International Journal of Structural Integrity

Fatigue life prediction of scratch damaged shot peened components

R.A. Cláudio J.M. Silva J. Byrne
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R.A. Cláudio J.M. Silva J. Byrne, (2012),"Fatigue life prediction of scratch damaged shot peened
components", International Journal of Structural Integrity, Vol. 3 Iss 4 pp. 396 - 408
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IJSI
3,4 Fatigue life prediction of scratch
damaged shot peened components
R.A. Cláudio
396 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal,
Setúbal, Portugal and
ICEMS, Instituto Superior Técnico, UTL, Lisboa, Portugal
J.M. Silva
AeroG/LAETA – Aeronautics and Astronautics Research Center,
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University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal, and

J. Byrne
Department of Mechanical and Design Engineering,
University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to present a methodology, based on traditional approaches, to predict the
fatigue life and non-propagating cracks of shot peened components and the damaging effect of a
scratch created over the treated surface.
Design/methodology/approach – The finite element method is used to determine the actual strain
at surface and fracture mechanics parameters calculated from cracks at the surface. The model
considers residual stress (in order to introduce the effect of shot peening) and the scratch geometry.
The total fatigue life is obtained by adding initiation life, to early and long crack propagation life using
appropriate criteria.
Findings – Numerical predictions were compared with previous experimental tests, showing that
this method is quite reliable for predicting both fatigue life and non-propagating cracks of shot peened
components, including the effect of damage due to a scratch.
Research limitations/implications – The proposed method provides good results and a clear
understanding of the fatigue process, however it requires a considerable amount of both material and
shot peening parameters.
Practical implications – The methodology presented in this paper allows the determination of
fatigue life and the prediction of non-propagating cracks for components, including the effects of shot
peening and scratch damage. These results can be used to quantify the scratch damage limits of
components improved by shot peening.
Originality/value – This paper provides a useful tool for prediction of the effects of shot peening
and scratch damage on fatigue life, using traditional approaches.
Keywords Shot peening, Scratch, Finite element method, Fracture mechanics, Strain-life,
Non-propagating cracks, Finite element analysis, Fracture, Strain measurement
Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Structural

Integrity
Vol. 3 No. 4, 2012 The authors would like to thank Professor Carlos Moura Branco from IST/UTL for his
pp. 396-408 contribution to this work and Rolls-Royce plc for supplying technical information. This work
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1757-9864
was supported by Project P131 of RTO/NATO and Project of FCT, Portugal, POCTI/EME
DOI 10.1108/17579861211281191 46195/02, “Creep-fatigue Behaviour of Powder Metallurgy Nickel Base Superalloys”.
 1. Introduction Fatigue life
In many fields of technology improvements in performance and weight savings are prediction
possible through advanced material development and application. An alternative or
additional approach to achieve acceptable structural integrity and extend safe life
under potential fatigue and creep-fatigue conditions, is that of surface improvement.
Shot peening (SP) is considered one of most effective and popular surface treatments
used in industry to improve fatigue properties of components (McClung, 2007). The 397
benefit is created by the impact of a large number of hard, usually spherical shot, onto
the surface of a component causing local plasticity. The treated surface is cold worked
and a compressive residual stress field is created, having has advantages reducing the
likelihood of crack formation and fatigue crack growth. This layer is only of some
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hundreds of microns depth, but enough to be quite effective. Both McClung (2007) and
Ivetic (2011) present an interesting work comparing different improvement techniques
evidencing some benefits of SP and typical residual stress profiles.
Some concern arises if the treated surface is damaged in some way, for example by a
scratch. Recent experimental work demonstrated that if a scratch is created over the
treated surface the benefit may be reduced or vanish completely (Cláudio et al., 2007).
Little work has been published about the simulation of a scratch in a compressive
residual stress field like that induced by SP. Benedetti et al. (2010) recently proposed an
approach based on the stress field state and on the characterization of the fatigue
properties of the material in different metallurgical states. However, this method
provides only an estimate of the fatigue life and does not give information about crack
propagation. Guagliano and Vergani (2004), proposed an approach to predict fatigue
strength of SP components by computing DKeff considering the residual stress profile
but it does not take into account neither the notch nor the scratch effect. The value of
DKeff, calculated using the finite element method, is compared with the actual fatigue
threshold value of the material to determine the improvement induced by SP. Cláudio et al.
(2010) presented another method, based on traditional approaches, i.e. fracture
mechanics and strain-life, which allows calculating the fatigue life of SP components.
In this case the strain at surface and DKeff are used in strain-life and fracture mechanics
models, respectively, to obtain crack initiation, early crack propagation and long crack
propagation lives. Apart from providing very good fatigue life predictions, this model
also allows determining crack arresting thus contributing to the understanding of the
fatigue process in SP components. In this paper, the model proposed by Cláudio et al.
(2010) to assess fatigue life of SP components is going to be adapted and applied to
scratch damaged surfaces in order to demonstrate that it still provides accurate fatigue
life predictions by comparing the numerical results with experimental observations.

2. Fatigue life prediction model

In this model, the fatigue life of scratch damaged SP components is calculated by
dividing the fatigue failure process into three different regimes as shown in Figure 1.
This model was originally based on the Cameron and Smith (1982) method for notched
components; however it includes some changes to introduce the SP effect.
For the first regime (I), i.e. crack initiation, the strain life method modified by
Smith et al. (1970) to include mean stress is used. The strain is calculated from finite
element analysis of the component, after material stabilization, considering the
residual stress due to SP and the scratch. Fatigue life during crack propagation
 IJSI
Compressive
3,4 residuals

398

∆Keff II = ∆Keff III

a0
Figure 1.
Fatigue life prediction
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model regimes Scratch Size I II III

(regimes II and III) is calculated by integrating the Paris law between a crack size as
defined by the El Haddad et al. (1979) constant a0 up to the critical limit of the material,
usually Kc. a0 is a material parameter which relates to a fracture mechanics parameter
according to:



DK th 2 1
a0 ¼ · ð1Þ
Y :Ds0 p
where DK th is the stress intensity factor threshold, Ds0 the plain specimen fatigue
strength range and Y a geometric parameter.
For cracks emerged in the residual stress field and influenced by the scratch
(regime II) J integral solutions are calculated close to the scratch root using a non-linear
finite element method accounting for the effect of the residual stress induced by the SP
and crack closure. In order to use the Paris law, J integral solutions are converted to
stress intensity (K) solutions assuming plain strain. In regime III, K solutions are used
without the effect of SP or scratch. As proposed by Dowling (1999) the transition crack
length, between regimes II and III, is determined when both K solutions are equal.

3. Details of the experimental tests numerically modelled

Based on the aforementioned model, the aim of the present study is to predict the
fatigue life of several specimens that were fatigue tested according to the results that
can be found in Cláudio et al. (2007). The specimens, washer geometry, were removed
from the diaphragm area of a compressor disc, representing a critical feature of a gas
turbine aero engine compressor disc.
Experimental tests were conducted at elevated temperature (6508C) using
as-machined (AM) and SP (110H 6-8A 100 per cent) specimens in order to determine
the effect of SP on fatigue life. In this work the AM condition means that no SP was
applied and for the models it is assumed that the initial residual stresses are nil. In
some specimens scratches were created artificially after SP, in one side, at the root of
the stress feature using an NC milling machine as can be seen in Figure 2. The scratch
is 3 mm long, 50 mm root radius along whole length (Z-direction) and 50 mm or 100 mm
deep as represented in Figure 3 (the critical cross-section of the specimen has
dimensions 11 £ 5.08 ¼ 55.88 mm2). The elastic stress concentration factor is
Kt ¼ 1.33 for the plain surface (due to a curvature radius of 4.5 mm), Kt ¼ 3.98 for
 Y Fatigue life
prediction
90°
P Y 2.c a
°
–90
0° θ X
Z
Z 399
X

w P Figure 2.
Scratch Specimen details
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90° 90°
0.1
05
05

0.05

R0.
R0.

(a) (b) (c)

Notes: (a) 50mm depth, (b) 100mm depth, (c) 50mm depth 3D measurement; in (a) and Figure 3.
Scratch details
(b) the dimensions are in mm

the 50 mm scratch depth and Kt ¼ 5.03 for the 100 mm scratch depth (calculated by the
finite element method). The specimens were fatigue tested in a servo-hydraulic testing
machine, in load control, with a trapezoidal waveform 1-1-1-1s and load ratio of R ¼ 0.1
(this loading cycle is representative of a compressor disc operating under severe
conditions). Loads were selected so that failure could occur in the range of 1,000 to
100,000 cycles, which corresponds to a maximum nominal stress (MNS) over the critical
cross-section in the range of 700 up to 1,100 MPa. The experimental observations
indicated in the last column of Table II were calculated for several load levels by
interpolating (power fit) the experimental results that are published in Cláudio et al.
(2010).

4. Material and residual stress measurements

The material of the specimens is a nickel base superalloy (RR1000) developed using a
powder metallurgy technique. Material properties can be found in Silva et al. (2006,
2010). The Chaboche model (time independent) was used to define the cyclic material
behaviour at 6508C, whose parameters necessary for the finite element model are
presented in Table I (Tong et al., 2004).
The residual stresses of the specimens, due to SP, were measured by X-ray
diffraction combined with electrolytic polishing to assess in depth values. It was not
possible to measure the residual stress profile after thermal exposure. As identified by
 IJSI Buchanan et al. (2011), McClung (2007) and many others, some relaxation of the
3,4 residual stresses is expected due to creep effects. Some information provided by RR for
a similar alloy (Udimet 720Li) was used to estimate the relaxation of RR1000. The
compressive residual stress estimated after thermal exposition at 6508C during 100 h is
about 135 MPa at surface, the peak value of 875 MPa is observed at 40 mm from surface
and vanishes at about 130 mm depth. The residual stress profile can be found in
400 Cláudio et al. (2009).
Coffin-Manson parameters, necessary for strain life evaluation (regime I), were
obtained by the least squares method from the results published by Zhan (2004), who
tested several specimens in low cycle conditions similar to the ones used in this work
(material, frequency, waveform and temperature). Equation (2) presents the
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Coffin-Manson parameters for this material:

D1
¼ 0:440 · ðN f Þ20:810 þ 0:0055 · ðN f Þ20:048 ð2Þ
2
where D1 is the total strain range and Nf the number of cycles up to failure.
Paris law parameters, necessary for crack propagation calculations (regimes II and
III), were obtained from the experimental results carried out on the specimens tested in
the as-machined condition (Cláudio et al., 2007). Equation (3) presents the Paris Law
parameters for this material:
da
¼ 2:431 £ 10210 · DK 4:198 ð3Þ
dN
where da/dN is
p the crack propagation rate in mm/cycle and DK is the stress intensity
factor in MPa m.

5. Finite element models and results

The abovementioned specimens were modelled using the finite element code ABAQUS
in order to reproduce the experiments tests conditions. The aim of this study was to
obtain parameters to be used for fatigue life assessment. Three models of part of the
geometry (due to symmetry conditions) were built, one for each regime. The first two
models are both non-linear and meshed with biquadratic plain strain elements (CPE8)
which can include residual stresses due to SP.
The Chaboche model (time independent kinematic hardening) was used to define the
cyclic material behaviour whose parameters were given in Table I. A large number of
cycles, up to cyclic stabilization, were applied before measuring the necessary
quantities for fatigue life prediction. In order to simulate residual stress due to SP,
a thermal gradient was introduced via UTEMP ABAQUS subroutine with the same
profile as the residual stress experimentally measured. The thermal expansion factor

Young’s modulus E 188.6 GPa

Table I. Poisson ratio n 0.255
Material parameters Yield stress at zero plastic strain sj0 ¼ 695 MPa
considered for the finite Kinematic hardening parameters C ¼ 141:6 £ 103 MPa; g ¼ 391:61 MPa
element model definition Isotropic hardening parameters Q1 ¼ 161:52 MPa; b ¼ 7:13
 was settled to 1/E, where E stands for the Young’s modulus of the material at 6508C. Fatigue life
This method was proposed by Cook et al. (2002). The model does not include the effect prediction
of strain hardening or surface roughness due to SP. In the authors’ opinion, the effect of
these two parameters should balance each other, while their importance is almost
negligible for the current simulation. Guagliano et al. (2004) show that fatigue life
improvement due to SP is mainly because of the compressive residuals stress, arguing
also that the importance of strain hardening of the plastically deformed layer of the 401
material is, to date, not well quantified. All the material properties introduced in the
finite element model are for 6508C (the same temperature of the experimental tests),
including the residual stress that was corrected to account for some initial relaxation.
However, this model does not include any creep relaxation or possible oxidation, which
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is expected to be very low for this alloy at 6508C.

In the first finite element model, the objective is to determine the strain at surface for
both surface conditions and with the scratches after cyclic material stabilization. In
order to accurately model the scratch behaviour, the elements of the scratch (grey region
of Figure 4(b)) were removed after introducing the residual stress profile. As a
consequence, of the elements removal, the compressive residual stress has a closing
effect in the scratch, increasing compressive stress in the root of the scratch as evidenced
in Figure 5 for time ¼ 0 (t). After the first loading cycle (t ¼ 3.0, . . . ,4.0s), for this loading

Figure 4.
(a) 2D FE element model
with boundary conditions;
(b) mesh in the critical
y y section with scratches
x x
created to assess strain
Y and stress; (c) crack with
X
50 mm depth in the root of
a scratch with 50 mm
depth
(a) (b) (c)

2,000

1,500

1,000
Stress σxx [MPa]

500

0 Figure 5.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Stress profile after the first
–500 t = 0 - Before Loading loading cycle with a MNS
t = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 & 0.8 - Loading curves of 900 MPa in a scratched
–1000 t = 1.0...2.0 - Maximun Load surface treated with SP
t = 2.2, 2.4, 2.6 & 2.8 - Unloading Curves (trapezoidal waveform
t = 3.0…4.0 - Minimun Load 1-1-1-1s and load ratio of
–1500 R ¼ 0.1)
Depth [mm]
 IJSI level and scratch size, the effect of residual stresses is still present. As it can be seen
3,4 in Figure 6, the effect of SP is only noticed in the mean stress, being the strain range
coincident for both SP and as machined conditions (AM). However, at the surface
(scratch root) the stress level (and strain) is almost the same with and without SP (notice
that strain life model only considers strain at surface).
The second model includes a very small crack in the root of the scratch with crack tip
402 elements collapsed with midside nodes moved to 1/4 position. The value of the J integral
solution converges after the third contour, and the fourth contour is selected to be
representative of the J integral. A master-slave surface was defined in the crack faces to
prevent overlapping when the crack closes, assuming a friction coefficient of 0.5. Figure 7
shows the DKeff solutions for a MNS of 900 MPa, the El Haddad et al. (1979) material
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3 1,500
Strain Range Stress AM NoSc
Stress SP NoSc Stress AM Sc50
2.5 Stress SP Sc50 Stress AM Sc100
Stress SP Sc100 1,000

σm [MPa]
∆ε [%]

500
Figure 6. 1.5
Strain range and mean
stress finite element
0
results for the geometry 1 Strain Range
without scratch, 50 mm Strain Range SP &AM Sc100µm
Strain Range
and 100 mm scratch depth SP & AM Sc50µm
SP & AM NoSc
for a maximum nominal 0.5 –500
stress of 900 MPa after 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
cyclic stabilization
Depth [mm]

50
a0 + 100 µm

AM NoSc SP NoSc
a0 + 50 µm
a0

AM Sc50 SP Sc50
40 AM Sc100 SP Sc100
∆Keff [MPa.m0.5]

30

20

10 ∆kth
Figure 7.
2D J integral solutions for
900 MPa MNS plotted 0
against crack size for the 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
surface AM and SP
Crack size a [mm]
 constant is estimated as a0 ¼ 17.1pmm, based on an estimate of the stress intensity factor Fatigue life
threshold range DKth ¼ 6.6 MPa m, for similar materials. prediction
From Figure 7, for the SP surface, it is possible to note a strong closure
effect for crack sizes smaller than 0.07 mm. The SP effect becomes smaller for
larger crack sizes (outside the influence of the residual stresses due to SP). For the
geometries with scratch the curve follows exactly the values obtained for those
without damage, there being noticed only a very small (almost negligible) influence 403
of the scratch root. Only for a 100 mm scratch size, without SP, it is possible to observe
a small difference. In order to use crack propagation results obtained in terms of DK
for long cracks, J integral values were converted to K, considering plain strain
conditions.
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The third model is necessary for long crack propagation. As the influence of the
scratch and SP is almost negligible in fatigue life for large crack sizes, the model does
not include these effects. The geometry is 3D (Figure 2), representing 1/2 of the
specimen studied, meshed with hexahedral (brick) elements with 20 nodes (C3D20 in
ABAQUS code). As it can be observed in Figure 8, the elements were collapsed and
midside nodes moved to 1/4 position. The material model is linear elastic.
Equation (4) presents the K solutions for any crack size, aspect ratio and angular
position (under certain limits). The geometric parameter Y (equation (5)) was calculated
by the least squares method from the finite element results. The maximum
interpolation error is 2.8 per cent:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
K ¼ Y ða=c; a=w; uÞ · s · p · a ð4Þ

where a is the crack depth, c half of the crack size at surface, w the distance from the
surface where the crack starts to the back face and Y the geometric factor which for the
washer specimen is given by:

Figure 8.
Crack region of the
3D finite element model
(1/2 geometry)
 IJSI Y ða=c; a=w; uÞ ¼ 1:997 2 3:326 · a=c þ 5:609 · a=c 2
3,4 þ u · ð1:886 · 1023 2 4:859 · 1023 · a=c þ 2:914 · 1023 · a=c 2 Þ
þ u 2 · ð21:524 · 1024 þ 2:585 · 1024 · a=c 2 9:663 · 1025 · a=c 2 Þ
þ a=w · ð23:392 þ 3:292 · a=c 2 1:376 · a=c 2 Þ
404 þ u · ð5:150 · 1023 2 1:207 · 1022 · a=c 2 6:217 · 1023 · a=c 2 Þ
þ u 2 · ð2:956 · 1024 2 4:131 · 1024 · a=c þ 1:792 · 1024 · a=c 2 Þ ð5Þ
2 2
þ a=w · ð8:245 2 8:582 · a=c þ 3:925 · a=c Þ
þ u · ð7:112 · 1023 2 2:679 · 1022 · a=c þ 1:906 · 1022 · a=c 2 Þ
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þ u 2 · ð27:642 · 1024 þ 1:677 · 1023 · a=c 2 9:65 · 1024 · a=c 2 Þ

2 4:821 · a=w 3 þ 3:171 · a=w 4 2 5:423 · a=c 3 þ 2:025 · a=c 4
2 0:433 · 1027 · u 3 þ 0:1644 · 1028 · u 4

Domain of validity:
0:25 # a=c # 1:0
0:25 # a=w # 0:6
0 # u # 908 for negative u values use absðuÞ

6. Fatigue life predictions

Fatigue life predictions were made according to the procedure given in Subsection 2
with the results taken from the finite element models. As proposed, initiation life
(regime I) is calculated using the strain-life approach, accounting for mean stress, with
strain amplitude and mean stress measured directly at the surface from the finite
element results. Propagation in the compressive region (regime II), affected by SP, is
assessed by integrating the Paris law for this material (equation (3)) with the stress
intensity factor solutions obtained from the second finite element model. The limits of
integration are from the El Haddad et al. (1979) constant, which is estimated for this
material as a0¼ 17.1 mm, up to the transition crack length, between regimes II and III,
which is approximately a ¼ 0.3 mm for all cases studied in this work. For the last
regime, the same p Paris law was integrated considering Kc, which was estimated to be
around 85 MPa m for this material.
Table II and Figure 9 present the fatigue life predictions for several load cases and
surface conditions, similar to the experimental tests that were made.

7. Discussion
Figure 9 and Table II show a very good correlation between the numerical results and
the experimental observations. Even for SP, predicted life is fairly accurate. The
maximum deviation is for the geometry with 50 mm scratch, where the expected
fatigue life ranges from one half to the double of that experimentally obtained.
According to the results of Table II, this deviation in fatigue life calculation seems to be
in regime II. The definition of a0 has an important influence in this region; however it is
not enough to justify this difference. The principal reason may be associated with some
 Fatigue life
Scratch Total Experimental
Surface depth MNS Regime II Regime III predicted observations prediction
conditions (mm) (MPa) Regime I (cycles) (cycles) (cycles) (cycles) (cycles)

AM 0 800 26,473 6,053 3,698 36,224 59,193

AM 0 850 12,466 3,651 2,848 18,965 29,393
AM 0 900 6,674 2,434 2,230 11,338 15,191 405
AM 0 950 3,962 1,735 1,770 7,467 8,137
AM 0 1,000 2,613 1,256 1,421 5,290 4,500
AM 0 1,050 1,865 921 1,151 3,937 2,562
SP 0 1,000 3,633 40,187 1,613 45,433 105,249
SP 0 1,050 2,359 19,579 1,307 23,245 39,976
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SP 0 1,100 1,666 10,080 1,068 12,814 15,883

AM 50 800 223 1,251 3,677 5,151 23,167
AM 50 850 180 900 2,844 3,924 5,564
AM 50 900 149 654 2,230 3,033 1,450
SP 50 850 158 34,171 3,218 37,547 20,537
SP 50 900 132 12,308 2,526 14,966 11,352
AM 100 700 183 1,220 6,467 7,870 14,204
AM 100 750 142 871 4,832 5,845 6,308
AM 100 800 117 629 3,678 4,424 2,952
AM 100 850 97 459 2,844 3,400 1,447
SP 100 700 151 9,239 7,288 16,678 13,476
SP 100 750 122 4,630 5,452 10,204 9,300 Table II.
SP 100 800 101 2,583 4,154 6,838 6,573 Fatigue life predictions
SP 100 850 85 1,555 3,218 4,858 4,745 and experimental
SP 100 900 73 982 2,526 3,581 3,490 observations

Figure 9.
Numerical predictions
against experimental
results

assumptions that were made to obtain the J integral (modelling such a small crack
and notch, conversions to K solutions and not including stress relaxation and residual
stresses due to the scratch creation). Apart from these assumptions, the results
obtained are quite good for fatigue life predictions, even for the 50 mm scratch size.
Analysing the results of Table II, and according to this model, the SP effect is quite
notable in short crack propagation (having almost one order of magnitude increase in
 IJSI fatigue life) and has almost no influence on crack initiation and long crack propagation.
3,4 In fact, cyclic relaxation almost eliminates the SP effect at the surface as it can be seen
in the strain range and mean stress results of Figure 6. This is in agreement with the
conclusions of other authors, such as Song and Wen (1999) and Guagliano et al. (2004),
who argue that the superior fatigue resistance of SP components is due to the ability of
the residual stress in stopping microcrack propagation and less in preventing fatigue
406 crack initiation.
As published by Cláudio et al. (2009) many shot peened specimens that were fatigue
tested did not fail after a large number of cycles, and multi-cracks were found that started
at the scratch root and stopped after some tens of microns. These non-propagating
cracks can be successfully predicted by determining the load at which DKeff # DKth at
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the El Haddad et al. (1979) a0 length from results of Figure 7. As can be seen in
Cláudio et al. (2009) the predictions are very good, showing that the same finite element
results can be used for fatigue life and crack arrest predictions.

8. Conclusions
A fatigue life prediction model, based on traditional approaches (strain-life method and
fracture mechanics), was provided in order to predict fatigue life of scratch damaged
shot peened components. According to this method, fatigue life prediction is made in
three different regimes: crack initiation, early crack propagation and long crack
propagation. Three finite element models were built, one for each regime, in order to
provide the parameters necessary for the fatigue life prediction model.
Based on the outcomes of this work, the following conclusions were formed:
.
As a contribution to safe life prediction in design, fatigue life was successfully
predicted for the specimens studied, both SP and scratched, using properties
taken from plain specimens including: material parameters, LCF results, crack
propagation data and information about the residual stress profile due to SP.
.
By summing the fatigue life in crack initiation with early crack propagation and
long crack propagation, the model proposed provides a detailed understanding
of the fatigue crack growth in SP components.
.
According to numerical results and other published research, SP seems to have a
limited effect on crack initiation, especially for scratched geometries.
. Compressive residual stress seems to play the most important role in extending
fatigue life, since accurate life predictions were numerically obtained using only
the compressive residual stress field.
.
Non-propagating cracks, which are usually found in shot peened components
that do not fail after a large number of cycles, can be predicted for scratch
damaged SP components by determining the load at which DKeff # DKth at the
El Haddad et al. (1979) a0 length.

References
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408
Corresponding author
R.A. Cláudio can be contacted at: ricardo.claudio@estsetubal.ips.pt
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