
than the horizontal beam width in order to be
presented as two contacts

4. Detection Capabilities of Radar

a. Refraction - Bending of waves caused by medium density changes through which

they are passing.

Due to change in density

Low density
--------------
Normal density

Normal Visual Distance

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1) Affects lower frequencies

2) Allows greater detection ranges by allowing a greater radar horizon

a) Normally about 1.25 x Visual

3) Primary reason why long range radars are in low frequency ranges

4) Types of refraction

a) Normal refraction: Radar horizon is approximately 1.25 times the

Visual horizon.
b) Super-Refraction: The effect is to increase the downward bending
of the radar waves, thus increasing range of detection.
c) Sub-Refraction: The effect is to bend the radar waves upward,
thus decreasing range detection.

b. Reflection - Unless a radar antenna has a narrow vertical beam that can be
elevated, some of the radiated energy must hit the water and be reflected. Most
instances, energy leaving the antenna follows two paths: one path is direct to
target, the other from antenna to the surface of the sea, then to the target. The unit
of energy at any one point in space (such as target) is the algebraic sum of the
energy in each path of travel.

Sum of two paths

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c. Diffraction - Curving of waves around edges of an object, allowing penetration of

shadow region behind the object.

1) Permits detection of a ship on the opposite side of an island

Island

d. Attenuation - Loss, through scattering and absorption, or radio frequency energy.

1) Gasses and water vapors in the atmosphere absorb radio wave energy

2) Higher frequencies experience greater absorption

Losses through scattering

Losses through absorption

Losses through scattering

e. Trapping (Ducting) - May greatly extend or reduce radar ranges depending on the
direction the waves are bent

1) Result of a temperature inversion; moisture lapse or a combination of both

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2) Temperature and moisture content normally decrease with height

3) A temperature inversion is caused when temperature first decreases with

height, then begins to increase

4) A moisture lapse is the result of a rapid decrease of moisture content with

height above a body of water

5) Either of these two conditions or a combination of both can produce a

great change in refraction at lower altitudes of the atmosphere

f. Skip Distance - Depends on frequency and degree of ionization present, is the

distance from the transmitter to the farthest point at which reflected waves return
to earth.

g. Skip zone/Fade Zone

Due to temperature inversion

or
moisture lapse

Skip Zone

Skip Distance
100s to 1000s of miles

5. Define the following as they apply to radar propagation.

a. Sea Return: Radiated energy reflected off the surface of the sea near the ship.

1) This energy is reflected at various angles, some of it returning to the

antenna producing video targets through the receiver
2) Most radars are equipped with special circuits to minimize the effects of
sea return

b. Weather: Precipitation produces a high moisture content in the air which is

detectable due to the reflecting ability of water.

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1) Produces hazy video presentations which, in most cases, still allows the
detection of well-defined targets such as ships, land masses, and aircraft,
within them

c. Antenna Height: Radar horizon varies with antenna height

1) Radar energy is transmitted in a line of sight

2) Higher antenna location provides greater detection ranges

d. Antenna Rotation Rate: More slowly antenna rotates, the greater the detection
ranges

e. Doppler: When a pulse is returned (reflected) back to radar the change in

frequency or Doppler effect will determine if target is moving

1) High doppler (frequency shift): target is inbound

2) Low doppler (frequency shift): target is outbound

f. Moving Target Indicator: Some radars have this installed, which eliminates those
targets that have no Doppler (are not moving).

g. Lobing: RF energy is radiated in various patterns (lobes) depending on the shape

and design of the antenna

1) A lobe is a directional beam within which target detection can be

achieved.
2) Main lobe patterns for common antennas
3) In addition to main lobe, side lobes (which are smaller) are produced

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h. Fade Areas

1) Energy reflected off ocean surface is reflected up and cancels certain areas
of main lobe

2) Contacts cannot be detected in these areas

3) Fade areas are predictable and diagrammed for your ship's radar. Altitude
can be estimated by comparing contact video with fade chart.

i. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

1) Caused by another radar transmitter operating on or near the same

frequency of your radar

2) Appear as lines that move rapidly across the radar scope; referred to as
"running rabbits"

3) Effect can be reduced or eliminated by changing PRR

j. Radar Clutter

1) Close range false echoes that seem unaccountable

2) Caused by white caps (beyond sea return in the direction from which is
coming), birds, or floating objects such as large metal cans, powder cans,
and seaweed

k. Radar Cross-Section

1) The ability of a radar system to detect a contact also depends on its size
and makeup; i.e., a steel destroyer may be picked up at 20 miles where as
a small wooden fishing boat might remain undetected until it is within 10
miles.

2) Formations containing several ships are picked up at greater distances than

single ships because of the larger reflection area provided by groups of
ships

l. Target Composition: May affect scope presentations

1) Any variations in normal contact presentation such as erratic fluctuations

in brightness, abnormal size or shape usually give the operator the
indication that there is more than one target.

m. Terrain

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1) Land normally appears as a bright presentation on the radar scope;

however, different terrain types will show up differently

2) Sandbars and clear, smooth beaches provide the poorest presentation

because these targets have almost no area that can reflect energy back to
the radar; false ranges are also received because reflections may be caused
by the breaking surf rather than the beach.

3) When sand dunes are located well back from a low, smooth beach, the
apparent shoreline appears as the line of dunes rather than true shore.

4) Islands can cause "shadow areas" preventing detection of contacts flying

on the opposite side of island

5) Aircraft flying over land are sometimes masked by land reflections. Some
radars have Moving Target Indicator (MTI) which imitates those targets
that have no Doppler (are not moving).

6. Types of Radar

a. Air Search Radar

1) A low frequency, low PRR, wide pulse width radar, which uses a
bedspring antenna

2) It is designed primarily to search large areas at great distances for aircraft.

b. Surface Search Radar

1) A high frequency, high PRR, narrow pulse width radar, which uses a
truncated parabolic antenna

2) It is designed primarily to search for surface objects, low-flying aircraft,

and missiles

3) It is secondarily used for station keeping, coaching fire control radar onto
a target, radar navigation, and control of small craft

c. Altitude Determining Radar (Height-Finding Radar)

1) A medium frequency, medium pulse repetition rate, medium pulse width

radar which uses an antenna that scans vertically while it rotates around
(three-coordinate or height finding antenna)

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2) It is designed primarily to determine the altitude (height) of an aircraft that

has been detected

3) It is secondarily used to track aircraft and act as a search radar

d. Fire Control Radar

1) A very high frequency, very high pulse repetition rate, very narrow pulse
width radar, uses a parabolic antenna.

2) It is designed primarily to control gun and/or missile systems for the

destruction of targets

3) It is secondarily used to detect low-flying aircraft, assist in radar

navigation, track helicopters during low visibility approaches, track
weather balloons and calibrate search radars

e. Airborne Early Warning Radar

1) A medium frequency, low pulse repetition rate, narrow pulse width radar
dish

2) It is designed primarily for use aboard patrol aircraft to extend the force’s
range of detection, thus providing early warning of air and surface craft.

3) It is secondarily used to detect land masses at great distances and to

control aircraft

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