68

Flexible Pavement Design Methods: Analytical methods of pavement design; empirical

methods of pavement design (Group Index method, CBR method, Asphalt Institute &
AASHTO Design procedure, Road Note 31, Kenya Department of Roads Design Manual Part
III method);

7. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS DESIGN METHOD

7.1. Introduction

There is no standard thickness for a pavement layer. The required total pavement thickness
as well as individual layer thicknesses and material properties are determined using various
alternative design procedures
7.2. Design Procedures

For flexible pavements, structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate
layer thickness and composition. The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load and
temperature variations. Two methods of flexible pavement structural design are common
today: Empirical design and mechanistic- empirical design.

7.2.1. The Empirical Pavement Design Concept

Many pavement design procedures use an empirical approach. This means that the
relationship between design inputs (e.g., loads, materials, layer configurations and
environment) and pavement failure are arrived at through experience, experimentation, or a
combination of both.
Generally, it requires a number of observations to be made in order to ascertain the
relationships between input variables and outcomes. It is not necessary to firmly establish
the scientific basis for the relationships between variables and outcomes as long as the
limitations with such an approach are recognized. Consequently, it is not prudent to use
empirically derived relationships to describe phenomena that occur outside the range of the
original data used to develop the relationship.
Empirical design methods can range from extremely simple to quite complex. The simplest
approaches specify pavement structural designs based on what has worked in the past. More
complex approaches are usually based on empirical equations derived from experimentation.
Some of these experimentations can be quite elaborate.
7.3. Empirical Methods of Pavement Design

There are many empirical methods used in the design of flexible pavements. These include:
i. Group Index Method
ii. CBR method
iii. Asphalt Institute Method
iv. AASHTO Design Procedure
v. Road Note 31
vi. Kenya Road Design Manual Method

68
69

Some of these are discussed in this section.

7.3.1. Group Index Method

Group Index method of flexible pavement design is an empirical method which is based on
the physical properties of the soil sub-grade. Group Index is a number assigned to the soil
based on its physical properties like particle size, Liquid limit and plastic limit. It varies from
a value of 0 to 20. The lower the value, the higher the quality of the sub-grade and vice
versa. By sieve analysis test we can determine Group index value of soil subgrade from below
equation
GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01bd
Where, a= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 35 per cent, not
exceeding 75. b= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 15 per cent, not
exceeding 55. c= Liquid limit in per cent in excess of 40. d= Plasticity index in excess of 10.
Data required for Group Index method
1. Group index of soil subgrade. Group index value range of different soils is given below
 For good soil – 0 to 1
 For fair soil – 2 to 4
 For poor soil – 5 to 9
 For very poor soil – 10 to 20
2. Traffic volume It is the measure of Annual average daily traffic, peak-hour traffic. It is
denominated by commercial vehicles/day or CVPD. It is classified in three categories.
Based on number of vehicles per day. If no. of vehicles per days is
 <50 - light traffic
 50-300 - medium traffic
 >300 - Heavy traffic
Calculation total thickness (T): Refer to the chart below; for given group index of soil
subgrade and traffic volume value select appropriate continuous curve value of “combined
thickness of surface, base and sub-base line” which will give the total thickness of pavement.

Figure 7-1 : Pavement thickness for Group Index Method

69
70

(Note: The continuous line indicates the total thickness value and the dotted line indicates
thickness of surface and base)
Calculation thickness of sub-base course (tsb): From the below chart for given group index of
soil subgrade select appropriate curve value of “thickness of sub base only” which will give
the thickness of the sub-base course. The curve highlighted in below diagram

Figure 7-2 : Sub-base thickness

Calculation of thickness of base and surface course (tb & ts): Thickness of surface and base
course = total thickness – sub-base thickness
= T - tsb
The value of thickness of base can be found out from above chart form dotted curve with
the help of group index value and traffic volume. Or otherwise assume the thickness of
surface course (ts) = 5 cm Then we can easily calculate the value of thickness of the base
course,
Tb = T-tsb-ts

Figure 7-3 : Pavement notation for GIM

The group index method is essentially an empirical method based on the physical properties
of the subgrade soil and it does not consider the strength characteristics of soil and is
therefore open to question regarding its reliability.
7.3.2. California Design Method

Also known as the CBR Method, it was originally developed by the California State Highway
Department. The method uses the CBR value of the subgrade to determine the total
thickness of the pavement. The following data is required:

70
71

a) CBR value of soil subgrade

b) CBR value of sub base course
c) CBR value of base course
d) Wheel load in KG or KN Wheel load is classified into three groups based on traffic
conditions.
 Light traffic(3175 KG)
 Medium traffic(4082 KG)
 Heavy traffic (5443 KG)

Figure 7-4 : California Method Design chart

Design Procedure
1. Classify commercial vehicles into “Heavy,” “Medium,” and “Light” categories
according to the percentages of two-axle and five-axle vehicles within the commercial

71
72

volume. From this, the 8000 kg Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs) can be
estimated for the design period, which in turn are used to calculate the Traffic Index.
Table 7-1: Traffic classification for California Method

2. Test the subgrade for CBR. Read off the total pavement thickness (T) from the chart

e.g. for a subgrade CBR of 10% in Medium traffic, T = 275mm

3. Test the sub-base material for CBR. Read off the total thickness of pavement above
sub-base (Tsb)from the chart
e.g. for sub-base CBR of 30%. Tsb = 150mm

Thus, sub-base thickness tsb is obtained as:

= − = 275 − 150 =

4. Test the base material for CBR. Read off the total thickness of pavement above base
(ts) from the chart
e.g. for base CBR of 80%, ts =75mm
thus, the base thickness is obtained as:
= − = 125 − 75 =

72
73

7.3.1. AASHTO Design Method

In AASHTO 1993 method, the pavement is designed based on an index which represents
the overall strength of the pavement structure. This index is a function of the composition
of individual layers and their thicknesses.
 Read and make notes from:
https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/design/structural-design/1993-
aashto-flexible-pavement-structural-design/
Further Reading:
 Read AASHTO Design manual that has been shared on the e-learning platform

7.3.2. Road Note 31 Design Method

Overseas Road Note 31 was first published in 1962 by the Transportation Research
Laboratory (TRL). It differed from Road Note 29 in that it was primarily developed for road
design in tropical regions (research for RN29 was conducted in temperate regions).
RN31 outlines three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement These
are:
i. estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard
axles that will use the road over the selected design life;
ii. assessing the strength of the subgrade soil over which the road is to be built;
iii. selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials and layer
thicknesses that will provide satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement
(It is usually necessary to assume that an appropriate level of maintenance is also
carried out).
This Note considers each of these steps in turn and puts special emphasis on five aspects of
design that are of major significance in designing roads in most tropical countries:
 The influence of tropical climates on moisture conditions in road subgrades.
 The severe conditions imposed on exposed bituminous surfacing materials by tropical
climates and the implications of this for the design of such surfacings.
 The interrelationship between design and maintenance. If an appropriate level of
maintenance cannot be assumed. it is not possible to produce designs that will carry
the anticipated traffic loading without high costs to vehicle operators through
increased road deterioration.
 The high axle loads and tyre pressures which are common in most countries.
 The influence of tropical climates on the nature of the soils and rocks used in road
building
The design charts in RN31 are presented as a catalogue of structures, each structure being
applicable over a small range of traffic and subgrade strength. Such a procedure makes the
charts extremely easy to use but it is important that the reader is thoroughly conversant with
the notes applicable to each chart

73
74

Design Procedure
1. Determine the cumulative standard axles over the design life of the pavement
structure. The cumulative standard axles are converted into traffic classifications as
follows:
Table 7-2: Traffic classes (RN 31)

2. Determine the subgrade CBR and classify as follows:

Table 7-3: Subgrade Classes (RN 31)

3. Develop the appropriate pavement structure from a catalogue by selecting the

pavement layer thicknesses on the basis of subgrade class, S and traffic loading, T.

Download pavement structure catalogues (plus the entire RN31) from the e-learning
platform

74
75

Example:
The cumulative standard axles expected during the design life of a proposed road pavement
are 3 x 106. The subgrade CBR has been determined as 6%. Design the pavement to Road
Note 31 with a bituminous roadbase.
Solution:
Subgrade CBR = 6%, hence Subgrade class = S3
3 x 106 standard axles, hence Traffic class = T4
From Chart 7, the appropriate pavement structure is:

75
76

76
77

7.3.3. Kenya Road Design Manual Part III Method

The Kenya RDM provides standard pavement structures in similar fashion to Road Note 31.
The input variables are also similar:
 Subgrade strength (CBR)
 Cumulative standard axles during the design life of the pavement structure
Development of the standard pavement structures was based on the following principles
among others:
i. It is common sense not to place a weaker layer on a stronger one
ii. It is uneconomical to place expensive layer on a highly deformable layer
iii. The use of a bituminous binder in the base and cement or lime in the subbase has
been avoided as much as possible
iv. Sand bitumen mix should be used only where no granular material can be found. It
will therefore be laid only on a sandy subbase
v. Under heavy traffic (Classes T1 & T2), natural gravels and cement (or lime) improved
materials cannot be used as base materials as their strength and resistance to
attrition are insufficient
vi. The use of an asphalt concrete as surfacing is necessary for heavy traffic to adequately
protect road bases against attrition and excessive stresses.
The Kenya RDM presents 15 different types of pavement structures which are considered to
cover virtually all the bitumen road designs required in Kenya. For each pavement type, the
thicknesses required have been calculated for each class of soil and each class of traffic, by
use of the mechanistic-empirical method.
Design procedure
Step 1: Determining the subgrade strength class
The study of the alignment soils will enable homogeneous sections to be defined in terms
of bearing strength
Recall: the subgrade strength classes and traffic classes for Kenya:

77
78

Example:

Step 2: Determining the traffic class

The study of the initial traffic flows and axle load distributions, the choice of the design
period and the estimation of the traffic growth will permit the calculation of the cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried by the road.
The traffic counts and axle load surveys shall be carried out as described in previous lectures.

T  365t1
1  i N  1
…..
i
Where:
t1 is the average daily number of standard axles in the first year after opening, and
78
79

i is the annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction

Example:

Step 3: Inventory and study of the available road-making materials and selecting possible
types of pavements
The knowledge of the types and characteristics of the available pavement materials, as well
as of the climate will allow the selection of one or more types of pavements.
Example:

Step 4: Economic and technical comparison of the possible pavement structures. Final choice
of one standard pavement structure.
The knowledge of the subgrade strength class and of the traffic class will allow the selection
of the appropriate Standard Pavement Structure, for each pavement type
The cost of each possible Standard Pavement Structure shall then be estimated. The specific
technical advantages and disadvantages of each type of pavement shall be considered.
The economic and technical comparison will finally allow the design engineer to choose the
most suitable pavement structure
Example:

79
80

Step 5: Finalizing the pavement design and preparation of Special Specifications

For the final refinements to the pavement design, consideration shall be given to local
conditions (climate, drainage, pavement materials, maintenance requirements, road safety,
etc.). Any particular requirements of the project shall be covered by Special Specifications

7.3.4. The mechanistic-empirical pavement design concept

Mechanics is the science of motion and the action of forces on bodies. Thus, a mechanistic
approach seeks to explain pavement response phenomena only by reference to physical
causes. In pavement design, the phenomena are the stresses, strains and deflections within
a pavement structure and the physical causes are the loads and material properties of the
pavement structure. The relationship between these phenomena and their physical causes
is typically described using a mathematical model. Various mathematical models can be
(and are) used; the most common is a layered elastic model, which has been explained in
the previous chapter.
Along with this mechanistic approach, empirical elements are used when defining what value
of the calculated stresses, strains and deflections result in pavement failure. The relationship
between physical phenomena and pavement failure is described by empirically derived
equations that compute the number of loading cycles to failure. The basic advantages of a
mechanistic-empirical pavement design method over a purely empirical one are:
1. It can be used for both existing pavement rehabilitation and new pavement
construction
2. It accommodates changing load types
3. It can better characterize materials allowing for:
i. Better utilization of available materials
ii. Accommodation of new materials
iii. An improved definition of existing layer properties
4. It uses material properties that relate better to actual pavement performance
5. It provides more reliable performance predictions
6. It better defines the role of construction
7. It accommodates environmental and aging effects on materials
The benefit of a mechanistic-empirical approach is its ability to accurately characterize in situ
material (including sub-grade and existing pavement structures). This is typically done by

80
81

using a portable device (like a Falling Weight Deflectometer) to make actual field deflection
measurements on a pavement structure to be overlaid. These measurements can then be
input into equations to determine existing pavement structural support (often called "back-
calculation") and the approximate remaining pavement life. This allows for a more realistic
design for the given conditions.

Figure 7-5: Schematic Diagram of a Falling Weight Deflectometer setup

Mechanistic models are used to mathematically model pavement physics. There are a
number of different types of models available today (e.g., dynamic, visco-elastic models,
Finite Elements Method and layered elastic). The layered elastic model was discussed in the
previous topic. These models can easily be run on personal computers and only require data
that can be realistically obtained. The main empirical portions of the mechanistic-empirical
design process are the equations used to compute the number of loading cycles to
failure. These equations are derived by observing the performance of pavements and
relating the type and extent of observed failure to an initial strain under various
loads. Currently, two types of failure criteria are widely recognized, one relating to fatigue
cracking and the other to rutting initiating in the sub-grade.

7.3.5. Fatigue Failure Criterion

Many equations have been developed to estimate the number of repetitions to failure in the
fatigue mode for asphalt concrete. Most of these rely on the horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the Hot Mixed Asphalt layer (εt) and the elastic modulus of the HMA.

81
82

7.3.6. Rutting Failure Criterion

Rutting can initiate in any layer of the structure, making it more difficult to predict than
fatigue cracking. Current failure criteria are intended for rutting that can be attributed mostly
to a weak pavement structure. This is typically expressed in terms of the vertical compressive
strain (εv) at the top of the sub-grade layer:

82