INTRODUCTION TO

MODERN
INDUSTRIAL
ENGINEERING
By

Prof. K.V.S.S. Narayana Rao, B.Tech, PGDIE, PhD.

Author Global Number 1 Blog on Industrial Engineering - Industrial Engineering
Knowledge Center
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com
https://www.linkedin.com/in/narayana-rao-kvss-b608007/

A Collection of Blog Posts on Industrial Engineering.

I am making this consolidation as number of my friends and readers are requesting a

pdf version of the articles published by me. I thank them for motivating me to do this
compilation. Version 1.0 was received with enthusiasm. So I got the interest to
further expand the content to version 2.0. I request you to give suggestions for
various improvements needed through my blog posts or LinkedIn posts.

© 2022 K.V.S.S. Narayana Rao

Rights for the content created by me, the collection scheme and presentation
format.
(Rough Draft Version 2.0 - July 2022)

1
Contents
1. Industrial Engineering - Introduction and History
2. Definition and Explanation
3. Contribution of Taylor, Gilbreth and Harrington Emerson
4. Principles of Industrial Engineering
5. Functions of Industrial Engineering
6. Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering

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Industrial Engineering - Introduction and
History
Industrial engineering is system efficiency engineering. In a system, if one maintains
effectiveness of processes and increases efficiency of processes that includes
productivity (more output from the same resources), total effectiveness produced
from the system will increase. Therefore increase in efficiency is desirable. Increase
in effectiveness from the process is also desirable, but the in the evolution of
subjects, industrial engineering is name given to the subject or discipline that focuses
on efficiency.

Was Industrial Engineering Department started by F.W. Taylor - The Father of

Industrial Engineering?

Yes. It was started by him in 1885.

Frederick Taylor's Industrial Engineering Department for Process Improvement for
Productivity Increase - 1885.
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/11/frederick-taylors-industrial.html

Frederick Taylor established the first department in factory doing industrial

engineering work of process improvement for increase in productivity and cost
reduction. The name he gave it to the department is "Elementary Rate Fixing." Its
function is to breakdown the process into elements and find the best way of doing
each by observing number of persons doing the same element and finding the best
way through time study. The next step is to find science behind the way of doing the
elements. Then from the best ways of doing each element, a new process is
developed and the operators are trained in it. The final step of rate fixing refers to
specifying the time required to do each element and the piece rate for it. The Piece
rate of a component is fixed by first developing the detail at element level. The
operators are provided the instruction sheet at the element level so that they know
the time specified for each element and make effort to do it in that time. Taylor
stated that operators are motivated to do well when they know the goal clearly and
receive feedback quickly. The elementary rate fixing department has the
responsibility to develop productivity science, do productivity engineering and do
productivity management.

Based on the statements of Taylor, we can say elementary rate fixing department
was established in 1885 by Taylor.

The Call for Cost Reduction by Engineers - ASME President - 1880

3
The first president of ASME in his presidential address in 1880 exhorted mechanical
engineers to understand the relation between elements of engineering design and
production and elements of cost accounting that determine the production cost as
well as the life cycle cost of engineering items. Even though attention to cost was
given by civil engineers earlier, the call by ASME president led to the emergence of a
branch/discipline of engineering termed "Industrial Engineering."

The concern for management and productivity issues occupied the attention of the
first ASME president. Thus ASME's attention to the topic is there right from its
founding . In fact, R.H. Thurston the first ASME president, in his inaugural address
(1880), included productivity improvement and economy among the objects of
the society in his inaugural address.

"We are now called upon to do our part in the work so well begun by our
predecessors, and so splendidly carried on by our older colleagues during the past
generation. We have for our work the cheapening and improvement of all textile
fabrics, the perfecting of metallurgical processes, the introduction of the electric
light, the increase of facilities for rapid and cheap transportation, the invention of
new and more efficient forms of steam and gas engines, of means for relieving
woman from drudgery, and for shortening the hours of labor for hard-working men,
the increase in the productive power of all mechanical devices, aiding in the great
task of recording and disseminating useful knowledge; and ours is the duty to
discover facts and to deduce laws bearing upon every application of mechanical
science and art in field, workshop, school, or household." - Thuston.
R. H. Thurston. President's inaugural address. Transactions ASME, 1, 1880, pp. 14-29.

Pennsylvania State College, USA introduced the first industrial engineering major in
1907. Hugo Diemer was the faculty who introduced it. He authored a book in 1911
which he explained the role of industrial engineering. Principles of Industrial
Engineering, a book in industrial engineering by Charles B. Going was published in
1911. Charles taught industrial engineering subject in a module on works
management organized at Columbia University by Prof. Walter Rautentruanch.

James Gunn is given the credit for using the term "industrial engineer" first in an
article in 1901. He wanted a new engineer to emerge "production" or "industrial".
The "industrial" or "production" engineer of Gunn understands the cost accounting
and cost analysis in relation to engineering activities. The term industrial engineer
appealed to some. Subsequently the course in industrial engineering was also
started. Even production engineering emerged as a separate branch that focused
much more on the technical function of creating process plans, instructing and
training operators. The focus of industrial engineering became productivity,
efficiency and cost reduction.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING PHILOSOPHY

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I would like to state the philosophy of industrial engineering as "engineering systems
can be redesigned or improved and installed periodically for productivity increase or
improvement." The primary drivers of productivity improvement are developments
in basic engineering disciplines and developments in industrial engineering
(developments in productivity science, productivity engineering and productivity
management). The additional drivers are developments in related disciplines, for
example, economics, mathematics, statistics, optimization techniques, ergonomics,
psychology and sociology etc. - Narayana Rao, 1 April 2021.

Evolution of Industrial Engineering - James Gunn, Towne, Taylor, Diemer, Going,

Barnes

Background for Development of Industrial Engineering

The late-nineteenth-century factory initially was a collection of skilled machinists and

mechanical artisans working in a big work areas based on their skills. The
management of production activity was basically done a first-line supervisor, the
foreman. He organized materials and labor, directed machine operations, recorded
costs, hired and fired employees, and basically the principal production management.
The manager or general manager above him looked after external issues related to
supplies of goods and services.

In the 1870s and 1880s, critics began to attack the model of the factory wherein
each operator worked according his personal methods and mostly worked under a
piece rate system. Their critique became the basis for the best-known effort to
encourage coordination within the firm during the first half of the twentieth century
under production manager. Shop Management theory and practice was proposed by
F.W. Taylor. The changes in management that occurred during period were
known under various labels - systematic management, scientific management,
efficiency engineering. As stated above, in 1901, the term "industrial engineering"
was proposed and in 1908, it became a course, and a branch of engineering. Shop
Management and subsequent books fostered greater sensitivity to the manager’s
role in production and led to greater diversity in industrial practice also as managers
selectively implemented ideas and techniques.

The attack on traditional factory management originated in two

late-nineteenth-century developments. The first was the maturation of the
engineering profession, based on formal education and mutually accepted
standards of behavior and formally educated engineers embraced scientific
experimentation and analysis in place of sporadic developments based on
experience. The second development was the rise of systematic management, an
effort among engineers and sympathizers to substitute system for the informal
methods that had evolved with the factory system. The factories replaced
traditional managers who focused less on production methods with engineers and
managerial systems replaced guesswork and ad hoc evaluations. By the late 1880s,

5
cost accounting systems, methods for planning and scheduling production and
organizing materials, and incentive wage plans were developed. Their objective was
an unimpeded flow of materials and information. Systematic management sought to
extract the efficiency benefit required to run a factory by developing science for
each work element. It also developed planning systems that helped in realizing the
organization's goals through work of managers and operators. It promoted decisions
based on performance by giving wages based on merit rating and incentives based
on quantity of output rather than on personal qualities and relationships.

Contribution of F.W. Taylor

In the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor, became the most vigorous and successful
proponent of systematic management. As an executive in production engineering
and management, he introduced factory accounting (cost accounting) systems and
based on those records made engineering changes in systems that gave lower cost of
operation and production. Taylor explained his systems through papers and
discussions in meetings of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The
systems and practices developed by Taylor permitted engineers and managers to use
operating records to guide their engineering and production management actions.
Taylor focused on reducing metal cutting times through various engineering
improvements to increase productivity of machines. The improvements include use
of cutting fluids, higher power in the machines for increasing feed, development of
high speed steel, development of tool life equation and many more improvements.
Taylor estimated the time required for taking each cut and reduced the time taken
by improvement in cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.

Taylor also advocated production control systems that allowed managers to know
more precisely what was happening on the shop floor, piece-rate systems that
encouraged workers to follow orders and instructions, and various related measures.
Taylor developed time study of elements to measure time taken by machines and
men to perform various tasks done by operators. Data collected from multiple
machines and multiple operators were used to identify ways of working that gave
minimum times.

Frederick Taylor established the first department in factory doing industrial

engineering work of process improvement for increase in productivity and cost
reduction in 1885. The name he gave it to the department is "Elementary Rate
Fixing." Its function is to breakdown the process into elements and find the best
way of doing each by observing number of persons doing the same element and
finding the best way through time study. The next step is to find science behind the
way of doing the elements. Then from the best ways of doing each element, a new
process is developed and the operators are trained in it. The final step of rate fixing
refers to specifying the time required to do each element and the piece rate for it.
The Piece rate of a component is fixed by first developing the detail at element level.
The operators are provided the instruction sheet at the element level so that they
know the time specified for each element and make effort to do it in that time.

6
Taylor stated that operators are motivated to do well when they know the goal
clearly and receive feedback quickly. The elementary rate fixing department has the
responsibility to develop productivity science, do productivity engineering and do
productivity management.

Based on the statements of Taylor, we can say elementary rate fixing department
was established in 1885 by Taylor
(https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/11/frederick-taylors-industrial.html).

In 1895, he employed a colleague, Sanford E. Thompson, to help him determine the

optimum time to perform industrial tasks; their goal was to compute, by rigorous
study of the worker’s movements and the timing of those movements with
stopwatches, standards for skilled occupations that could be published and sold to
employers.

Between 1898 and 1901, as a consultant to the Bethlehem Iron Company, Taylor
introduced all of his systems and vigorously pursued his research on the operations
of metal-cutting tools. Taylor’s discovery of high-speed steel in 1900, which
improved the performance of metal-cutting tools, assured his fame as an inventor. In
his effort to introduce systematic methods in many areas of the company’s
operations, Taylor developed an integrated view of managerial innovation and a
broader conception of the shop/production manager’s role. In 1901, when he left
Bethlehem, Taylor resolved to devote his time and ample fortune to promoting his
new conception of industrial management. In the paper, Shop Management ( 1903),
he portrayed an integrated complex of systematic management methods and also
productivity improvement of machine shops.

In the following years, he began to rely more heavily on anecdotes from his career
to emphasize the links between improved management and greater productivity.
Second, Taylor tried to generalize his management principles to more areas of work.
Between 1907 and 1909, with the aid of a close associate, Morris L. Cooke, he wrote
a sequel to Shop Management that became The Principles of Scientific Management
(1911). Taylor came out with four principles and relied on colorful stories from
his experience and language to illuminate “principles” of management. To suggest
the integrated character and broad applicability of scientific management, he
equated it to a “complete mental revolution.”

Taylor had fashioned scientific management from systematic management. The

two approaches were intimately related. Systematic and scientific management had
common roots, attracted the same kinds of people, and had the same business
objectives. Yet in retrospect the differences stand out. Systematic management was
diffuse and utilitarian, a series of isolated measures that did not add up to a larger
whole or have recognizable implications beyond day-to-day industrial operations.
Scientific management added significant detail and a larger view.

7
The Principles extended the potential of scientific management to nonbusiness
endeavors and made Taylor a central figure in the efficiency movement of the 1910s.
To engineers and nonengineers alike, he created order from the diverse
prescriptions of a generation of technical writers. By the mid-l910s, he had achieved
wide recognition in American engineering circles and had attracted a devoted
following in France, Germany, Russia, and Japan. Pennsylvania State College
introduced the first industrial engineering major in 1907 and promoted the thinking
of Taylor.

Taylor's insistence that the proper introduction of management methods required

the services of an expert intermediary helped in the emergence of industrial
engineering independent consultants and accelerated the rise of a new profession.

Initially, the spread of systematic management occurred largely through the work of
independent consultants, a few of whom, such as the accountant J. Newton Gunn,
achieved prominence by the end of the nineteenth century. By 1900, Taylor
overshadowed the others; by 1910, he had devised a promotional strategy that
relied on a close-knit corps of consultants to install his techniques, train the client’s
employees, and instill a new outlook and spirit of cooperation. The expert was to
ensure that the spirit and mechanism of scientific management went hand in hand.
This activity of Taylor produced a number of successful consulting firms and the
largest single cluster of professional consultants devoted to industrial management.

Between 1901 and 1915, Taylor’s immediate associates introduced scientific

management in nearly two hundred American businesses, 80 percent of which were
factories Some of the plants were large and modern, like the Pullman and
Remington Typewriter works. Approximately one-third of the total were
large-volume producers for mass markets. A majority fell into one of two broad
categories. First were those whose activities required the movement of large
quantities of materials between numerous workstations (textile mills, railroad repair
shops, automobile plants). Their managers sought to reduce delays and bottlenecks
and increase throughput.

The records available suggest that the consultants provided valuable services to
many managers. They typically devoted most of their time to machine operations,
tools and materials, production schedules, routing plans, and cost and other record
systems. Apart from installing features of systematic management, their most
notable activity was to introduce elaborate production-control mechanisms (bulletin
boards and graphs, for example) that permitted managers to monitor operations

Between 1910 and 1920, industrial engineering spread rapidly. Large firms
introduced staff departments devoted to production planning, time study, and other
industrial-engineering activities and consulting firms also developed further. By 1915,
the year of Taylor’s death, professional organization, the Taylor Society founded
in 1910 was active. Western Efficiency Society was founded in 1912. The Society of
Industrial Engineers was founded in 1917. These societies provided forums for the

8
discussion of techniques and the development of personal contacts. Financial
success and professional recognition increasingly depended on entrepreneurial and
communications skills rather than technical expertise alone. A new generation of
practitioners, including many university professors developed successful consulting
practices.

Contributions of Gilbreth, Emerson and Bedaux

Competition for clients and recognition, especially after the recession of 1920-21
made executives more cost-conscious-produced other changes. Some industrial
engineering consultants began to seek clients outside manufacturing. Spurred by the
growing corps of academicians who argued that the principles of factory
management applied to all businesses, they reorganized offices, stores, banks, and
other service organizations. A Society of Industrial Engineers survey of leading
consulting firms in 1925 reported that many confined their work to plant design,
accounting systems, machinery, or marketing . A third trend was an increasing
preoccupation with labor issues and time study. This emphasis reflected several
postwar developments, most notably and ominously the increasing popularity of
consultants who devoted their attention to cost cutting through the aggressive use
of time study.

By the early 1920s, industrial engineers had divided into two separate and
increasingly antagonistic camps. One influential group of industrial engineers,
centered in the Taylor Society, embraced personnel management and combined it
with orthodox industrial engineering to form a revised and updated version of
scientific management. A handful of Taylor Society activists, Richard Feiss of Joseph
& Feiss, Henry S. Dennison of Dennison Manufacturing, Morris E. Leeds of Leeds &
Northrup, and a few others, mostly owner-managers, implemented the new
synthesis. They introduced personnel management and more controversial
measures such as profit sharing, company unionism, and unemployment insurance
that attacked customary distinctions between white- and blue-collar employees and
enlisted the latter, however modestly, in the management of the firm.

A larger group emphasized the potential of incentive plans based on time and
motion study and disregarded or deemphasized the technical improvement. Their
more limited approach reflected the competition for clients, the trend toward
specialization, and the continuing attraction of rate cutting. Indicative of this
tendency was the work of two of the most successful consultants of the post- 1915
years, Harrington Emerson and Charles E. Bedaux. This led to the development of a
major weakness in Industrial Engineering. Industrial engineers got the description of
"Time Study Men."

Harrington Emerson

Emerson (1853-1931) was a creative personality. Attracted to Taylor at the turn of

the century, he briefly worked as an orthodox practitioner and played an influential

9
role in Taylor’s promotional work. He soon became a respected accounting theorist
and a successful reorganizer of railroad repair facilities. As his reputation grew,
however, he broke with Taylor and set up a competing business with a large staff of
engineers and consultants. Between 1907 and 1925, he had over two hundred
clients He also published best-selling books and promoted a mail-order personal
efficiency course. He was probably the best-known industrial engineer of the late
1910s and early 1920s.’ Emerson’s entrepreneurial instincts defined his career. An
able technician, he was capable of overseeing the changes associated with orthodox
scientific management. He also recruited competent assistants, such as Frederick
Parkhurst and C. E. Knoeppel, who later had distinguished consulting careers, and E.
K. Wunnerlund, who became the head of industrial engineering at General Motors.
But Emerson always viewed his work as a business and.tailored his services to this
customer’s interests. In practice, this meant that his employees spent most of their
time conducting time studies and installing incentive wage systems. By the
mid-1920s, General Motors, Westinghouse, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad,
Aluminum Company of America, American Radiator, and many other large and
medium-sized industrial firms had introduced the Emerson system and in many
cases an industrial engineering department staffed by former Emerson employees.

Bedaux (1886-1944) was a French immigrant who was a clerk at a St. Louis chemical
company. In 1910 when an expert arrived to conduct time studies, Bedaux quickly
grasped the essentials of time study and replaced the outsider. Then he found other
clients. The turning point in his career came in 1912, when he accompanied several
Emerson engineers to France as an interpreter. In Paris he struck out on his own,
reorganized several factories, and studied the writings of Taylor and Emerson.
Returning to the United States during World War I, he launched the Bedaux
Company and began to cultivate clients. He relied on a simple, compelling promise:
he would save more money than he charged. Although Bedaux employed able
engineers and usually made some effort to reorganize the plant, his specialty was
the incentive wage. His men worked quickly, used time studies to identify
bottlenecks and set production standards, installed a wage system similar to
Emerson’s. Bedaux’s clients included General Electric, B. F. Goodrich, Standard Oil
of New Jersey, Dow Chemical, Eastman Kodak, and more than two hundred other
American firms by the mid-1930s. His European offices were even more successful.

Whereas Taylor and his followers opposed wage cutting and “speed-up” efforts,
Emerson was more flexible, and Bedaux made a career of forcing workers to do
more for less. One notable result was a resurgence of strikes and union protests. By
the 1930s, Bedaux had become infamous on both sides of the Atlantic. In response
to his notoriety, he revised his incentive plan to increase the worker’s share and
dropped much of his colorful terminology, including the famous B unit. Bedaux’s
business survived, though neither he nor his firm regained the position they had
enjoyed in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Bedaux’s legacy was a substantial burden for other industrial engineers. The growth
of labor unrest in the 1930s and the frequent appearance of the “Be-do” plan on
grievance lists revived the association of industrial engineering with labor turmoil.

10
Regardless of their association with Bedaux and his tactics, industrial engineers
became the targets of union leaders and their allies. In industries such as autos and
tires, worker protests paralyzed the operations of industrial engineering
departments and led to the curtailment or abandonment of many activities.

Diffusion of Industrial Engineering

There are at least three partial measures of the diffusion of industrial engineering.
First, the many references to cost accounting, centralized production planning and
scheduling, systematic maintenance procedures, time study, and employment
management in the trade press and in the records of industrial corporations indicate
that these activities were no longer novel or unfamiliar to executives. The
promotional work of the consultants, the “efficiency craze,” and the growth of
management education in universities had made the rudiments of industrial
engineering widely available; only the oldest or most isolated executives were
unaware of them. The critical issue was no longer the desirability of the new
management; it was the particular combination of techniques suitable for a given
firm or plant, the role of the outside consultant, if any, and the authority of the staff
experts.

Second, the information on industrial wage systems that the National Industrial
Conference Board assiduously collected in the 1920s and 1930s documents
widespread acceptance of incentive wage plans, particularly among large
corporations. In 1928, for example, 6 percent of the smallest companies (1-50
employees) had incentive wage plans, while 56 percent of the largest firms (more
than 3,500 employees) had such plans. In earlier years, small firms devoted to
industrial reform had been among the most vigorous proponents of industrial
engineering. But their ranks did not grow, and they were soon overshadowed by
large corporations, which found in industrial engineering an effective answer to the
problems that often prevented large, expensive factories from achieving their
potential. Incentive wage plans were an indicator of this trend. Feiss, Dennison,
and others hoped to transform the character of industrial work through the use of
incentives and personnel programs; judging from the information that survives, big
business managers had more modest goals. Their principal objective was to make
the best use of existing technology and organization by enlisting the workers’
interest in a higher wage. In the early 1930s, many managers were attracted to the
“work simplification” movement that grew out of the Gilbreths’ activities, but the
effects were apparently negligible, at least until the World War II mobilization effort.
To most manufacturers, industrial engineering provided useful answers to a range of
shop-floor problems; it was a valuable resource but neither a stimulus to radical
change nor a step toward a larger goal.

A third source, contemporary surveys of the industrial engineering work of large

corporations, provides additional support for this conclusion. A 1928 survey by
the Special Conference Committee, an elite group of large industrial firms,
emphasized related problem. It reported wide differences in the practice of time

11
study, in the duties of time-study technicians, and in the degree of commitment to
time study as an instrument for refining and improving the worker’s activities. At
Western Electric, which had one of the largest industrial engineering staffs, a
manufacturing planning department was responsible for machinery and methods;
the time-study expert was simply a rate setter. At Westinghouse, which also had a
large industrial engineering department, time-study technicians were responsible for
methods and rates. However, a report from the company’s Mansfield, Ohio, plant
indicated that the time-study engineer could propose changes in manufacturing
methods “in cooperation with the foremen.” Most companies had similar policies.
The time-study expert was expected to suggest beneficial changes to his superiors,
often after consulting the foreman, but had no independent authority to introduce
them. Essentially, the “expert” was a rate setter. In most plants, industrial
engineering focused on detail, seldom threatened the supervisors or workers, and
even more rarely produced radical changes in methods.

Experience at Du Pont

A recent, detailed examination of industrial engineering at E. I. Du Pont de Nemours

& Company, a Special Conference Committee member, suggests the range of
possibilities that could exist in a single firm (Rumm 1992, 175-204). Du Pont
executives created an Efficiency Division in 1911 after the company’s general
manager read The Principles. Rather than employ an outside consultant, they
appointed two veteran managers to run the division. These men conducted time and
motion studies, “determined standard times and methods for tasks, set standard
speeds for machinery, and made suggestions for rearranging the flow of work,
improving tools, and installing labor-saving equipment.” Yet they encountered a
variety of difficulties; their proposals were only advisory, they clashed with the new
employment department when they proposed to study fatigue and the matching of
workers and jobs, and they found that many executives were indifferent to their
work. Worst of all, they could not show that their activities led to large savings. In
1914, after the introduction of functional supervision in the dynamite-mixing
department apparently caused several serious accidents, the company disbanded
the Efficiency Division.

Although some Du Pont plants introduced time-study departments in the following

years, the company did nothing until 1928, when it created a small Industrial
Engineering Division within the larger Engineering Department. The IED was to
undertake a “continuous struggle to reduce operating costs.” That battle was
comparatively unimportant until the Depression underlined the importance of cost
savings. In the 1930s, the IED grew rapidly, from twenty eight engineers in 1930 to
over two hundred in 1940. It examined “every aspect of production,” conducted job
analyses, and introduced incentive wage plans. IED engineers began with surveys
of existing operations. They then “consolidated processes, rearranged the layout of
work areas, installed materials-handling equipment, and trimmed work crews.” To
create “standard times” for particular jobs, they used conventional stopwatch time
study as well as the elaborate photographic techniques the Gilbreths had developed.

12
By 1938, they had introduced incentive wage plans in thirty plants; one-quarter of all
Du Pont employees were affected.

Du Pont introduced a variety of incentive plans. Three plants employed the Bedaux
Company to install its incentive system. Other managers turned to less expensive
consultants, and others, the majority, developed their own “in-house” versions of
these plans. Some executives, and workers, became enthusiastic supporters of
incentive wages; others were more critical. Despite the work of the aggressive and
ever-expanding IED, many workers found ways to take advantage of the incentive
plans to increase their wages beyond the anticipated ranges. Wage inflation
ultimately led the company to curtail the incentive plans. Time and motion study,
however, remained hallmarks of Du Pont industrial engineering.

During the depression of the 1930s, when they developed a new sensitivity to the
value of industrial engineering, they defined it as a way to cut factory costs. One
reason for this perspective was bureaucratic: Du Pont had developed an extensive
personnel operation in the 1910s and 1920s, which had authority over employee
training, welfare programs, and labor negotiations. Equally important was the
apparent assumption that industrial engineering only pertained to the details of
manufacturing activities, especially the work of machine operators. Despite
mounting pressures to reduce costs, the company’s offices, laboratories, and large
white-collar labor force remained off-limits to the IED. Despite these handicaps, the
IED had a significant impact because rapid technological change in the industry
created numerous opportunities for organizational change and Du Pont avoided
relations with powerful unions.

Du Pont executives were receptive to the “principles” of industrial engineering but

focused on the particulars, which they assessed in terms of their potential for
improving short-term economic performance. As a result there was little consistency
in their activities until the 1940s; even then, industrial engineering was restricted to
the company’s manufacturing operations. This approach, fragmentary and
idiosyncratic by the standards of Taylor or Dennison, was logical and appropriate to
executives whose primary objective was to fine-tune a largely successful
organization.

During the first third of the twentieth century, industrial engineers successfully
argued that internal management was as important to the health of the enterprise
as technology, marketing, and other traditional concerns. Their message had its
greatest impact in the 1910s and 1920s, when their “principles” won wide
acceptance and time study and other techniques became common-place. Managers
whose operations depended on carefully planned and coordinated activities and
reformers attracted to the prospect of social harmony were particularly receptive. By
the 1930s, the engineers’ central premise, that internal coordination required
self-conscious effort and formal managerial systems, had become the acknowledged
basis of industrial management.
1930s

13
Allan Mogensen's Common Sense Applied to Motion and Time Study (1932)

Ralph Barnes's Indus-trial Engineering and Management: Problems and Policies

(1931).

Steward M. Lowry, Harold B. Maynard, and G. J. Stegmerten's widely used Time and
Motion Study and Formulas for Wage Incentives. - The 1927 edition treated motion
study only briefly and insubstantially, while devoting many chapters to stopwatch
methods and rate setting formulas. In 1932, the authors approached Lillian Gilbreth
and her research group for more detailed information on their methods. By 1940
Lowry, Maynard, and Stegmerten had reduced their treatment of wage incentive
formulas from nine chapters to three, and increased the number of chapters
devoted to motion study to seven.

IE History - Some Recollections

Andrew Shultz
https://www.informs.org/Resource-Center/Video-Library/H-T-Videos/Andrew-Schult
z-on-AIIE-ORSA-and-Cornell-s-ORIE

Industrial engineering is carried out at various levels in an organization. The

following are the important levels of IE.

Industrial Engineering Strategy - Enterprise Level Industrial Engineering

Policy Decisions by Top Management: Starting and Expanding IE Department,
Approval of Productivity Improvement Project Portfolio as part of Capital Budgeting
of the Company, Approving Productivity Policy, Setting Productivity and Cost
Reduction Goals. Setting Employee related comfort, health and safety goals.
Incentive income policy making.

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2014/11/industrial-engineering-strategy.html

Facilities Industrial Engineering

Facilities are used by processes. Facilities are common to processes. Taylor clearly
mentioned in his "Piece Rates - Elementary Rate Fixing System" paper that he has to
make modifications to all machines to increase productivity of his machine shop.
Toyota even today carries out gradual improvements to the machines in the
direction of autonomation. Machines are continuously improved. Period layout
studies and readjustments are another example of facilities industrial engineering.
5S that demands upkeep of facilities is another example of facilities IE when it is
implemented for the first time and proposed and initiated by the IE department.
Thereafter it becomes the activity of operations management.

14
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/05/facilities-industrial-engineering.html

Process Industrial Engineering - Process Machine Effort Industrial Engineering -

Process Human Effort Industrial Engineering.
Process industrial engineering is the popular method of industrial engineering. But,
the process chart method was promoted by Motion Study books. The machine effort
industrial engineering, that is improvement of machine effort, that was done by
Taylor primarily to increase productivity got neglected in the evolution of industrial
engineering. It is a weakness to be corrected to make IE a strong discipline.

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/11/process-industrial-engineering-process.html

Operation Industrial Engineering.

Process chart is a condensed version that show the entire process of producing a full
product and the production of each part. The process chart is composed by symbols
representing 5 operations. Operation - Inspection - Transport - Temporary Delay
(WIP) - Permanent Storage (controlled store). Using process chart, the sequence of
operations can be investigated and changed for more benefit. But each operation
needs to be improved. It is termed simplification in process chart analysis. To do
simplification information on each operation has to be collected in operation
information sheets and they have to be analyzed in operation analysis sheets
(Stegemerten and Maynard)

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/11/approach-to-operation-analysis-as-step.htm
l

Element Level Analysis in Industrial Engineering

Elements are in Operations - We can understand the term "element" from the
subject "Design of Machine Elements". Each engineering product has elements.
Similarly each operation, that is part of a process has elements. Some are related to
machines and tools used in the process. Some are related to human operators. Some
are related to working conditions. Some are related to the work being done. Taylor
first named the productivity department as "Elementary Rate Fixing Department." It
has to improve each and every element in task and determine the output possible

15
for unit time in the work element. The time allowed for that element for a piece or
batch is determined through these elementary standard times or allowed times.

Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/10/industrial-engineering-history.html

Industrial Engineering - Definition,

Explanation
"Industrial Engineering is System Efficiency Engineering.
It is done through Machine Effort and Human Effort Engineering."
It is concerned with engineering products and engineering processes primarily. It
continuously improves engineering elements of products and processes as the
opportunity arises to increase efficiency and productivity. Various other activities
that plan and control engineering products and processes are also improved by
industrial engineers to assure the productivity of the engineering processes or the
engineering system as a whole. Industrial engineers also focus on the study and
improvement of human effort in engineering processes.

Japanese companies used industrial engineering extensively with various innovations.

They improved the understanding of industrial engineering methods among their
workmen and achieved unprecedented increase in the productivity of their industrial
enterprises in post-second world war period. The Japanese production systems got
the distinction with the description of them as World Class Manufacturing Systems.
Industrial engineering played an important role in the success of the most famous
Japanese company "Toyota Motors." Taiichi Ohno, the person credited with Toyota
Production Systems appreciates Industrial Engineering as Profit Engineering, the
engineering discipline that increases profits every year by decreasing cost, that leads
to increased sales and more profits.

Definitions
Industrial engineering directs the efficient conduct of manufacturing, construction,
transportation, or even commercial enterprises of any undertaking, indeed in which
human labor is directed to accomplishing any kind of work . Industrial engineering
has drawn upon mechanical engineering, upon economics, sociology, psychology,
philosophy, accountancy, to fuse from these older sciences a distinct body of science
of its own . It is the inclusion of the economic and the human elements especially
that differentiates industrial engineering from the older established branches of the
profession (Going, 1911) [1].

“Industrial engineering is the engineering approach applied to all factors, including

the human factor, involved in the production and distribution of products or
services.” (Maynard, 1953) [2]

16
“Industrial engineering is the design of situations for the useful coordination of men,
materials and machines in order to achieve desired results in an optimum manner.
The unique characteristics of Industrial Engineering center about the consideration
of the human factor as it is related to the technical aspects of a situation, and the
integration of all factors that influence the overall situation.” (Lehrer, 1954) [3]

“Industrial engineering is concerned with the design, improvement, and installation

of integrated systems of men, materials, and equipment. It draws upon specialized
knowledge and skill in the mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with
the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict,
and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems.” (AIIE, 1955). [4]

"Industrial engineering may be defined as the art of utilizing scientific principles,

psychological data, and physiological information for designing, improving, and
integrating industrial, management, and human operating procedures." (Nadler,
1955) [5]

“Industrial engineering is that branch of engineering knowledge and practice which

1. Analyzes, measures, and improves the method of performing the tasks assigned
to individuals,
2. Designs and installs better systems of integrating tasks assigned to a group,
3. Specifies, predicts, and evaluates the results obtained.
It does so by applying to materials, equipment and work specialized knowledge and
skill in the mathematical and physical sciences and the principles and methods of
engineering analysis and design. Since, however, work has to be carried out by
people; engineering knowledge needs to be supplemented by knowledge derived
from the biological and social sciences.” (Lyndall Urwick, 1963) [6]

Industrial engineering is concerned with the design, improvement and installation of

integrated systems of people, materials, information, equipment and energy. It
draws upon specialized knowledge and skill in the mathematical, physical, and social
sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and
design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results to be obtained from such
systems. [7]

“Industrial Engineering is Human Effort Engineering. It is an engineering discipline

that deals with the design of human effort in all occupations: agricultural,
manufacturing and service. The objectives of Industrial Engineering are optimization
of productivity of work-systems and occupational comfort, health, safety and income
of persons involved.” (Narayana Rao, 2006) [8]

Definition proposed in this knol.

17
"Industrial Engineering is Human Effort Engineering and System Efficiency
Engineering. It is an engineering discipline that deals with the design of human effort
and system efficiency in all occupations: agricultural, manufacturing and service. The
objectives of Industrial Engineering are optimization of productivity of work-systems
and occupational comfort, health, safety and income of persons involved."

Narayana Rao (2011)

"Industrial Engineering is Human Effort Engineering and System Efficiency

Engineering. It is an engineering-based management staff-service discipline that
deals with the design of human effort and system efficiency in all occupations:
agricultural, manufacturing and service. The objectives of Industrial Engineering are
optimization of productivity of work-systems and occupational comfort, health,
safety and income of persons involved."(Narayana Rao, 2011)

The definition can be further simplified to "Industrial Engineering is System

Efficiency Engineering."

Systems come into existence for a purpose, that is effectiveness. Effectiveness is first
and next is adequate efficiency and its improvement.

References
1. Going, Charles Buxton, Principles of Industrial Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1911, Pages 1,2,3
2. Maynard, H.B., “Industrial Engineering”, Encyclopedia Americana, Americana
Corporation, Vol. 15, 1953
3. Lehrer, Robert N., “The Nature of Industrial Engineering,” The Journal of Industrial
Engineering, vol.5, No.1, January 1954, Page 4
4. Maynard, H.B., Handbook of Industrial Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1963.
5. Nadler, Gerald, Motion and Time Study", McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, 1955
6. Urwick, Lyndall, F., “Development of Industrial Engineering”, Chapter 1 in
Handbook of Industrial Engineering, H.B. Maynard (Ed.), 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1963.
7. http://www.iienet2.org/Details.aspx?id=282
8. Narayana Rao, K.V.S.S., “Definition of Industrial Engineering: Suggested
Modification.” Udyog Pragati, October-December 2006, Pp. 1-4.
_____________________________________________________________________
__

What is Industrial Engineering?

18
Industrial engineering is engineering improvement done in engineering products and
processes during the product life cycle based on the data generated during
operations, studies done and engineering and technology developments. It is
continuous development of engineering products and processes to increase
efficiency or productivity of the process to reduce its cost of operation. Industrial
engineering facilitates unit cost reduction and thereby provides the potential to
reduce prices and increase demand. It is the effort of industrial engineers that
enables lower and lower prices and increases volume of sales thus providing the
popular engineering goods to a larger and larger sections of the society.

Industrial engineering can be better explained with the statement that the two focus
areas of industrial engineering are human effort engineering and system efficiency
engineering. These two focus areas match with Urwick’s statement 1 and 2.
Industrial engineering (i) analyzes, measures, and improves the method of
performing the tasks assigned to individuals, and (ii) Designs and installs better
systems of integrating tasks assigned to a group (Urwick, Lyndall, F., “Development
of Industrial Engineering”, Chapter 1 in Handbook of Industrial Engineering, H.B.
Maynard (Ed.), 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 1963).

It is interesting to note that the first representation to the teachers and practitioners
of industrial engineering was given in the name of Industrial and Efficiency
Engineering Committee in 1912 in Society for Promotion of Engineering Education
(S.P.E.E.). In this committee, there were three teachers and 8 practitioners and Frank
Gilbreth was among practitioners (Gerald Thusesne, History of Development of
Engineering Economic Representation in within A.S.E.E.).

System Efficiency Engineering - System Efficiency Design

System design and system efficiency design are to be distinguished by dividing

system design into system functional design and system efficiency design. Engineers
or managers with specialization in a function do the functional design part. An
electrical power generation system is designed by electrical engineers. Industrial
engineers take up the functional design and do efficiency engineering work on it.
Similarly a production planning system is designed by production managers, and
industrial engineers may do efficiency engineering of it.

The explanation of industrial engineering as human effort engineering and system

efficiency engineering brings out more clearly the scope of the IIE definition that
industrial engineering is concerned with the design, improvement, and installation of
integrated systems. The word engineering is associated with design and production,
fabrication or construction according to designs. As explained above, system
design in entirety cannot be the sole preserve of industrial engineers. The
functional design of production systems in various branches of engineering can be
done by engineers of that branch only. Similarly functional design of various

19
management systems in a business organization can be done by managers of that
function only. Industrial engineers' role to play in systems design is of designing
efficiency into the functional systems designed by others on a continuous basis.

Maynard stated the scope of industrial engineering in his preface to the second
edition of Hand Book of Industrial Engineering, edited by him in 1963. Industrial
engineers have been traditionally concerned with the design of manufacturing plants,
methods improvement, work measurement, the design and administration of wage
payment systems, cost control, quality control, production control and the like.
These procedures are all directed toward the reduction of cost. All the techniques of
industrial engineering reflect the common denominator of all industrial engineering
work – an intense interest in improving thing that is currently being done or planned
to be done . Cost reduction or efficiency improvement is the focus of industrial
engineering. Maynard also pointed out in his preface that developments in applied
mathematics and statistics during the post world war years facilitated industrial
engineer to tackle efficiency design of much larger systems with more predictive
power.

In 1943, the Work Standardization Committee of the Management Division of the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers identified the following areas as the
purview of industrial engineer: Budgets and cost control, manufacturing engineering,
organization analysis, systems & procedures, and wage & salary administration. The
traditional industrial engineering methods of operation analysis, motion study, work
measurement, standardization of the method were included in manufacturing
engineering and these techniques are relevant for hourly base wage rate
determination, incentives and administration of wage payment.

The study of various functional areas in industrial engineering curriculums is for the
purpose of understanding the functional designs in those areas and industrial
engineering graduates should not claim expertise in those subjects to do functional
design unless they really specialize in them through extra study and experience of
efficiency design of many systems in the same functional area.

According to M.H. Mathewson, industrial engineering is distinguished from other

engineering disciplines in that it:

1. Is concerned with the total system. (Productivity of the total system)

2. Predicts and interprets the economic results. (Provides cost estimates and
standards and thus can predict the profit given the estimates of sales revenue. Also
for each industrial engineering change proposed by it, it gives the expected
reduction in cost.)
3. Places increased emphasis on the integration of human being into the system.
(How the operator is going operate the machine, load and unload work pieces, move
work pieces etc. are studied and redesigned by industrial engineers. the comfort,
health and safety of operators is an area of focus for industrial engineering.)

20
4. Makes greater utilization of the contribution of the social sciences than do other
engineering disciplines. (Industrial engineers have to persuade operators to learn the
new methods or method changes and work according to them. In the activity of
directing operators to learn new methods and work according to them, industrial
engineers have to utilize social sciences.)

Industrial Engineering as practiced today can be explained by identifying three

components.

1. System Efficiency Engineering (Product Industrial Engineering and Process

Industrial Engineering)
2. Systems Redesign, Installation and Improvement Management.
3. Human Effort Engineering
All methods and techniques of industrial engineering can be categorized under these
three major components.

Industrial and Systems Engineering

IIE's name was changed to IISE to better reflect the definition “Industrial
engineering is concerned with the design, improvement, and installation of
integrated systems of men, materials, and equipment. It draws upon specialized
knowledge and skill in the mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with
the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict,
and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems.” (AIIE, 1955).

The design function was clearly brought into focus with the term "systems
engineering."

We can now see two major areas System Industrial Engineering and Industrial
Systems Engineering.

Techniques of Industrial Engineering

Human Effort Engineering - Techniques

1. Principles of Motion Economy
2. Motion Study
3. Workstation Design
4. Application of Ergonomics and Biomechanics
5. Fatigue Studies
6. Productivity/Safety/Comfort Device Design
7. Standardization of Methods - Methods Study
8. Time study of human effort or work elements - Work measurement of human
work
9. Operator training
10. Incentive Systems
11. Job Evaluation

21
12. Learning effect capture

System Efficiency Improvement Techniques of Industrial engineering

1. Process Analysis and Improvement

2. Operation Analysis and Improvement
3. Time estimates and time study of machine work
4. Value engineering
5. Statistical quality control
6. Statistical inventory control and ABC Classification Based Inventory Systems
7. Six sigma
8. Operations research
9. Variety reduction
10. Standardization
11. Waste reduction or elimination
12. Activity based management
13. Business process improvement
14. Engineering economy analysis
15. Learning effect capture and continuous improvement (Kaizen, Quality circles and
suggestion schemes)
16. Standard costing
17. 5S - Work Place Orderliness or Plant Orderliness
18. SMED
19. Poka Yoke

Pioneering Efforts of Taylor,

Gilbreth and Emerson
The contribution of Taylor is in multiple areas and was described in detail in this
article. Gilbreth also made very important contributions including the development
of the charts now the main tools of industrial engineering.

In the flow process chart, five activities or operations are recorded.

Material processing - Inspection - Material Handling and Transport - Shop floor

delays - Warehousing or Controlled storage

In each of the activities or operations, there is role for machines, tools and operators.
The work of machines are operators has to be documented in detail to be examined
and improved.

Taylor's contribution is very significant in study and improvement of machine work.

His contribution to study of operators' work was developed into a more detailed
procedure by Gilbreth.

22
Harrington Emerson highlighted the production planning steps which are relevant in
eliminating shop floor delays. The Japanese contribution to industrial engineering
starts with eliminating the delays caused by large lot sizes. It redesigned all other
operations of the process to achieve smaller batch quantities and became world
standard even for the current times.

Contribution of F.W. Taylor to Industrial Engineering

F.W. Taylor started his career as a worker. He observed and concluded that as a
worker he could produce much more than others in the shop without any additional
strain. That experience gave a direction to his managerial career. Because his career
started in machine shop, he realized the importance of potential of the machine
work system to give increased output. If the machine related work elements are not
functioning properly, the operator is handicapped. With a good machine and
machine work system, the belief of the worker in benefits of producing maximum
output every day is also required. When Taylor began his work as a shop engineer or
manager, taking care of machines and methods during operations was not
emphasized. The activities are left to foremen and operators and they were doing it
based on their experience, available thumb rules and trial and error methods in each
shop. Taylor was impressed by the scientific method of collection of experimental
data or observation data and developing theories and laws. Based on his
experiments and observations, Taylor developed efficient methods of machine shop
work. He also started observing the working of operators and collecting data. Based
on his long years executive work and consulting work, Taylor explained the
productivity improvement in multiple presentations he made in annual conferences
of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). Thus, it has to be reiterated
again that Taylor developed both scientific study of machine work and man work for
increasing productivity in the machine shop. He also developed machine time
determination formulas to assist in machine work study. The stop watch time study
of work operators was developed to find the best practices of experienced operators
to develop science of human effort. Improvement in working time due to various
changes proposed by industrial engineers/scientific managers can be validated by
time study.

Taylor was involved in the activities of American Society of Mechanical Engineers

(ASME) from the very early years. In year 1886, when Henry Towne called for the
study of management, accounting and economics by engineers, Taylor was present
in the meeting and he participated in the discussion of cost accounting system
proposed by Metcalf. Thus Taylor already had active participation in study of
accounting, economics and productivity improvement.

In 1893, Taylor presented his first paper on cost analysis and cost reduction
based on redesign of engineering elements. It was on redesign of belt system based
on collection of data for 10 years on cost of the belting system. Thus Taylor laid the
strong foundation for redesign of engineering components and systems based on the
accumulated cost data and economic decision making.

23
Important points in "Notes on Belting" (1893)

In using belting so as to obtain the greatest economy and the most satisfactory
results, the following rules should be. observed :

The chief consideration in design of belting in industry has to be how to get the
maximum of work from belting ; while, in making up belting design tables, the two
most important considerations — how to secure the minimum of interruptions to
manufacture, and the maximum of durability — have to be given attention. The
important consideration in making up design tables and rules for the use and care
of belting is how to secure the least possible interruption to manufacture due to
repairs or correction to be made to belts.

Belts should be made heavier and run more slowly than indicated by present theory
and design rules for reducing the belt cost (first cost + maintenance) as well as
the cost due to frequent interruptions to manufacture. According to data
accumulated, by far the largest item in this account is the time lost on the
machines while belts are being replaced and repaired.

As part of the cost study of belts, shifting and cone belts were compared. The
important fact noticeable is the superiority of the shifting to the cone belts in every
respect except the purchase price. But paying more at the time of purchase is
beneficial as the operating and maintenance cost of substantially lower and hence to
life time cost of shifting belts is low. The life of the shifting belts is on average
three times that of the cone. The total cost of the shifting belts per year of service is
less than that of the cone. After 8.8 years of life the total cost of maintenance and
repairs of the shifting belts amounts to only 30.4% of the original cost, while with the
cone belts the maintenance and repairs through a life of 6.7 years amounts to one
and one-half times the first cost.

The interruptions to manufacture are nearly seven times as frequent with the cone
as with the shifting belts. Each shifting belt required tightening or repairing on an
average only 6 times during nine years, while the cone belts averaged 32
interruptions to manufacture in 0.7 years. The shifting belts having run on an
average twenty-two months without tightening, while the cone belts ran only two
and one-half months.

Summarizing, we may state that the total life of belting, cost of maintenance and
repairs, and the interruptions to manufacture caused by belts, are dependent upon

(1) the " total load " to which they are subjected, more than upon any other
condition ;

The most economical total load for belting must lie between 174 lbs. and 357 lbs.
per square inch of section of belt. The average total load on belting should be 200
to 225 lbs. per square inch section of belt.

24
Six- and seven-ply rubber belts, and all double leather belts except oak tanned and
fulled, will transmit economically a pull of 30 lbs. per inch of width to the rim of the
pulley.

Oak tanned and fulled double leather belts will transmit economically a pull of 35 lbs.
per inch of width.

The other conditions chiefly affecting the durability of belting are :

(2) Whether the belts are spliced, or fastened with lacing or belt hooks.

(3) Whether they are properly greased and kept clean and free from machinery oil.

(4) The speed at which they are run.

The most economical speed for belting is 4,000 to 4,500 feet per minute.

Subsequent to the presentation of papers on productivity gain sharing by Towne,

and Halsey, Taylor presented his full productivity improvement systems that had
three ideas in the paper on piece rate system. The precursor of industrial
engineering department, elementary rate fixing department was proposed in this
paper. This department has the responsibility of improving the machine, machine
work and operator work and determine the time that is required to do various work
elements. Time study to observe and record time taken to complete an element was
proposed in this paper only. The improvement carried out in various engineering
elements related to machine and machine work were briefly described in this paper.

Frederick Taylor's Elementary Rate-fixing Department (Industrial Engineering

Department).

From the paper, Piece Rate System, 1895

The advantages of this system of management (Taylor's Piece Rate System) are :

The manufactures are produced cheaper under it.

The system is rapid in attaining the maximum productivity of each machine and
man

The writer introduced a new system of management in the works of the Midvale
Steel Company, of Philadelphia. It was employed in organization for past ten years
with the most satisfactory results.

25
The system consists of a principal element: An elementary rate-fixing department
(productivity department).

Elementary rate-fixing differs from other methods of making piece-work prices in

that a careful study is made of the time required to do each of the many elementary
operations into which the manufacturing of an establishment may be analyzed or
divided. The times for elementary operations are recorded under various classified
heads to facilitate retrieving them when needed.

The rate-fixing department has equal dignity and commands equal respect with the
engineering and managing departments and is organized and conducted in an
equally scientific and practical manner. It contributes value to the organization and
justifies its existence and the expenses incurred including the salaries paid to the
department personnel.

This elementary system of fixing rates has been in successful operation for the past
ten years, successfully covering the wide a range of manufacturing activities. This
new system came into existence in 1883. While he was the foreman of the machine
shop of the Midvale Steel Company of Philadelphia, it occurred to Taylor the writer
that a better system of fixing piece rates was possible and it would be beneficial to
both firm and the employee. The ideas was that it was simpler to time each of the
elements of the various kinds of work done in the place, and then find the quickest
time in which each element could be done under proper planning and
standardization. The time required for each job having various elements can be
determined by summing up the total times of the best or lowest times of its
component parts instead of searching through the records of former jobs and
guessing or estimating the proper piece rate. Taylor, himself as the foreman
practised this method of rate-fixing for about a year as it is the responsibility of the
foreman. Then he recommended to his company management to set up the
rate-fixing department. From then onwards, the department successfully set the
piece-work prices that gave higher productivity.

This department far more than paid for itself from the very start. Over years more
benefits were realized as methods of determining the maximum capacity of each of
the machines in the place, and of making working-tables of cutting conditions were
developed. Also the best methods of making and recording time observations of
work done by the men and developing the best way of doing each element was
determined. Also time-tables for starting and finishing jobs (schedules) were
developed and daily task was given to each workman with the promise of a bonus or
additional premium for exceeding the task given to him in a day.

The best results were finally attained in the case of work done by metal-cutting tools,
such as lathes, planers, boring mills, etc., when a long and expensive series of
experiments was made, to determine, formulate, and finally practically apply to each
machine the law governing the proper cutting speed of tools, namely, the effect on
the cutting speed of altering any one of the following variables : the shape of the
tool (i.e., lip angle, clearance angle, and the line of the cutting edge), the duration of

26
the cut, the quality or hardness of the metal being cut, the depth of the cut, and the
thickness of the feed or shaving.

Due to the understanding of metal cutting through these experiments, the quality of
the work was improved and the output of the machinery and the men was doubled,
and in many cases trebled. At the start there was naturally great opposition to the
rate-fixing department, particularly to the man who was taking time observations of
the various elements of the work. But when the men found that the knowledge
of the department was more accurate than their own, and the system provided
them higher income permanently, the motive for hanging back or “ soldiering
(deliberate slow work)” ceased, and with it the greatest cause for antagonism and
war between the men and the management

The accurate knowledge of the quickest time in which work can be done, obtained
by the rate-fixing department and accepted by the men as standard, is the greatest
and most important step toward obtaining the maximum output of the
establishment.

Of the two devices proposed for increasing the output of a shop, the differential rate
and the scientific rate-fixing department, the scientific rate-fixing department is by
far the more important. The differential rate is invaluable at the start as a means of
convincing men that the management is in earnest in its intention of paying a
premium for performing properly planned work or engineered work, and it at all
times furnishes the best means of maintaining the top notch of production; but
when, through its application, the men and the management have come to
appreciate the mutual benefit of harmonious cooperation and respect for each
other’s rights, it ceases to be an absolute necessity. On the other hand, the
rate-fixing department, for an establishment doing a large variety of work, becomes
absolutely indispensable. The longer it is in operation the more necessary it
becomes.

To apply the knowledge gained through rate fixing deparment's work in various
organizations with less cost, what is needed is a hand-book on the speed with which
work can be done, similar to the elementary engineering hand-books. And the writer
ventures to predict that such a book will, before long, be forthcoming. Such a book
should describe the best method of making, recording, tabulating, and indexing
time-observations, since much time and effort are wasted by the adoption of inferior
methods (Taylor himself created the engineering knowledge to determine cutting
speeds, feeds and depth of cut of machine tools).

The benefits of elementary rate-fixing including many indirect results.

The careful study of the capabilities of the machines and the analysis of the speeds
at which they must run, before differential rates can be fixed which will insure their
maximum output, almost invariably result in first indicating and then correcting the
defects in their design and in the method of running and caring for them.

27
In the case of the Midvale Steel Company the machine shop was equipped with
standard tools furnished by the best makers, and the study of these machines, such
as lathes, planers, boring mills, etc., which was made in fixing rates, developed the
fact that they were none of them designed and speeded so as to cut steel to the best
advantage. As a result, this company has demanded alterations from the standard in
almost every machine which they have bought during the past eight years. They
have themselves been obliged to superintend the design of many special tools which
would not have been thought of had it not been for elementary rate-fixing.

But what is perhaps of more importance still, the rate-fixing department has shown
the necessity of carefully systematizing all of the small details in the running of each
shop, such as the care of belting, the proper shape for cutting tools, and the dressing,
grinding, and issuing swarf, oiling machines, issuing orders for work, obtaining
accurate labor and material returns, and a host of other minor methods and
processes. These details, which are usually regarded as of comparatively small
importance, and many of which are left to the individual judgment of the foreman
and workmen, are shown by the rate-fixing department to be of paramount
importance in obtaining the maximum output, and to require the most careful and
systematic study and attention in order to insure uniformity and a fair and equal
chance for each workman. Without this preliminary study and systematizing of
details it is impossible to apply successfully the differential rate in most
establishments.

No system of management, however good, should be applied in a wooden way. The

proper personal relations should always be maintained between the employers and
men; and even the prejudices of the workmen should be considered in dealing
with ]them.

Above all it is desirable that men should be talked to on their own level by those who
are over them.

Each man should be encouraged to discuss any trouble which he may have, either in
the works or outside, with those over him. Men would far rather even be blamed by
their bosses, especially if the “ tearing out ” has a touch of human nature and feeling
in it, than to be passed by day after day without a word and with no more notice
than if they were part of the machinery.

The opportunity which each man should have of airing his mind freely and having it
out with his employers, is a safety-valve ; and if the superintendents are reasonable
men, and listen to and treat with respect what their men have to say, there is
absolutely no reason for labor unions and strikes.

Source: Frederick Taylor's Piece Rate System

The machine and machine related work improvement was described in very great
detail in the paper "The Art of Metal Cutting (1906)" by Taylor.

28
Taylor is the first person who wrote about a system to improve productivity in
machine shop. He contributed to productivity science, productivity engineering and
productivity management. It is important to study the productivity science
developed by Taylor through his paper "The Art of Metal Cutting." Number of tables
were shared with participants along with the paper presented in 1906. The folder
containing tables is not yet available in the web space. We only have the paper. So, it
may be difficult to follow the content. But we need to make an attempt to
understand to the extent possible and develop similar content for other processes.

Taylor did research on productivity improvement of machining in turning process for

26 years and provided number of relations between cutting variables and
productivity.

ELEMENTS AFFECTING CUTTING SPEED OF TOOLS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR RELATIVE

IMPORTANCE

The cutting speed of a tool is directly dependent upon the following elements. The
order in which the elements are given indicates their relative effect in modifying the
cutting speed, and in order to compare them, we have written in each case figures
which represent, broadly speaking, the ratio between the lower and higher limits of
speed as affected by each element.

(A) The quality of the metal which is to be cut; i.e., its hardness or other qualities
which affect the cutting speed.

Proportion is as 1 in the case of semi-hardened steel or chilled iron to 100 in the case
of very soft low carbon steel.

(B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the V tool is made, and the
heat treatment of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 in tools made from tempered carbon steel to 7 in the best high
speed tools.

(C) The thickness of the shaving; or, the thickness of the spiral strip or band of metal
which is to be removed by the tool, measured while the metal retains its original
density (uncut thickness); not the thickness of the actual shaving, the metal of which
has become partly disintegrated.

Proportion is as 1 with thickness of shaving 3/16 of an inch to 3.5 with thickness of

shaving 1/64 of an inch.

(D) The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool, chiefly because of the effect
which it has upon the thickness of the shaving.

Proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to 6 in a broad nosed cutting tool. ,

29
(E) Whether a copious stream of water or other cooling medium is used on the tool.

Proportion is as 1 for tool running dry to 1.41 for tool cooled by a copious stream of
water.

(F) The depth of the cut; or, one-half of the amount by which the forging or casting is
being reduced in diameter in turning.

Proportion is as 1 with 1/2 inch depth of cut to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut.

(G) The duration of the cut; i. c., the time which a tool must last under pressure of
the shaving without being reground.

Proportion is as 1 when tool is to be ground every 1.5 hour to 1.207 when tool is to
be ground every 20 minutes.

(H) The lip and clearance angles of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 with lip angle of 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees.

(J) The elasticity of the work and of the tool on account of producing chatter.

Proportion is as 1 with tool chattering to 1.15 with tool running smoothly.

A brief recapitulation of these elements is as follows:

(A) quality of metal to be cut: 1 to 100;
(B) chemical composition of tool steel: 1 to 7;
(C) thickness of shaving: 1 to 3.5;
(D) shape or contour of cutting edge: 1 to 6;
(E) copious stream of water on the tool: 1 to 1.41;
(F) depth of cut: 1 with 1/2 inch depth to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut;
(G) duration of cut: 1 with 1.5 hour cut to 1.20 with 20-minute cut;
(H) lip and clearance angles: 1 with lip angle 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61
degrees;
(J) elasticity of the work and of the tool: 1 with tool chattering to 1.15, with tool
running smoothly.

A. QUALITY OF METAL BEING CUT

THE EFFECT OF THE QUALITY OF THE METAL BEING CUT UPON CUTTING SPEED

we made great numbers of experiments upon the effect of the quality of the metal
being cut upon the cutting speed.

30
SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL FORGINGS AND CASTINGS ACCORDING TO
THEIR CUTTING SPEEDS

It is of great importance to connect this numerical scale of hardness (which varies by

the common rate of 1.1) directly and permanently with certain qualities of metal and
with cutting tools of definitely known cutting properties. As a basis for accomplishing
this we would state that Class No. 13 upon this scale corresponds to a cutting speed
of 60 feet per minute, for a standard cut of 20 minutes duration when a high speed
inch tool of the chemical composition of tool No. 27 is used, taking a depth of cut of
inch and feed of inch.

Our experiments indicate also that Class No. 13 represents a speed of 99 feet (in
round numbers 100 feet) for the best high speed tool (Folder 20, Tool No. 1), running
under the same conditions as
stated in paragraph.

Using this data as a basis, our scale of "hardness classes" for metals can be
connected with other shapes of tools and other qualities of tool steel, other depths
of cut, and other thicknesses of feed, by reference to the various tables and formula
given throughout this paper.

In using this classification it will be noted that the best modern high speed inch tool,
if cutting metal belonging to Class 1 would have a cutting speed of 316 feet per
minute with a standard inch depth of cut and inch feed; and such a metal as this
would be much softer than any steel which is cut in a machine shop.

For what we call a hard steel forging of about the quality of a hard locomotive tire, a
cutting speed of 45 feet corresponds to Class 21 and 1/4, while a soft steel having a
cutting speed of 198 feet corresponds to Class 5 and 3/4.

THE EFFECT OF THE QUALITY OR HARDNESS OF STEEL FORGINGS UPON THE CUTTING
SPEED

There are three important elements which affect the hardness or the cutting
properties of steel forgings:

a Their chemical composition.

b The thoroughness with which the metal is forged, that is, the amount that the
cross-section of the ingot has been reduced in making the forging and the forging
heat.
c The subsequent heat treatment which the forging receives, that is, whether it has
been laid down to cool in the air, annealed, or oil hardened, and the exact
temperatures of annealing and the rapidity of cooling.

31
It may be said, however, that for steel containing 0.40 per cent of carbon or less, the
percentage of carbon is a fairly reliable guide to the hardness or cutting speed.

The physical properties of steel constitute a fairly accurate guide to its cutting speed;
and these properties are best indicated by the tensile strength and percentage of
stretch and contraction of area obtained from standard tensile test bars cut from
such a position in the body of the forging as to represent its average quality and then
broken in a testing machine.

A study of this table, however, will show that in general the cutting speeds grow
slower as the percentage of carbon in the steel to be cut grows greater. In general,
also, it will be noted that the cutting speed becomes slower as the tensile strength of
the metal becomes higher, and that the cutting speed grows faster as the
percentage of stretch increases.

He explained the shop management in a large paper.

Shop Management

The art of management has been defined, "as knowing exactly what you want men
to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way.'" No concise
definition can fully describe an art, but the relations between employers and men
form without question the most important part of this art.

It is safe to say that no system or scheme of management should be considered

which does not in the long run give satisfaction to both employer and employee,
which does not make it apparent that their best interests are mutual, and which
does not bring about such thorough and hearty cooperation that they can pull
together instead of apart.

What the workmen want from their employers beyond anything else is high wages,
and what employers want from their workmen most of all is a low labor cost of
manufacture.

These two conditions are not diametrically opposed to one another as would appear
at first glance. On the contrary, they can be made to go together in all classes of
work, without exception, and in the writer's judgment the existence or absence of
these two elements forms the best index to either good or bad management.

The possibility of coupling high wages with a low labor cost rests mainly upon the
enormous difference between the amount of work which a first-class man can do
under favorable circumstances and the work which is actually done by the average
man.

Both installing and maintaining favorable circumstances and identifying and

developing first class men are the responsibility of managers only. No doubt each
individual employee is an important contributor to the production process and his

32
enthusiasm every day is required and has to be promoted by the society as well as
the organization managers, his initial selection and education/training and
development for higher responsibilities are all duties of managers.

Industrial Engineering Described in Shop Management by F.W. Taylor

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2019/06/industrial-engineering-described-in.html

Taylor developed his shop management and productivity improvement theories

initially in machine shops and later extended to other industrial activities. In
production systems where machine is the important working component, the large
increase in output is due partly to the actual physical changes, either in the machines
or small tools and appliances.

Task Management - F.W. Taylor

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/task-management-fw-taylor.html

Modern engineering can almost be called an exact science; each year removes it
further from guess work and from rule-of-thumb methods and establishes it more
firmly upon the foundation of fixed principles. Productivity improvement
engineering will also become exact science.

In the case of a machine shop doing miscellaneous work, before each casting or
forging arrives in the shop the exact route which it is to take from machine to
machine should be laid out. An instruction card for each operation must be written
out stating in detail just how each operation on every piece of work is to be done
and the time required to do it, the drawing number, any special tools, jigs, or
appliances required, etc. Before the four principles of productivity improvement
through task allotment and management can be successfully applied it is also
necessary in most shops to make important physical changes It is the first principle
actually. The work of the machine has to be standardized, meaning it has to be
planned for maximum productivity. All of the small details in the shop, which are
usually regarded as of little importance must be thoroughly and carefully
standardized; such. details, for instance, as the care and tightening of the belts; the
exact shape and quality of each cutting tool; the establishment of a complete tool
room from which properly ground tools, as well as jigs, templates, drawings, etc., are
issued under a good check system, etc.; and as a matter of importance (in fact, as
the foundation of scientific management) an accurate study of unit times required
for each machine tool operation must be made by one or more men connected with
the planning department, and each machine tool must be standardized and a table
or slide rule constructed for it showing how to run it to the best advantage.

Importance of Task Organization - F.W. Taylor - F.W. Taylor

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/importance-of-people-organization-fw.html

33
Modern engineering proceeds with comparative certainty to the design and
construction of a machine or structure of the maximum efficiency with the minimum
weight and cost of materials, while the old style engineering at best only
approximated these results and then only after a series of breakdowns, involving the
practical reconstruction of the machine and the lapse of a long period of time.
Industrial engineering has to provide completion times for various machine tasks as
well as manual tasks like design of machine elements.

Modern Engineering and Modern Shop Management - F.W. Taylor

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/modern-engineering-and-modern-shop.html

The conditions standardization principle of task management (standardized

conditions of "machine") is a necessary preliminary, since without having first
thoroughly standardized all of the conditions surrounding work, for productivity
management under task management or differential piece rate systems.
Task Work - Some More Thoughts - F.W. Taylor
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Machine Tool Time Estimation Methods

Methods employed in solving the time problem for machine tools.

As a machine shop has been chosen to illustrate the application of such details of
scientific management as time study, the planning department, functional
foremanship, instruction cards, etc., the description of the methods employed in
solving the time problem for machine tools has to be included at least briefly.

Methods employed in solving the time problem for machine tools

This issue was already explained in art of metal cutting above.

Time Study - 1903 Explanation by F.W. Taylor -

Process Time Reduction Study
The time study should be minute and exact. Each job should be carefully subdivided
into its elementary operations, and each of these unit times should receive the most
thorough time study.

The art of studying unit times is quite as important and as difficult as that of the
draftsman. It should be undertaken seriously, and looked upon as a profession. It has
its own peculiar implements and methods, without the use and understanding of

34
which progress will necessarily be slow, and in the absence of which there will be
more failures than successes scored at first.

Mr. Thompson has developed what are in many respects the best implements in use,
and with his permission some of them will be described. The blank form or note
sheet used by Mr. Thompson, contains essentially:

(1) Space for the description of the work and notes in regard to it.

(2) A place for recording the total time of complete operations--that is, the gross
time including all necessary delays, for doing a whole job or large portions of it.

(3) Lines for setting down the "detail operations, or units" into which any piece of
work may be divided, followed by columns for entering the averages obtained from
the observations.

(4) Squares for recording the readings of the stop watch when observing the times of
these elements. If these squares are filled, additional records can be entered on the
back. The size of the sheets, which should be of best quality ledger paper, is 8 3/4
inches wide by 7 inches long, and by folding in the center they can be conveniently
carried in the pocket, or placed in a case (see Fig. 3, page 153) containing one or
more stop watches.

This case, or "watch book," is another device of Mr. Thompson's. It consists of a

frame work, containing concealed in it one, two, or three watches, whose stop and
start movements can be operated by pressing with the fingers of the left hand upon
the proper portion of the cover of the note-book without the knowledge of the
workman who is being observed. The frame is bound in a leather case resembling a
pocket note-book, and has a place for the note sheets described.

To obtain accurate average times, for any item of work under specified conditions, it
is necessary to take observations upon a number of men, each of whom is at work
under conditions which are comparable. The total number of observations which
should be taken of any one elementary unit depends upon its variableness, and also
upon its frequency of occurrence in a day's work.

In making time observations, absolutely nothing should be left to the memory of the
time study man. Every item, even those which appear self-evident, should be
accurately recorded.

It is a good plan to pay a first-class man an extra price while his work is being timed.
When work men once understand that the time study is being made to enable them
to earn higher wages, the writer has found them quite ready to help instead of
hindering him in his work. The division of a given job into its proper elementary units,
before beginning the time study, calls for considerable skill and good judgment. If
the job to be observed is one which will be repeated over and over again, or if it is
one of a series of similar jobs which form an important part of the standard work of

35
an establishment, or of the trade which is being studied, then it is best to divide the
job into elements which are rudimentary. In some cases this subdivision should be
carried to a point which seems at first glance almost absurd.

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/time-study-by-fw-taylor.html

The first move before in any way stimulating them toward a larger output was to
insure against a falling off in quality.
Bicylcle Ball Inspection Case Study - F.W. Taylor - As Described in Shop Management
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/bicylcle-ball-inspection-case-study-fw.html

Time study for all operations done by the various machines.

This information is best obtained from slide rules, one of which is made for each
machine tool or class of machine tools throughout the works; one, for instance, for
small lathes of the same type, one for planers of same type, etc. These slide rules
show the best way to machine each piece and enable detailed directions to be given
the workman as to how many cuts to take, where to start each cut, both for
roughing out work and finishing it, the depth of the cut, the best feed and speed,
and the exact time required to do each operation.

Production Planning and Control - F.W.Taylor

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In the metal working plant which we are using for purposes of illustration a start for
productivity improvement can be made at once along all of the following lines:

First. The introduction of standards throughout the works and office.

Second. The scientific study of unit times on several different kinds of work.

Third. A complete analysis of the pulling, feeding power and the proper speeding of
the various machine tools throughout the place with a view of making a slide rule for
properly running each machine.

Fourth. The work of establishing the system of time cards by means of which
ultimately all of the desired information will be conveyed from the men to the
planning room.

To illustrate: For nearly two and one-half years in the large shop of the Bethlehem
Steel Company, one speed boss after another was instructed in the art of cutting

36
metals fast on a large motor-driven lathe which was especially fitted to run at any
desired speed within a very wide range. The work done in this machine was entirely
connected, either with the study of cutting tools or the instruction of speed bosses.
It was most interesting to see these men, principally either former gang bosses or
the best workmen, gradually change from their attitude of determined and positive
opposition to that in most cases of enthusiasm for, and earnest support of, the new
methods. It was actually running the lathe themselves according to the new method
and under the most positive and definite orders that produced the effect. The writer
himself ran the lathe and instructed the first few bosses. It required from three
weeks to two months for each man.

Train Foremen and Operators in High Productivity - F.W. Taylors

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/train-operators-in-high-productivity.html

The first of the functional foremen to be brought into actual contact with the men
should be the inspector; and the whole system of inspection, with its proper
safeguards, should be in smooth and successful operation before any steps are taken
toward stimulating the men to a larger output; otherwise an increase in quantity will
probably be accompanied by a falling off in quality.

The inspector is responsible for the quality of the work, and both the workmen and
speed bosses must see that the work is all finished to suit him. This man can, of
course, do his work best if he is a master of the art of finishing work both well and
quickly.

Next choose for the application of the two principal functional foremen, viz., the
speed boss and the gang boss, that portion of the work in which there is the largest
need of, and opportunity for, making a gain.

The gang boss has charge of the preparation of all work up to the time that the piece
is set in the machine. It is his duty to see that every man under him has at all times at
least one piece of work ahead at his machine, with all the jigs, templates, drawings,
driving mechanism, sling chains, etc., ready to go into his machine as soon as the
piece he is actually working on is done. The gang boss must show his men how to set
their work in their machines in the quickest time, and see that they do it. He is
responsible for the work being accurately and quickly set, and should be not only
able but willing to pitch in himself and show the men how to set the work in record
time.

The speed boss must see that the proper cutting tools are used for each piece of
work, that the work is properly driven, that the cuts are started in the right part of
the piece, and that the best speeds and feeds and depth of cut are used. His work
begins only after the piece is in the lathe or planer, and ends when the actual
machining ends. The speed boss must not only advise his men how best to do this
work, but he must see that they do it in the quickest time, and that they use the
speeds and feeds and depth of cut as directed on the instruction card. In many cases

37
he is called upon to demonstrate that the work can be done in the specified time by
doing it himself in the presence of his men.

It is of the utmost importance that the first combined application of time study, slide
rules, instruction cards, functional foremanship, and a premium for a large daily task
should prove a success both for the workmen and for the company, and for this
reason a simple class of work should be chosen for a start. The entire efforts of the
new management should be centered on one point, and continue there until
unqualified success has been attained.

Introducing Functional Foremanship - F.W. Taylor

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/introducing-functional-foremanship-fw.html

If, however, the management begins by analyzing in detail just how each section of
the work should be done and then writes out complete instructions specifying the
tools to be used in succession, the cone step on which the driving belt is to run, the
depth of cut and the feed to be used, the exact manner in which the work is to be
set in the machine, etc., and if before starting to make any change they have trained
in as functional foremen several men who are particularly expert and well informed
in their specialties, as, for instance, a speed boss, gang boss, and inspector; if you
then place for example a speed boss alongside of that workman, with an instruction
card clearly written out, stating what both the speed boss and the man whom he is
instructing are to do, and that card says you are to use such and such a tool, put your
driving belt on this cone, and use this feed on your machine, and if you do so you will
get out the work in such and such a time, I can hardly conceive of a case in which a
union could prevent the boss from ordering the man to put his driving belt just
where he said and using just the feed that he said, and in doing that the workman
can hardly fail to get the work out on time. No union would dare to say to the
management of a works, you shall not run the machine with the belt on this or that
cone step. They do not come down specifically in that way; they say, "You shall not
work so fast," but they do not say, "You shall not use such and such a tool, or run
with such a feed or at such a speed."

However much they might like to do it, they do not dare to interfere specifically in
this way. Now, when your single man under the supervision of a speed boss, gang
boss, etc., runs day after day at the given speed and feed, and gets work out in the
time that the instruction card calls for, and when a premium is kept for him in the
office for having done the work in the required time, you begin to have a moral
suasion on that workman which is very powerful. At first he won't take the premium
if it is contrary to the laws of his union, but as time goes on and it piles up and
amounts to a big item, he will be apt to step into the office and ask for his premium,
and before long your man will be a thorough convert to the new system. Now, after
one man has been persuaded, by means of the four functional foremen, etc., that he
will earn more money under the new system than under the laws of the union, you
can then take the next man, and so convert one after another right through your

38
shop, and as time goes on public opinion will swing around more and more rapidly
your way.

Personal Relations Between Employers and Employed - F.W. Taylor

http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/personal-relations-between-employers.html

The remarkable system for analyzing all of the work upon new machines as the
drawings arrived from the drafting-room and of directing the movement and
grouping of the various parts as they progressed through the shop, which was
developed and used for several years by Mr. Wm. II. Thorne, of Wm. Sellers &
Co., of Philadelphia, while the company was under the general management of Mr. J.
Sellers Bancroft. Unfortunately the full benefit of this method was never realized
owing to the lack of the other functional elements which should have accompanied
it.

Best Practices in Shop Management - 1911 - F.W. Taylor

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Scientific Management

Taylor authored "Scientific Management" in 1911 and it was focused totally on the
study and improvement of human effort as in this paper, Taylor specifically
highlighted waste of human effort and ways to prevent it.
Importance of System for Efficiency - F.W. Taylor

President Roosevelt in his address to the Governors at the White House,

prophetically remarked that "The conservation of our national resources is only
preliminary to the larger question of national efficiency."

The whole country at once recognized the importance of conserving our material
resources and a large movement has been started which will be effective in
accomplishing this object.

We can see our forests vanishing, our water-powers going to waste, our soil being
carried by floods into the sea; and the end of our coal and our iron is in sight. But our
larger wastes of human effort, which go on every day through such of our acts as are
blundering, ill-directed, or inefficient, are less visible, less tangible, and are but
vaguely appreciated.

We can see and feel the waste of material things. Awkward, inefficient, or ill-directed
movements of men, however, leave nothing visible or tangible behind them. And for
this reason, even though our daily loss from this source is greater than from our
waste of material things, the one has stirred us deeply, while the other has moved us
but little.

39
It is only when we fully realize that our duty, as well as our opportunity, lies in
systematically cooperating to train and to make this competent man, to be on the
road to "true" national efficiency.

The first object of any good management system must be that of developing
first-class men; and under systematic management the best man rises to the top
more certainly and more rapidly than ever before.

The paper "Scientific Management" has been written:

First. To point out, through a series of simple illustrations, the great loss which the
whole country is suffering through inefficiency in almost all of our daily acts.

Second. To try to convince the reader that the remedy for this inefficiency lies in
systematic management, rather than in searching for some unusual or extraordinary
man.

Third. To prove that the best management is a true science, resting upon clearly
defined laws, rules, and principles, as a foundation. And further to show that the
fundamental principles of scientific management are applicable to all kinds of human
activities, from our simplest individual acts to the work of our great corporations,
which call for the most elaborate cooperation. And, briefly, through a series of
illustrations, to convince the reader that whenever these principles are correctly
applied, results must follow which are truly astounding.

This paper was originally prepared for presentation to the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. The illustrations chosen are such as, it is believed, will
especially appeal to engineers and to managers of industrial and manufacturing
establishments, and also quite as much to all of the men who are working in these
establishments. It is hoped, however, that it will be clear to other readers that the
same principles can be applied with equal force to all social activities: to the
management of our homes; the management of our farms; the management of the
business of our tradesmen, large and small; of our churches, our philanthropic
institutions our universities, and our governmental departments.

Full Content of Taylor on the Issue

The system developed, implemented and advocated by Taylor is based on four

principles of scientific management.

The Principles of Scientific Management

Under scientific management managers assume new burdens, new duties, and
responsibilities never dreamed of in the past. The managers assume, the burden of
study and recording of work by workmen and then of classifying, tabulating, and
reducing this knowledge to rules, laws, and formulae which are immensely helpful to

40
the workmen in doing their daily work. In addition to developing a science in this
way, the management takes on three other types of duties which involve new and
heavy burdens for themselves.

These new duties are grouped under four heads:

First. They develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the
old rule-of.-thumb method.

Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the workman,
whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.

Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to insure all of the work being
done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.

Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between
the management and the workmen. The management take over all work for which
they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past almost all of the work and
the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the men.

Under scientific management the "initiative" of the workmen (that is, their hard
work, their good-will, and their ingenuity) is obtained with absolute uniformity and
to a greater extent than is possible under the old system.

It is this combination of the initiative of the workmen, coupled with the new types of
work done by the management, that makes scientific management so much more
efficient than the old plan.

Contribution of F.W. Gilbreth

Frank B. Gilbreth, the construction engineer and contractor, who conceived the
"Motion Study" Principles (techniques for manual productivity improvement) once
visited a British-Japanese Exposition. There a demonstration of polishing shoes was
being held to help the sales of Japanese shoe polish.

Casually walking and talking with his friend, Gilbreth stopped to view the shoe polish
wrapping demonstration. Gilbreth watched for a few moments, then simply said,
"They are really skilled, but they could produce more." He timed the fastest girl and
without hesitation, ascended the platform. He found she was being paid on a
piecework basis and said, "I’m going to tell you how to earn more money, but you
must follow my instructions." He changed the location of her supplies and showed
her how to wrap and set aside more efficiently. He timed her again after several
cycles. When he rejoined his friend he said, "When she gets the hang of it she’ll be
making twice her former earnings."

41
That is an example of the applied results of using Gilbreth’s Motion Study Principles.
Industrial Engineers used these guiding rules throughout the United States. Gilbreth
said if his Motion Study Principles had not been previously applied to any manual
work, by their application the productivity would be doubled or more.

In the late 1940’s, James S. Perkins, an Industrial Engineer, on a research assignment

for the Western Electric Company, was at the University of Iowa, where he met Mrs.
Gilbreth, who was a speaker at the Industrial Engineering Conference there. She
visited with him and reviewed his research. Gilbreth’s film studies, research and
conclusions, preserved by James Perkins extend into many diverse areas:

•Motion and Fatigue Study

•Skill Study
•Plant Layout and Material Handling
•Inventory Control
•Production Control
•Business Procedures
•Safety Methods
•Developing Occupations for the Handicapped
•Athletic Training and Skills
•Military Training
•Surgical Operations

Gilbreth developed the route model technique to improve the flow of materials
(material transport operation) in manufacturing operations. When he first developed
it, Gilbreth said that several of his engineering friends, at an engineering meeting,
laughed themselves to death, but that it was quickly accepted by Plant Managers. He
found that by its use, the layout distance was often cut by 75% and product
processing time was reduced substantially. Further, plant productivity was usually
increased by 15 to 25%. Gilbreth is much more known for his work human effort
improvement and his wife, a psychologist also took interest in scientific management
and produced research on it. Dr. Lilian Gilbreth also became a professor of industrial
engineering.

Gilbreth’s cyclegraph technique, to learn about skill, was one of his significant
contributions. He demonstrates this technique in the film and also shows the
three-dimensional model he made from the pictures of a drilling operation. He said,
"The expert uses the motion model for learning the existing motion path and the
possible lines for improvement. An efficient and skillful motion has smoothness,
grace, strong marks of habit, decision, lack of hesitation and is not fatiguing."

Gilbreth's motion study was described by Taylor in his book "Scientific

Management."

"Time and Motion Study" or "Motion and Time Study" based on the motion study
theory of Gilbreth became a prominent subject of industrial engineering. Therefore,
human effort engineering has significant presence in industrial engineering. Machine

42
work study is a neglected area in industrial engineering. Product industrial
engineering and process industrial engineering have to be developed in industrial
engineering curriculum to adequate levels. Practice of product industrial engineering
and process industrial engineering will give more opportunities and more consistent
and reliable output from industrial engineers (Narayana Rao K.V.S.S.).

An example of benefits from product industrial engineering and process industrial

engineering
3 Years - 50% Cost Reduction - Diplexer Line
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/05/ie-continuous-improvement-3-years-50.htm
l

Illustration of Human Effort Productivity Improvement - Bricklaying Improvement by

Gilbreth

Contribution of Harrington Emerson

Harrington Emerson contributed to the systems efficiency focus of industrial

engineering. His book Twelve Principles of Efficiency was classic.

He discussed efficiency design of organization through 12 principles

1. Clearly defined ideals.

2. Common sense
3. Competent counsel
4. Discipline
5. The fair deal
6. Reliable, immediate and adequate records
7. Despatching
8. Standards and schedules
9. Standardized conditions
10. Standardized operations
11. Written standard-practice instructions
12. Efficiency-reward

Standards and standardization as a basis for efficiency was strongly advocated by

him. Nearly two hundred companies adopted various features of the Emerson
Efficiency system, which included production routing procedures, standardized
working conditions and tasks, time and motion studies, and a bonus plan which
raised workers' wages in accordance with greater efficiency and productivity [Guide].

Managerial aspects of efficiency improvement has to be learned from the reading of

Emerson's book.

43
Industrial Engineering Principles
Principles, Methods Tools and Techniques

An explanation says principles are scientific theories or cause and effect relationships.
They are of permanent nature until revised due to empirical studies and
identification of new facts.

Methods are general approaches that use the scientific principle or principles for
beneficial use. They are also of permanent nature.

Tools are contemporaneous ways of implementing methods.

Basic Principles of Industrial Engineering - Narayana Rao

1. Develop science for each element of a man - machine system's work related to
efficiency and productivity.

2. Engineer methods, processes and operations to use the laws related to the work
of machines, man, materials and other resources.

3. Select or assign workmen based on predefined aptitudes for various types of man
- machine work.

4. Train workmen, supervisors, and engineers in the new methods.

5. Incorporate suggestions of operators, supervisors and engineers in the methods

redesign on a continuous basis.

6. Plan and manage productivity at system level.

Principles of Industrial Engineering - Narayana Rao

The full paper by Prof. K.V.S.S. Narayana Rao is now in proceedings of IISE 2017
Annual Conference. The proceedings in Proquest journal database.
https://www.proquest.com/docview/1951119980

Detailed List of Principles - Presented at IISE 2017 Annual Conference at Pittsburgh

on 23 May 2017.

44
Principles of Industrial Engineering - Narayana Rao - Detailed List

1. Productivity science
2. Productivity engineering
3. Industrial Engineering is applicable to all branches of engineering
4. Principles of (machine) utilization economy to be developed for all resources used
in engineering systems. (Principles of machine productivity now developed out of
Taylor's piece rate paper)
5. Industrial engineering optimization

6. Industrial engineering economics

7. Implementation team membership and leadership
8. Human effort engineering for increasing productivity
9. Principles of motion economy to be used in all IE studies in the area of human
effort engineering
10. Operator comfort and health are to be taken care of.

11. Work measurement

12. Selection of operators
13. Training of operators, supervisors and engineers
14. Productivity training and education to all
15. Employee involvement in continuous improvement of processes and products for
productivity improvement.

16. Productivity incentives

17. Hearty cooperation
18. Productivity Management
19. System level focus for productivity
20. Productivity measurement

21. Cost measurement

1. Productivity science

Develop a science for each element of a man - machine system's work related to
efficiency and productivity.

The productivity science developed is the foundation for industrial engineering in

productivity engineering and productivity management phases.

F.W. Taylor made the initial experiments to develop productivity science of machines
as well as for men. The experiments done by Taylor in the case of machines, tools

45
and cutting parameters were many over a period of 30 years. Similarly, Gilbreth
proposed and wrote on the development of science for human effort and he
published number of papers in the area of productivity science of human effort.
Ralph Barnes did his Phd work in the area of productivity science of human effort.

Productivity Science Definition

“Productivity science is scientific effort, that in any specific work situation, identifies
the appropriate philosophy, culture, systems, processes, technology, methods and
human physical action and behavior and elements of each of them of that will
maximize positive (social, environmental and economic) outcomes relative to the
resources consumed.” - Narayana Rao (IISE 2020 Annual Conference Proceedings)

Productivity science of machine identifies machine related variables that will

increase productivity. These variable will be different for different categories of
machines even though some variables are more general and apply to all machines or
many categories of machines.

Machining or Machine Tool Productivity Science

Variables that have an effect on productivity of machining operations.

1. Selection of the machining process. Right selection of the machining process is

important. There can be choice between turning and grinding.
2. Selection of machine tool.
3. Selection of cutting tool.
4. Selection of tool holder. Modular systems, quick change systems etc.
5. Calculation and measurement of cutting forces and their planning using various
alternatives.
6. Measurement and planning of temperature in the cutting zone.
7. Selection of fixture. Measurement and planning of clamping forces in fixtures.
8. Tool wear estimation and selection of appropriate tool life.
9. Process planning to attain surface finish required.
10. Understanding the machinability characteristics of the material.
11. Analysis and planning of rigidity and vibrations of the machine.
12. Selection of cutting fluid. Now even dry machining is advocated.
13. Utilizing high speed machines and high throughput machining processes.
14. Utilizing design for machining in the part as well as in planning various cuts.
15. Economic analysis and optimization of machining process

Productivity Science of Machine - Machining - F.W. Taylor

Taylor is the pioneer in doing productivity studies on machine tools.
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2019/09/productivity-science-of-machine.html

46
Productivity Science of Human Effort

Frank B. Gilbreth - VARIABLES THAT AFFECT MOTION ECONOMY

Every element that makes up or affects the amount of work that the worker is able
to turn out has to be identified and adjusted appropriately to increase productivity.
The variables related to human effort productivity group themselves naturally into
the following divisions as per the thinking of Gilbreth:

I. Variables of the Worker.

1 . Anatomy.

2. Brawn.

3. Contentment.

4. Creed.

5. Earning Power.

6. Experience.

7. Fatigue.

8. Habits.

9. Health.

10. Mode of living.

11 . Nutrition.

12. Size.

13. Skill.

14. Temperament.

15. Training.

II. Variables of the Surroundings, Equipment, and Tools.

1. Appliances.

2. Clothes.

47
3. Colors.

4. Entertainment, music, reading, etc.

5. Heating, Cooling, Ventilating.

6. Lighting.

7. Quality of material.

8. Reward and punishment.

9. Size of unit moved.

10. Special fatigue-eliminating devices.

11. Surroundings.

12. Tools.

13. Union rules.

14. Weight of unit moved.

III. Variables of the Specific Motion.

1. Acceleration.

2. Automaticity.

3. Combination with other motions and sequence.

4. Cost.

5. Direction.

6. Effectiveness.

7. Foot-pounds of work accomplished.

8. Inertia and momentum overcome.

9. Length.

10. Necessity,

48
11. Path.

12. "Play for position."

13. Speed.

Productivity Science of Human Effort - More Detail - F.W. Gilbreth's Motion Study
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2019/09/productivity-science-of-human-effort-fw.ht
ml

Productivity Science - Determinants of Productivity

Frameworks of Productivity Science of Machine Effort and Human Effort by

Narayana Rao - Paper is presented in the IISE 2020 Annual Conference and is part of
the proceedings.

Frameworks for Productivity Science of Machine Effort and Human Effort

Rao, Kambhampati Venkata Satya Surya Narayana. 
IIE Annual Conference. Proceedings; Norcross (2020): 429-434.
https://www.proquest.com/openview/5786c4e6edff56abf808b4db26f083b3/1?pq-o
rigsite=gscholar&cbl=51908

Published version is available in the Proceedings - 2017 Industrial and Systems

Engineering Conference of INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERS.

Kambhampati,Venkata Satya Surya Narayana Rao. (2017). Principles of industrial

engineering. IIE Annual Conference.Proceedings, , 890-895.
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1951119980

30 Factors that Affect Productivity

Given by Prof Paul Mali in the year 1978 in Improving Total Productivity, John Wiley
& Sons, New York.

Fourth Level Factors (Affect most directly): Effectiveness (Focus on customer

requirements), Efficiency (Focus on planned resource consumption)

Third Level Factors: Skills, Motivation, Methods, Cost (measurement, may include
time and productivity measurements also).

Second Level Factors: Leadership, Experience, Climate, Incentives, Schedules,

Organizational structure, Technology and Materials.

49
First Level Factors (Affect least directly): Abilities, Style, Training, Knowledge,
Physical conditions, Unions, Social awareness, Aspiration levels, Processes, Job
design, Goals, Policies, R & D, Plant and Equipment, Standards, and Quality.
Principles of Productivity Growth

Given by Prof Paul Mali in the year 1978 in Improving Total Productivity, John Wiley
& Sons, New York.

1. Principles of Ratio Time Measurement

Productivity is more likely to improve when expected results are measured and
made greater in the same time frame that expected resources are measured and
made less.

2. Principles of Shared Gain

Productivity increases rapidly when its expected benefits are shared with those who
will produce it.

3. Principle of Expectancy Alignment

The greater the alignment of employee expectancies (needs) with organizational

objectives (targets), the greater the motivation to accomplish both.

4. Principle of Worker Accountability

Accountability for productivity is more likely to happen when employees understand,

participate in, and are held responsible for productivity objectives, measurement,
and evaluation.

5. Principles of Focus

The greater the focus toward productivity objectives on a time scale, the greater the
likelihood of achieving these objectives.

6. Principle of Creating Potential Productivity

Productivity gains are more likely to be achieved from situations where the potential
for productivity gain is created.

7. Principle of Continuance

Productivity tends to continue when achieving an objective does not incapacitate or

destroy any of the factors which produced it.

8. Principle of Work Justice

50
Productivity is more likely to continue when employees are given equal pay for equal
work; when employers are given equal work for equal pay.

9. Principle of Elasticity

Productivity tends to increase when the same amount of work is achieved in a

shorter period of time.

10. Principle of Resource Priority

Productivity increases when objectives for productivity set the priorities for resource
allocation.

Source:
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/productivity-science-principle-of.html

2. Productivity engineering

Productivity Engineering - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Industrial engineering is concerned with redesign of engineering systems with a view

to improve their productivity. Industrial engineers analyze productivity of each
resource used in engineering systems and redesign as necessary to improve
productivity.

It has to be ensured that the increase in productivity due to the use of low-cost
materials, processes and increasing speed of machines and men, should not lead to
any decrease in quality of the output.

Similarly, operators should not feel any discomfort, not have any health problems or
safety issues in the redesigned more productive processes.

Developments in Productivity science provide more and more directions for

productivity engineering over the period.

Productivity Engineering

Productivity engineering is applied to engineering elements in products or services

and processes. Engineering elements, activities, operations and processes are
present in design, manufacturing, construction maintenance, operation,
transportation, materials handling, and information processing etc. in industrial
organizations. Engineering processes are present in agriculture and related activities
and service businesses also.

51
Productivity Engineering - Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering

Product Industrial Engineering

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2012/09/product-design-industrial-engineering.html

Process Industrial Engineering

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/02/process-industrial-engineering.html

Human Effort Industrial Engineering

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/09/human-effort-industrial-engineering.html

Principles of Productivity Engineering - Mundel - Nadler

Methods Redesign for Efficiency/Productivity - Material, Product Design, Material

Transformation Steps, Machine Effort, Human Effort - Marvin Mundel, Gerald Nadler

Nadler credits Mundel for the following steps to be followed in methods redesign.

Product Industrial Engineering

1. Change the material being used or contemplated to help meet the goal for the
operation being studied.
2. Change the present or contemplated design of product to help meet the goal for
the operation being studied.

Process Industrial Engineering

3. Change the present or contemplated sequence of modification work on the

material or product to help meet the goal of for operation being studied.
4. Change the equipment used or contemplated for the operation to help meet the
goal for the operation being studied.

Human Effort Industrial Engineering

5. Change the method or hand pattern used or contemplated for the operation to
help the goal for operation being studied.

(Source: Gerald Nadler, Motion and Time Study, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, 1955, p.193. Nadler in turn gives credit to Marvin E. Mundel, Motion and
Time Study Principles and Practice, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1950, pp. 23-26.)

52
Source:
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/productivity-engineering-principle-of.html

3. Industrial Engineering is applicable to all branches of engineering

Industrial Engineering in All Branches of Engineering - Ubiquity Principle of Industrial

Engineering

Industrial engineering can be described as the combination of an engineering

field with the principles of industrial engineering derived from scientific
management of productivity. Badiru - Narayana Rao

Industrial engineering defined as system efficiency engineering has application in all

branches of engineering. Productivity improvement is needed in engineering systems
of all branches and therefore industrial engineering needs to be used in all branches
of engineering. It needs to be taught in all engineering branches.

Engineering subjects belong to one engineering branch or other. Every engineering

branch has product design process, process design process, production process,
inspection process, material handling process, storage process, equipment operating
process, equipment maintenance process, equipment replacement process,
equipment retirement process, reuse and recycling process.

Industrial engineers have to develop productivity science based on productivity

measurements for processes and output, do productivity engineering to improve
productivity and do productivity management to plan, manage and realize
productivity improvement. To do it, industrial engineers need to have the knowledge
of the concerned engineering subject, process or output.

An important problem in Industrial Engineering is that IE is not properly extended to

various engineering branches. IE has to be improvement and redesign of engineering
elements first. Not doing it means there is lot of waste in engineering designs and
processes. We are not even teaching IE in various branches. It means both faculty
and students of various branches of engineering do not even know the existence of a
subject focused on cost reduction through productivity improvement of engineering
resources.

An interesting way of promoting industrial engineering all engineering branches

Engineering Discipline Minors for IE Students - Louisiana State University

Minors of Interest to Industrial Engineers

Biological Engineering
Construction Management
Electrical and Computer Engineering

53
Environmental Engineering
Materials Science Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Structural Engineering
Sugar Engineering
Surveying
Transportation Engineering
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2018/12/engineering-discipline-minors-for-ie.html

Source:
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/industrial-engineering-in-all-branches.html

4. Principles of (machine) utilization economy to be developed for all resources

used in engineering systems.

Machine Utilization Economy and Productivity Principle of Industrial Engineering

The principle can be restated better more appropriately. "Principles of resource

utilization economy and productivity to be developed for all resources used in
engineering systems." (Added on 27 September 2021, 9 June 2018).

Utilization economy and productivity principles are to be developed for each

resource used in the production processes. So far, in industrial engineering discipline,
principles of motion economy only are developed. There has to be research and
effort to develop similar principles for all resources.

Principles of motion economy for human effort industrial engineering. Principles of

machine economy for machine effort industrial engineering.
Taylor's Industrial Engineering - Machine Utilization Economy
Principles of Machine Productivity - F.W. Taylor

1. A careful study is to made of the time required to do each of the many elementary
operations of machining of components manufactured in the establishment.
2.These elementary operations are then classified, recorded, and indexed, and when
work is to be done, the job is first divided into its elementary operations, the time
required to do each elementary operation is found from the records, and the total
time for the job is summed up from these data.
3. This method is more effective than the method of estimating the time based on
time taken to do whole jobs of similar components.
4. To implement the principles, in the case of work done by metal-cutting tools, such
as lathes, planers, boring mills, etc., F.W. Taylor undertook a long and expensive
series of experiments to determine, formulate, and finally practically apply to each
machine the law governing the proper cutting speed of tools, namely, the effect on

54
the cutting speed of altering any one of the following variables : the shape of the
tool (i.e., lip angle, clearance angle, and the line of the cutting edge), the duration of
the cut, the quality or hardness of the metal being cut, the depth of the cut, and the
thickness of the feed or shaving.
5. The careful study of the capabilities of the machines and the analysis of the speeds
at which they must run is to be made.
6. Defects or shortcoming in machines will be realized when the best methods of
cutting metals are determined and the necessary modifications have to be made, if
possible. Otherwise, replacement needs to be done at the earliest economic
opportunity.
7. Systematization of many small details in the running of the machine shop, such as
the care of belting, the proper shape for cutting tools, and the dressing, grinding,
and issuing tools, oiling machines, issuing orders for work, and a host of other
minor methods and processes which may waste a machinist's time or machine time.
8. The care of the equipment is to be improved.

Machine Utilization Principle of Industrial Engineering - Prof. Ralph Barnes

1. Few people advocate using human labor to do work that can be done better and
cheaper by machines.

2. It is suggested that the best manual method and the best combination of manual
and machine method (mechanized) be developed and used as a basis for evaluating
a proposed automated process.

(Restated as: Compare best manual method, mechanized method and automated
method for each element of an operation and choose the best.)

3. If a large-volume fairly complex job is to be considered, a comparison would be of

the estimated cost to do each element of each suboperation manually, or in
machanized way, or automatically.

Ralph Barnes is the first PhD in Industrial Engineering. He wrote the popular text,
Motion and Time Study.

Industrial engineers have to learn mechanization and automation that is engineering

very well and use it in industrial engineering to provide increased support of
machines to people to increase their productivity and standard of living.

Machine Utilization Principles - Nakajima

Total Productive Maintenance - Nakajima
(Note in the Training Material for the Course Conducted by me in 1994 for ONGC in
the subject of Managerial Economics and Costing for Engineers

The Definition of TPM

55
The Spread of TPM in Japan

How do TPM and TQC Differ?

The Basic Concepts of TPM

1. Maximizing Overall Equipment Effectiveness

2. Autonomous Maintenance
In factory automation, production workers do not have to operate machines
themselves. These operators asked to oversee machines can do inspection of the
automatic machines every day or week as per a plan and do routine maintenance.
Specialist maintenance persons can act as equipment doctors, who periodically do
expert diagnostic checks and do the required maintenance.

3. Small Group Activities in Maintenance

Similar to quality circles, zero defect movement groups and Jishu Kanri.

Program for Evolving TPM

1. Five Activities - Pillars

2.Twelve Steps to Evolve TPM

Maximizing Overall Equipment Effectiveness

Eliminating Six Big Losses

Autonomous Maintenance

Small Group Activities in Maintenance

Education and Training for Evolving TPM

‘Jishu Kanri’ activities in the Japanese steel industry Small group activities being
promoted by the industry as a whole

HIDEO SUGISAWA &KAZUO HIROSE

International Journal of Production Research, Volume 15, 1977 - Issue 6, Pages
523-538
The group activities called ‘ Jishu Kanri ’ by foremen and workers in the forefront of
production has been actively promoted in the Japanese Steel Industry by
establishing a committee for ’ Jishu Kanri’ activities in the Japan Iron and Steel
Federation, with the positive cooperation of its member companies. Nearly 8 years
have elapsed since the establishment of this committee, and during this period the

56
ability and skill of the group leaders and members in managing group activities and
their awareness of problems and solutions have been greatly improved, thereby
contributing much to the improvement of quality, attainment of production targets,
reduction in the production costs, and improvement of safety.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207547708943147?journalCode=
tprs20

The Japan Iron & Steel Federation adopted the name "Jishu-Kanri GK) Activities" to
generalize the uniqueness of small group activities in this industry. JK activities are
defined as "continuous group activities in which individual workers voluntarily
organize small groups, select leaders from among themselves, hold discussions on an
equal footing, and with their leaders as the nuclei, take up problems at the workshop,
set goals for the solution of the problems, and make efforts to achieve the goals with
participation by everyone".

Workers' voluntary problem solving activities cover a wide range such as product
quality enhancement, efficiency improvement, cost reduction, promoting safety at
the workshop, and others. In 1983, ensuring work safety was the top of activity
(27.4%). About 90% of the activities in 1993 related to four areas:
efficiency improvement (30.8%), cost reduction (24.6%), ensuring work safety (19.6%)
and product quality enhancement (14.6%).
Innovation and Jishu Kanri Activities in the Japanese Steel Industry,
YONEYAMA, Kikuji,
ECONOMIC JOURNAL OF HOKKAIDO UNIVERSITY, 24, 25-58
1995

Jishu - mean by himself as per his decision

Jishu kanri is managing by himself, or his decisions

https://nihongomaster.com/japanese/dictionary/word/30338/jishu#:~:text=lord%2C
%20chief%2C%20master%2C%20main%20thing%2C%20principal

Hoshin Kanri

Hoshin means direction and Kanri means management in Japanese.

https://kanbanize.com/lean-management/hoshin-kanri/what-is-hoshin-kanri

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1179/1/012089

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=bkhKaEspqaEC

Machine Work Study to Promote Machine Utilization Economy

57
Machine Work Study was proposed by Narayana Rao to emphasize the need to study
the machine and its engineering elements as part of industrial engineering studies.
Machine work study is related to the machine or tool and its proper use like motion
study is related to the man and his motions to do work with tools or completely with
hands. The issues to be covered in machine work study are already structured in
books on metal cutting and machine tools. The productivity dimension of the metal
cutting theory has to be covered in machine work study and methodology is to be
provided for doing machine work study. Operation analysis by Maynard and
Stegemerten provides the basic framework for doing machine work study.

Source:
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/machine-utilization-economy-principle.html

5. Industrial engineering optimization

Optimization: Maximize the benefit. Minimize the cost. Maximize the difference.
Each engineering system design idea needs to be optimized to get the best desired
output and then only alternatives are to be compared for selection of the best
alternative.

IE alternatives, that is alternative engineering solutions, need to be optimized. The

discrete or continuous values which are possible due to various engineering
elements used have to be operated at values that give maximum desired benefit.

Industrial engineers develop engineering modifications to existing facilities and

processes to increase productivity while maintaining current effectiveness intact. In
the process chart based process improvement, they identify operations - material
processing, inspection, material handling, and storage to improve engineering of
each of them to improve performance.

Industrial Engineering Optimization

Engineering optimization is development of mathematical models of engineering

decisions and mathematically determining desired maximum or minimum values of
objective functions. Industrial engineers have to convert their engineering change
ideas into mathematical models and find the best solution or optimal solution. But in
industrial engineering studies, the first investigation is to find engineering changes
that are possible. Then both the existing configuration and new possible
configuration are subjected to engineering optimization procedure to find the best
result and then a decision is taken to stick to the current solution as optimized or
new solution as optimized.

Source:
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/optimization-principle-of-industrial.html

58
6. Industrial engineering economics

Every industrial engineering change proposal must have the require rate of return.
Industrial engineers have to be good in engineering economic analysis. They have to
audit all engineering project proposals and help engineers to make the calculations
correctly and also explain to them the rationale of engineering economic analysis.

7. Implementation team membership and leadership

"IE = Design, Improvement and Installation of Systems." - AIIE, IIE, IISE

Industrial Engineering is Systems Efficiency Engineering - Narayana Rao

Industrial engineers study existing designs or proposed new designs of products and
processes and come out with redesigns. Industrial engineers have full responsibility
for implementing these redesigns. They have to become redesign implementation
team members or team leaders and ensure that redesigns are implemented and give
the productivity and cost reduction benefits, that were estimated in the economic
analysis of the redesign.

In industrial engineering, management is to be taught so that IEs successfully

manage the planning and implementation of their redesigns.

8. Human effort engineering for increasing productivity

Human resources employed in engineering systems have their own needs. Industrial
engineers are unique in engineering disciplines in taking up the engineering of
human effort. They have to synthesize the theories of human sciences, some of
which are developed by industrial engineering also, to design human work for an
optimal combination of productivity, income, comfort, health, safety and satisfaction
of the employed.

9. Principles of motion economy to be used in all IE studies in the area of human

effort engineering

Operators use motions to work manually using hand tools and or to operate
machines. Principles of motion economy were developed by Gilbreth and others
based on the productivity science developed out of the frameworks created by
Taylor and Gilbreth. They need to be employed in human effort industrial
engineering in all engineering activities of the processes producing goods or services.
Many of these principles are applicable in human effort applied to non-engineering
activities also.

59
10. Operator comfort and health are to be taken care of.

As human effort engineers, industrial engineers are concerned with comfort and
health of operators.

The productivity improvement and the consequent extra production from a

man-machine combination should not lead to discomfort, fatigue and
musculoskeletal disorders.

Gilbreth (1921) Motion Study

Our duty is to study the motions and reduce them as rapidly as possible to standard
sets of least in number, least in fatigue, yet most effective motions.

11. Work measurement

To determine the best combination of motion elements, measurements of the time

required to do each motion as well as bundles of motion are needed.

Work measurement is an important measure in industrial engineering to select the

best work method for machine elements, purely manual work elements or a
combination of man-machine work elements. It is useful to set day’s task for an
operator. Task-based incentives can be set based on the standard time which is an
output of work measurement.

Work measurement is to be used to identify best way of doing an element of work.

After a task is designed combining various elements the total time taken can be
specified by summing up the time estimate for each element. Now predetermined
time systems, the most popular being Most use this method.

Stop watch time study can be used on average trained operator to observe the time
taken for each elements and from these observations standard times can be
prescribed.

Measured calculated standard times of various tasks can be used to set daily task for
operators.

Task based incentives can be set based on the standard time which is an output of
work measurement.

12. Selection of operators

There has to be science that guides selection of operators. Management has to

select persons based on specified criteria for each category of jobs and then train
them specially. Now it is being termed competence based approach. Taylor made it a

60
principle in scientific management. Physical capacity, intelligence, aptitude,
knowledge, skill etc. are to be specified for each job category and appropriate way of
testing people for these specifications are to be developed by management.

13. Training of operators, supervisors and engineers

Taylor emphasized the importance of training in creating a change in the systems of

an organization in his writings. The following discussion is from Shop Management.

The most important and difficult task of the organizer (of change) will be that of
selecting and training the various functional foremen who are to lead and instruct
the workmen, and his success will be measured principally by his ability to mold and
reach these men. They cannot be found, they must be made. They must be
instructed in their new functions largely, in the beginning at least, by the organizer
himself; and this instruction, to be effective, should be mainly in actually doing the
work. Explanation and theory will go a little way, but actual doing is needed to carry
conviction.

To illustrate: For nearly two and one-half years in the large shop of the Bethlehem
Steel Company, one speed boss after another was instructed in the art of cutting
metals fast on a large motor-driven lathe which was especially fitted to run at any
desired speed within a very wide range. The work done in this machine was entirely
connected, either with the study of cutting tools or the instruction of speed bosses.
It was most interesting to see these men, principally either former gang bosses or
the best workmen, gradually change from their attitude of determined and positive
opposition to that in most cases of enthusiasm for, and earnest support of, the new
methods. It was actually running the lathe themselves according to the new method
and under the most positive and definite orders that produced the effect. The writer
himself ran the lathe and instructed the first few bosses. It required from three
weeks to two months for each man.
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/train-operators-in-high-productivity.html

The speed foreman of the shop must be able to train operators to achieve specified
productivity.
The quality foreman of the shop must be able to train operators to produced the
specified quality in specified standard time. - F.W. Taylor.

14. Productivity training and education to all

Three Major Channels of Process Improvement.

1. Process Redesign by Process Planning Team.
2. Process Improvement Study by Industrial Engineering Team.
3. Continuous Improvement by Involving Shop Floor Employees and All Employees.

Industrial engineers have to create productivity orientation in all employees and

managers of the company/organization. They have to provide relevant input to the

61
process planning team in productivity improvement philosophy and methods. They
also have to provide education and inputs to supervisors and operators of the
shopfloor. F.W. Taylor advocated training supervisors first in new processes and
supervisors train operators. Alan Mogensen, an industrial engineer, pioneered work
simplification education and training to operators and supervisors to enhance their
productivity improvement skills. Lilian Gilbreth collaboratd with Mogensen. Kaizen,
the Japanese continuous improvement movement arose out of TWI workshops
organized by USA persons in Japan after World War II. In the TWI, there is job
improvement training for supervisors which is based on work simplification
workshops of Mogensen.

Today, Industrial engineering department is responsible for continuous

improvement activity of the shopfloor personnel and has to organize programs and
activities to get full benefit of knowledge and experience of the shopfloor personnel.

15. Employee involvement in continuous improvement of processes and products

for productivity improvement.

Industrial engineering is continuous (incremental studies) improvement in the

engineering system through periodic studies (Time study, motion study, method
study - Process improvement study, Layout improvement study etc.). In addition
encourage Continuous Improvement through Employee Participation. Employee
participation recommended by Taylor. Gilbreth explicitly made it as part of process
chart procedure. Alan Mogensen made it a special workshop for supervisors and
operators. He also advocated providing training to them in process chart analysis
procedure. Continuous improvement was practiced in a best possible way by Toyota
Motors. Now companies world over are trying to implement the best practice of
Toyota in the continuous improvement alternative along with the other two
alternatives.

16. Productivity incentives

Taylor stated that high productivity and high incomes go together.

Productivity incentives are the vehicle for providing higher income for higher
productivity taking into account individual differences. When the incentive is related
to the quantity and quality of the output, the persons putting in effort to increase
their skill as well as to produce more will get more income.

Productivity improvement will be done only when it is beneficial to people involved.

Customers, employees and company have to get the benefit. Customers have to get
price reduction, employees extra income and company extra profits through cost
reduction per unit.

In the initial days of implementation of new productivity methods or process,

employees are given incentives in proportion to the incremental extra production
achieved and it is called incentive. After the process is stabilized, the fixed monthly

62
or weekly payments are increased. Incentives are offered once again when new
more productive methods are implemented.

Frederick Taylor's System for Rapidly Attaining The Maximum Productivity (1895).
Advantages: 1. Cost Reduction 2. Maximum productivity of each machine and man.
The system has two important steps. First one is to improve the elements of the
work task to give more productivity. Second is to give incentive to the operators to
learn and produce more as the new method designed by industrial engineering. We
need to remember that in case of engineering tasks, process planners first design the
process of producing any part or service. Industrial engineers improve the process
periodically based on studies (process improvement study based on process chart,
time study, method study, and motion study etc.) and implement suggestions based
on the continuous flow of them from various employees of the organization
including operators and supervisors. The productivity increase specified in the new
processes need to be achieved in working by the operators. They are given
incentives to reach the targets or rates of production for unit period. The most
important part of the system is IE or productivity engineering. The managerial part is
incentive payment that brings interest and commitment in operators to learn the
new process and achieve its potential.
http://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2018/07/frederick-taylors-piece-rate-system.html

The principle is part of 12 principles of efficiency by Harrington Emerson. Harrington

Emerson's Twelfth Efficiency (Productivity Management) Principle: Efficiency
Reward.

17. Hearty cooperation

How to develop hearty cooperation?

F.W. Taylor included hearty cooperation as a principles in Scientific management.

But how to achieve hearty cooperation was not described by him. As an engineer by
education and profession, he is not the right person to discuss how to achieve it. In
his writing he might have mention some acts he has done to increase cooperation.
Henri Fayol in his essay on "General and Industrial Administration" also included
cooperation as a principle. Chester Barnard discussed cooperation in much more
detail. At the present moment, Organizational Behavior is the subject that is
discussing cooperation in more detail as the subject is concerned with managers and
employees in organizations.

Industrial engineers have to master the subject of Organizational Behavior,

implement it in the practice and must engage continuous discussion regarding the
utility and limitation of the concepts, relations, and implications developed so far in
the discipline.

18. Productivity Management

63
Every industrial engineer is a productivity manager.
He has to learn complete management theory and its application in IE practice.
He has to plan for productivity and achieve productivity improvement year after
year.

As a part of productivity management, he has to assess management actions of the

organization for effect on productivity and has to recommend changes if they have
an adverse effect on productivity or if there is scope for increasing productivity by
modifying them.

19. System level focus for productivity

The focus for efficiency and productivity increase in machine elements and process
elements is to benefit at the system level.

20. Productivity measurement

Productivity measures at the enterprise level, process level, operation and work
station level are required. It is important to highlight that productivity measurement
is required for each input into the operation. For instance, you have measure
productivity of cutting fluid in machining. Industrial have to assess the productivity
of each element or input.

To maintain system level focus, productivity measures at system level have to be

developed and used.

The relation between productivity measures at the enterprise level, process level,
and work station level have to be established to facilitate decision making.

21. Cost measurement

Cost Measurement - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Productivity improvement has to lead to decreased cost at the unit level for products.
The ultimate proof of productivity improvement is the reduced unit cost reflected in
the reported unit cost of products. As cost accounting is a well-developed
independent area now with statutory bodies in many countries, industrial engineers
have to work in cooperation with them to get the representative cost figures that
are reliable for decision making.

Industrial engineers have to know at the start of the year, the unit cost figures of
various products being produced in their organizations. They have to be involved in
measuring the costs at the end of the period. Their contribution is reflected in the
reduction shown in the unit costs at the end of the year. The value of the work of IEs
to the company is the cost reduced over the year.

64
Measurement of costs today is the responsibility of cost accounting department.
But it only provides the proof for the effective industrial engineering work.

Industrial engineers must learn cost measurement and they should be able to
visualize how costs incurred daily become unit costs of products. Their cost
reduction also first focuses on various resources used in daily work. But any saving of
resource has to become a reduction in some product's unit cost. The IE must be able
to see the future consequence of his current action clearly and check whether it
happened or not according to his plan at the end of the period.

The cost measurement is done through cost estimating also. There are organizations
that give the responsibility of cost estimating for marketing purposes to industrial
engineering. It is a rational decisions and industrial engineers can provide cost
estimates that reflect the current reduces cost estimates for various components
and processes and give the organization the competitive edge in pricing.

Functions of Industrial Engineering

"Functions and Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering" - Paper Published in NITIE
Journal dated Oct-Dec 2016.

The functions of management are currently given as Planning, Organizing,

Resourcing, Executing and Control.

What are functions of Industrial Engineering (IE)?

Industrial engineering has the following functions:

Research in Industrial Engineering

Productivity Science
Productivity Engineering
Productivity Management
Communication, Training and Implementation
Productivity Measurement
Review

Research in Industrial Engineering

65
Industrial engineering has emerged out of shop management and scientific
management developed and promoted by F.W. Taylor. Development of science
related to production systems or work systems consisting of machines and men is
the foundation for this subject. Hence research is an important function of industrial
engineering. Industrial engineers are to be taught scientific research method and
process so that they can understand the research papers published by IE researchers
and also undertake research related to local applications.

Productivity Science

Research propositions and the tests of research propositions are to be consolidated

into scientific theories related to various issues of interest in the field of industrial
engineering.

Productivity Science of Machining - Taylor to Current Times

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/07/productivity-science-of-machining.html

Productivity science of human effort - Development of Science in Mechanic Arts -

F.W. Taylor
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2013/08/development-of-science-in-mechanic-arts.h
tml

Productivity Science of Human Effort - F.W. Gilbreth

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2019/09/productivity-science-of-human-effort-fw.ht
ml

Productivity Engineering

Redesign of engineering processes to make them more productive is productivity

engineering. The two important outputs of engineering processes are products or
services and processes to produce those goods and services. Redesign of human
actions also is part of productivity engineering. Productivity engineering is driven
forward by productivity science. Improvement iterations take place within
productivity engineering itself due to inventions taking place.

F.W. Taylor who is the father of productivity engineering of processes and L.D. Miles,
father of productivity engineering of products strongly stated that productivity
engineering has to maintain the effectiveness or quality of the basic engineering
product or process designed by the design engineering team. Industrial engineering
as theory and practice does not in any reduce the effectiveness or quality of the
systems they are redesigning.

66
Productivity Engineering by F.W. Taylor
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/03/productivity-engineering-by-fw-taylor.html

Productivity Management

Productivity management consists of activities of industrial engineers in the field of

management. These activities have two objectives. One objective is to assess various
management policies, programs and processes for the impact on productivity of
engineering processes. Where they do not have desirable effects, industrial
engineers have to propose redesign of them.

The second objective is the management of productivity in organizations. Industrial

engineers are responsibility for managing the productivity. They have to plan for
productivity improvement, organize for it, acquire resources for it, executive
productivity improvement projects and activities and control them to achieve the
planned goals.

Productivity science gives impetus for developing management methods that

increase productivity. Thus productivity science is an input to productivity
engineering and productivity management.

Productivity Management - F.W. Taylor

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/03/productivity-management-fw-taylor.html

Communication, Training and Implementation

Industrial engineering is carried out as staff activity. The redesigns of the IE projects
are to be communicated to various persons in the organization to establish its
feasibility and also get them approved by competent authorities for funding. Then,
industrial engineers have to train various persons in the new methods. Even though,
they are a staff function, they have to be part of implementation teams and their
work is not over till implementation is done.

Productivity Measurement

Measurement of productivity is an important function. After productivity

improvement projects are implemented, measurements have to validate the
improvement. Also past measurements or new measurements become the basis for
planning productivity improvement programs.

Industrial Engineering Data and Measurements

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2019/05/industrial-engineering-data-and.html

67
Review

Based on the productivity measurements, a review of situation is to be made to take

decisions regarding future efforts in the area of productivity. The results of review
become the sources for further research, productivity engineering and productivity
management activities.

Engineering Process - Review, Analysis and Improvement for Productivity

https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2021/03/engineering-process-review-analysis-and.ht
ml

Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering

Productivity Science

Industrial Engineering Strategy

Facilities Industrial Engineering

Product Industrial Engineering

Process Industrial Engineering

Industrial Engineering Optimization

Industrial Engineering Statistics

Industrial Engineering Economics

Human Effort Industrial Engineering

Productivity Measurement

Productivity Management

Data Processing and Information Systems for Industrial Engineering

Applied Industrial Engineering

Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering - Brief Explanation

68
Productivity Science: Science developed for each element of machine operation and
each element of human tasks in industry.

Product Industrial Engineering: Redesign of products to reduce cost and increase

value keeping the quality intact.

Process Industrial Engineering: Redesign of processes to reduce cost and increase

value keeping the quality intact.

Industrial Engineering Optimization: Optimizing industrial engineering solutions

created in Product Industrial Engineering and Process Industrial Engineering.

Industrial Engineering Statistics: Using statistical tools like data description, sampling
and design of experiments in industrial engineering activity.

Industrial Engineering Economics: Economic analysis of industrial engineering

projects.

Human Effort Industrial Engineering: Redesign of products and processes to increase

satisfaction and reduce discomfort and other negative consequence to operators.

Productivity Measurement: Various measurements done by industrial engineers in

industrial setting to collect data, analyze data and use the insights in redesign:
Product Industrial Engineering and Process Industrial Engineering.

Productivity Management: Management undertaken by industrial engineers to

implement Product Industrial Engineering and Process Industrial Engineering.
Management processes industrial engineering is also part of productivity
management.

Applied Industrial Engineering: Application of industrial engineering in new

technologies, existing technologies, engineering business and industrial processes
and other areas.

Facilities Industrial Engineering: The processes of different products and its

components are performed using the facilities of the organization. In designing
various facilities of industrial buildings and different facilities within the building,
industrial engineering has a role to play. In selection of the equipment used by
multiple processes industrial engineering has a role to play. Improvement of
machines to increase productivity was done by F.W. Taylor, founder of industrial
engineering. Maintenance of various equipment and its overhaul can also be
examined by industrial engineers as part of facilities industrial engineering. Layout of
the equipment and various production departments decide the amount of material
handling and transport within the facility. Layout improvement is an important task
of industrial engineering. Hence facilities level industrial engineering or facilities
industrial engineering is to be identified as an important area in industrial
engineering.

69
Industrial Engineering Strategy: Industrial engineering is profit engineering. If a
company is not employing industrial engineering, it is unnecessarily foregoing profits
inherent in the products that it developed and designed to the performance
satisfaction of good number of users. Profit conscious managers and owners have to
understand and employ industrial engineering to achieve the full profit potential of
their products. Certain strategic decisions related to industrial engineering function
are to be taken by top management of the organization as part of strategic plan of
the organization. Certain strategic decisions are to be taken by the Chief Industrial
Engineer. These decisions are part of the focus area of industrial engineering
strategy.

Productivity Science
Productivity Science - One Explanation

Productivity science is thus an approach to productivity measurement , analysis and

improvement that attempts, in any specific situation, to identify the appropriate
philosophy, culture, systems, processes, technology and methods that will maximize
positive (social, environmental and economic) outcomes relative to the resources
consumed.

“Productivity science is scientific effort, that in any specific work situation, identifies
the appropriate philosophy, culture, systems, processes, technology, methods and
human physical action and behavior and elements of each of them of that will
maximize positive (social, environmental and economic) outcomes relative to the
resources consumed.” - Narayana Rao (IISE 2020 Annual Conference Proceedings)

Productivity Science of Machine - Machining - F.W. Taylor

F.W. Taylor is the pioneer of scientific management. He advocated strongly that

science in management of work in production shops did not exist and there is an
immediate need to develop science for every element of production work. He
himself conducted studies and experiments to develop science of machine tool
work/effort and human effort. He contributed to the development of science in both
the areas. But in the area of human effort, Frank Gilbreth followed Taylor with a
more elaborate framework for productivity science of human effort.

F.W. Taylor did the pioneering research study on productivity science of machines
for over 30 years. He did it on machine tools. The description Taylor's work on
machining is as follow.

Study of Variables that have an Effect on Cutting Speed, Feed and Time of Cutting

70
The productivity science problem of machine tool can be solved by a careful study of
the effect each of the twelve following variable elements has upon the selection of
the cutting speed and feed and therefore on the cutting time.

a. The quality of the metal which is to be cut, i. e., its hardness or other qualities
which affect the cutting speed;
b. The diameter of the work;
c The depth of the cut, or one-half of the amount by which the forging or casting is
being reduced in diameter in turning;
d. The thickness of the shaving, or the thickness of the spiral strip or band of metal
which is to be removed by the tool, measured while the metal retains its original
density ; not the thickness of the actual shaving, the - metal of which has become
partly disintegrated;
e. The elasticity of the work and of the tool;
f. The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool, together with its clearance
and lip angles;
g. The chemical composition of the steel from which the tool is made, and the heat
treatment of the tool ;
h. Whether a heavy stream of water, or other cooling medium, is used on the tool;
j. The duration of the cut, i. e., the time which a tool must last under pressure of the
shaving without being reground; '
k. The pressure of the chip or shaving upon the tool;
l. The changes of speed and feed possible in the lathe;
m The pulling and feeding power of the lathe at its various speeds.

The ultimate object of all experiments in this field is to learn how to remove the
metal from forgings and castings in the quickest time, and that therefore the art of
cutting metals may be briefly defined as the knowledge of how, with the limitations
caused by some and the opportunities offered by others of the above twelve
variable elements, in each case to remove the metal with the highest appropriate
cutting speed.

Before entering upon the details of experiments, it seems necessary to again

particularly call attention to the fact that “standard cutting-speed” is the true
criterion by which to measure the performance of various variables like tool material,
dimensions etc.

To give an illustration of the practical use of "standard cutting-speed." If, for example,
we wish to determine which make of tool steel is the best, we should proceed to
make from each of the two kinds to be tested a set of from four to eight tools. Each
tool should be forged from tool steel, say, 5- inch x 1- inch and about 18 inches long,
to exactly the same shape, and after giving the tools made from each type of steel
the heat treatment appropriate to its chemical composition, they should all be
ground with exactly the same shaped cutting edge and the same clearance and lip
angles. One of the sets of eight tools should then be run, one tool after another,
each for a period of 20 minutes, and each at a little faster cutting speed than its

71
predecessor, until that cutting speed has been found which will cause the tool to be
completely ruined‘ at the end of 20 minutes, with an allowance of a minute or two
each side of the 20-minute mark.

Every precaution must be taken throughout these tests to maintain uniform all of
the other elements or variables which affect the cutting speed, such as the depth of
the cut and the quality of the metal being cut. The rate of the cutting speed must be
frequently tested during each 20-minute run to be sure that it is uniform
throughout.

Throughout this paper, “the speed at which tools” give out in 20 minutes, as
described above, will be, for the sake of brevity, referred to as the “standard speed.”
After having found the “standard speed” of the first type of tools, and having verified
it by ruining several more of the eight tools at the same speed, we should next
determine in a similar manner the exact speed at which the other make of tools will
be ruined in 20 minutes; and if, for instance, one of these sets of tools exactly ruins
at a cutting speed of 55 feet, while the other make ruins at 50 feet per minute, these
“standard speeds," 55 to 50, constitute by far the most important criterion from
which to judge the relative economic value of the two steels for a machine shop.

Productivity science related research is being carried on machining processes even

now also. Only thing is that it is not being presented as part of productivity science of
machines. There is a need to collect all the studies under this heading and
summarize these studies and present the current guidelines for maximum
productivity of each of the machines.

Productivity Science of Human Effort - F.W. Gilbreth

F.W. Taylor is the pioneer of scientific management. He advocated strongly that

science in management of work in production shops did not exist and there is an
immediate need to develop science for every element of production work. He
himself conducted studies and experiments to develop science of machine tool
work/effort and human effort. He contributed to the development of science in both
the areas. But in the area of human effort, Frank Gilbreth followed Taylor with a
more elaborate framework for productivity science of human effort.

The aim of motion study is to find and perpetuate the scheme of perfection. There
are three stages in this study:

1. Discovering and classifying the best practice.

2. Deducing the laws.
3. Applying the laws to standardize practice, either for the purpose of increasing
output or decreasing hours of labor, or both.

There is no waste of any kind in the world that equals the waste from needless,
ill-directed, and ineffective motions. When one realizes that in such a trade as

72
brick-laying alone, the motions now adopted after careful study have already cut
down the bricklayer's work more than two-thirds, it is possible to realize the amount
of energy that is wasted by the workers of this country.

The census of 1900 showed 29,287,070 persons, ten years of age and over, as
engaged in gainful occupations. Taking the case of the nearly thirty million workers
cited above, it would be a conservative estimate that would call half their motions
utterly wasted.

By motion study the earning capacity of the workman can surely be more than
doubled. Wherever motion study has been applied, the workman's output has been
doubled. This will mean for every worker either more wages or more leisure.

But the most advisable way to utilize this gain is not a question which concerns us
now. We have not yet reached the stage where the solving of that problem becomes
a necessity far from it! Our duty is to study the motions and to reduce them as
rapidly as possible to standard sets of least in number, least in fatigue, yet most
effective motions. This has not been done perfectly as yet for any branch of the
industries. In fact, so far as we know, it has not, before this time, been scientifically
attempted. It is this work, and the method of attack for undertaking it, which it is the
aim of this book to explain.

PLACE OF MOTION STUDY IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Motion study as herein shown has a definite place in the evolution of scientific
management not wholly appreciated by the casual reader.

Its value in cost reducing cannot be overestimated, and its usefulness in all three
types of management Military, or driver; Interim, or transitory; and Ultimate, or
functional is constant.

In increasing output by selecting and teaching each workman the best known
method of performing his work, motion economy is all important. Through it, alone,
when applied to unsystematized work, the output can be more than doubled, with
no increase in cost.

When the Interim system takes up the work of standardizing the operations
performed, motion study enables the time-study men to limit their work to the study
of correct methods only. This is an immense saving in time, labor, and costs, as the
methods studied comply, as nearly as is at that stage possible, with the standard
methods that will be synthetically constructed after the time study has
taken place.

Even when Ultimate system has finally been installed, and the scientifically timed
elements are ready and at hand to be used by the instruction card man in
determining the tasks, or schedules, the results of motion study serve as a collection

73
of best methods of performing work that can be quickly and economically
incorporated into instruction cards.

Motion study, as a means of increasing output under the military type of

management, has consciously proved its usefulness on the work for the past
twenty-five years. Its value as a permanent element for standardizing work and its
important place in scientific management have been appreciated only since
observing its standing among the laws of management given to the world by Mr.
Frederick W. Taylor, that great conservator of scientific investigation, who has done
more than all others toward reducing the problem of management to an exact
science.

Now tremendous savings are possible in the work of everybody, they are not for
one class, they are not for the trades only; they are for the offices, the schools, the
colleges, the stores, the households, and the farms. But the possibilities of benefits
from motion study in the trades are particularly striking, because all trades, even at
their present best, are badly bungled.

PRESENT STAGE OF MOTION STUDY AND PRODUCTIVITY SCIENCE - 1911

We stand at present in the first stage of motion study, i.e., the stage of discovering
and classifying the best practice. This is the stage of analysis.

The following are the steps to be taken in the analysis:

1. Reduce present practice to writing.

2. Enumerate motions used.

3. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

4. Reduce best practice to writing.

5. Enumerate motions used.

6. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

Gilbreth started with a list of variable that are of help in developing science of
human effort (motion).

Frank B. Gilbreth - VARIABLES THAT AFFECT MOTION ECONOMY

74
Every element that makes up or affects the amount of work that the worker is able
to turn out must be considered separately; but the variables which must be studied
in analyzing any motion, group themselves naturally into some such divisions as the
following:

I. Variables of the Worker.

1 . Anatomy.

2. Brawn.

3. Contentment.

4. Creed.

5. Earning Power.

6. Experience.

7. Fatigue.

8. Habits.

9. Health.

10. Mode of living.

11 . Nutrition.

12. Size.

13. Skill.

14. Temperament.

15. Training.

II. Variables of the Surroundings, Equipment, and Tools.

1. Appliances.

2. Clothes.

3. Colors.

4. Entertainment, music, reading, etc.

75
5. Heating, Cooling, Ventilating.

6. Lighting.

7. Quality of material.

8. Reward and punishment.

9. Size of unit moved.

10. Special fatigue-eliminating devices.

11. Surroundings.

12. Tools.

13. Union rules.

14. Weight of unit moved.

III. Variables of the Motion.

1. Acceleration.

2. Automaticity.

3. Combination with other motions and sequence.

4. Cost.

5. Direction.

6. Effectiveness.

7. Foot-pounds of work accomplished.

8. Inertia and momentum overcome.

9. Length.

10. Necessity,

11. Path.

12. "Play for position."

13. Speed.

76
In taking up the analysis of any problem of motion reduction we first consider each
variable on the list separately, to see if it is an element of our problem.

Our discussion of these variables must of necessity be incomplete, as the subject is

too large to be investigated thoroughly by any one student. Moreover, the nature of
our work is such that only investigations can be made as show immediate results for
increasing outputs or reducing unit costs.

The nature of any variable can be most clearly shown by citing a case where it
appears and is of importance. But it is obviously impossible in a discussion such as
this to attempt fully to illustrate each separate variable even of our incomplete list.

Since first writing these articles for Industrial Engineering it has been of great
interest to the writer to learn of the conscious and successful application of the
principles involved to the particular fields of work that have interested various
readers. It was thought that unity might be lent to the argument by choosing the
illustrations given from one field. The reader will probably find himself more
successful in estimating the value of the underlying laws by translating the
illustrations into his own vocabulary, by thinking in his own chosen material.

The practical value of a study such as this aims to be will be increased many fold by
cooperation in application and illustration. The variables, at best an incomplete
framework, take on form and personality when so considered.

Industrial Engineering Strategy

Industrial engineering is profit engineering. (Taiichi Ohno)
Would you not like to budget for profit?

Industrial engineering is profit engineering. If a company is not employing industrial

engineering it is unnecessarily foregoing profits inherent in the products that it
developed and designed to the performance satisfaction of good number of users.
Profit conscious managers and owners have to understand and employ industrial
engineering to achieve the full profit potential of their products.

What are your strategic decisions related to industrial engineering function?

1. What is your productivity/Efficiency Improvement - Cost Reduction goal?

2. Are you planning to realize experience curve effect benefits?

3. How much of the cost reduction - productivity improvement should come from
specialist industrial engineers and other engineers and managers?

77
4. What will be the ratio of industrial engineers to other engineers and managers?

5. What bottlenecks or limiting factors have you identified in you facilities?

6. What techniques are going to receive special emphasis?

7. What is your training plan for specialist industrial engineers and other engineers
and managers?

8. What is the top management attention to industrial engineering - productivity

improvement - cost reduction activity?

9. What is the research and development budget for IE activity?

10. What is the total budget for productivity improvement? What is the budget for
productivity projects to be initiated by industrial engineering department? What is
the budget for productivity projects to be initiated by operating departments?

1. What is your productivity/Efficiency Improvement - Cost Reduction goal?

Total productivity management promoted by Japan Management Association,

covered as a chapter in the Maynard Handbook (5th Edition) advocates setting up
targets for cost reduction and productivity improvement. Similarly, Yamashina talks
of manufacturing cost reduction deployment as a strategic decision in his world class
manufacturing implementation. Total industrial engineering is one of the pillars of
WCM promoted by Yamashina.

The productivity improvement target can be allocated to each industrial

engineer/process owner combinations also. (Value creation target for industrial
engineers).

2. Are you planning to realize experience curve effect benefits?

Experience or learning curve effect is identified as one of the strategic cost drivers by
strategic management literature in implementing cost leadership strategy (Creating
and Executing Strategy: The Quest for Competitive Advantage, 14 Edition, Arthur
Thompson Jr., A.J. Strickland, John E. Gamble and Arun K Jain, Tata McGraw Hill,
2006 p.119). Companies have to determine the slope of their learning curve and
assess whether it is in line with the industry and have to take actions to improve
learning in organization. Hence they have to plan to realize the experience curve
effect.

3. How much of the cost reduction - productivity improvement should come from
specialist industrial engineers and other engineers and managers?

78
F.W. Taylor (1911) identified that production work was being carried out without
the support adequate science. Taylor developed science of machine working as well
as manual working in certain activities and developed his scientific management
thought and promoted industrial engineering as a subject and as a full discipline in
engineering institutions. He recommended specially educated and trained
industrial engineers to take up the work of developing science in various production
activities and improvement of production processes using the science. According to
Taylor, foreman at that time was already overloaded and similar is the case with
senior production managers also as they were working without the support of staff
specialists.

By 1930s, the situation changed. Alan Mogensen identified that processes

redesigned by industrial engineering using the recent discovered science can further
be improved by the involving operators and supervisors as they observe many minor
improvement opportunities in the doing the work day after day. He came out with
work simplification program to involve operators, supervisors and engineers in
operation/process improvement. According to Allen Mogensen, Work Simplification
is the organized use of common sense — on the part of everyone Involved — to find
easier and better ways of doing work.

Toyota Motors made exemplary use of utilizing the knowledge of every body in the
production system to improve processes and operations. Now companies have a
policy choice to make. What proportion of planned cost reduction will come from
science/analysis based projects from industrial engineers and what proportion will
come from line organization. The targets have to be included in the budgets of the
various departments accordingly.

An answer for the amount of productivity improvement to be carried out by

industrial engineers.
Value Creation for the Organization by Industrial Engineers - Productivity Engineering
Potential
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/03/value-creation-model-for-industrial.html

4. What will be the ratio of industrial engineers to other engineers and managers?

This decision is contingent of the decision above. The company has to employ some
industrial engineers to promote total industrial engineering. Above that the number
of IEs to be employed and their engineering background, and functional experience
depends on the company's policy decisions regarding the planned cost reduction and
responsibility given to IE and line departments.

5. What bottlenecks or limiting factors have you identified in you facilities?

Manufacturing cost reduction deployment is a topic in project appraisal chapter of

financial management books as well as engineering economics and managerial

79
economics books. They recognize that certain project proposals contain cost
reduction a the benefit of the project. Yamashina in his WCM explicits recognizes
cost reduction projects as a major input into the budgeting process and comes out
with a mathematical model to select a cost reduction project portfolio for the
coming period. In this context, company has to identify its limiting factors or
bottlenecks whose productivity has to be improved by employing industrial
engineering techniques. Based on this identification, the company personnel may
come up with productivity improvement projects that make a significant
improvement in the operation of the bottleneck facilities.

6. What techniques are going to receive special emphasis?

IE techniques are continuously refined and new techniques are being developed. The
company has to opportunity of taking decisions on the intensive use of some
techniques during the coming periods. For example many companies in India are
now focusing on six sigma and industrial engineering techniques named as lean
manufacturing or Toyota Production System to realize cost reduction and
productivity improvement.

7. What is your training plan for specialist industrial engineers and other engineers
and managers?

Based on the strategic decisions in the area of industrial engineering, the company
has to conduct training programs to sensitize the employees on the need to use
specified techniques and provide skills to those employees who presently do not
have them. There is always a need to share recent success stories within the
company as well as from other companies.

8. What is the top management attention to industrial engineering - productivity

improvement - cost reduction activity?

If productivity is a strategic issue (it is for many companies as world's top companies
declare their productivity improvement and cost reduction targets - Volkswagen and
Coca Cola in 2014), top management has to participated in planning, organizing,
resourcing, directing and controlling productivity improvement. They need to
allocate time and participate in various activities related to productivity. Long time
back, when Birla group was introducing WCM, in the first work shop of defect or
waste identification, it was said that K.K. Birla, the chairman of the group himself
participated to observe the work place and identify waste. Motilal Oswal, Motilal
Oswal Securities Limited was another CEO, who participates in many training
programmes organized by the company with enthusiasm.

80
9. What is the research and development budget for IE activity?

If companies have to use industrial engineering and enjoy the increased profits, they
have to contribute to its theoretical development and first time application of the
theory in company systems. Theoretical development is referred to as research and
first time application is referred to as development. While, the big companies have a
major responsibility to fund big projects, even smaller companies can contribute
through their industry associations, industrial engineering professional
organizations.

10. What is the total budget for productivity improvement?

What is the budget for productivity projects to be initiated by industrial engineering
department? What is the budget for productivity projects to be initiated by
operating departments?

Every year, the company has to ask for productivity improvement project proposals
and include them as part of their investment budgets. Some companies do it and
report them to shareholders.

Facilities Industrial Engineering

Facilities Industrial Engineering = Facilities Design Engineering + Facilities
Productivity Science and Engineering [Productivity Philosophy - Science - Engineering
- Management]

In industrial engineering process improvement using process charts (operation

process chart and flow process chart) is the dominant method. Process charts are
created for each finished product and for each of its components. The processes of
different products and its components are performed using the facilities of the
organization. In designing various facilities of industrial buildings and different
facilities within the building, industrial engineering has a role to play. In selection of
the equipment used by multiple processes industrial engineering has a role to play.
Improvement of machines to increase productivity was done by F.W. Taylor, founder
of industrial engineering. Maintenance of various equipment and its overhaul can
also be examined by industrial engineers as part of facilities industrial engineering.
Layout of the equipment and various production departments decide the amount of
material handling and transport within the facility. Layout improvement is an
important task of industrial engineering. Hence facilities level industrial
engineering or facilities industrial engineering is to be identified as an important
area in industrial engineering.

Facilities Industrial Engineering - Jobs

Facility Industrial Engineer

Pitney Bowes Monroe, NJ
1 day ago (20.2.2022)
Full-time · Entry level

81
10,001+ employees · IT Services and IT Consulting

About the job

At Pitney Bowes, we do the right thing, the right way. As a member of our team, you
can too.

Job Description:

A Performance-driven Contributor who can develop and deploy operational metrics,

continuous improvement initiatives, cost saving initiatives and processes to optimize
the cost and performance in the designated facilities.

You Will
Be responsible for working with vendors, real estates, project management,
technology, and strategy on multiple projects simultaneously including automation,
new building designs, new building launches, system enhancement requirements,
and cost savings initiatives.

Develop continuous improvement initiatives including evaluation of current

operations, data analysis, justification and implementation of recommended
solutions.

Evaluate current business processes and future needs to streamline operations and
foster sustainable growth.

Design and develop facility layouts for new and existing facilities including ROI
analysis, vendor selection, design implementations.

Monitor, analyze and recommend ways to improve productivity, service, cost

performance and waste reduction in all areas of operations.

Develop capacity requirements for current and future operations, design and
implement solutions to support capacity needs.

Implement 5S methodologies across the facilities with the management team,

focusing on business priorities, efficiency improvement initiatives and the scope of
work identified through the planning and design phase.

Assist with the deployment of Lean warehousing initiatives at the facility level, which
includes kaizen events, rollout of progress boards, metrics boards and employee
production standards.

Develop engineered labor standards to drive a performance and quality culture

within the operations.

82
Continuously evaluate and optimize automation and warehouse storage by analyzing
product dimensions and velocity by client.

Interface with Sales and Account Management on pricing solutions to ensure

accurate cost and storage layout for new and existing clients.

Oversee and assist with new client implementations from an operational,

engineering and project management standpoint. Create and design operational
layout, considering timelines and overall operational impact to exceed client
expectations and ensure a smooth transition within the operation.
Validate actual versus planned cost savings and performance improvement.

Communicate and coordinate with other internal business groups to ensure goals
are achieved.

Travel may be necessary up to 50%.

Your Background

As an Industrial Engineer of Facilities , you have:

Minimum of 3 years industrial engineering experience within the parcel shipping or

3PL fulfillment industry
Bachelor’s degree in Industrial Engineering or related field required
Strong analytical skills and structured problem-solving skills
Expert in MS Word, Excel, Visio, PowerPoint and AutoCAD
Proficient with WMS & LMS systems
Must be a team player with a strong work ethic, as well as excellent people and
organizational skills

Preferred
Six Sigma Green belt or higher
Project Management Skills

All interested individuals must apply online. Individuals with disabilities who cannot
apply via our online application should refer to the alternate application options via
our Individuals with Disabilities link. 

https://www.linkedin.com/jobs/view/2923115214/?refId=J4jp1nasRXeTCShIfURZYw
%3D%3D

Product Industrial Engineering

Industrial engineering is concerned with redesign of engineering systems with a view
to improve their productivity. Industrial engineers analyze productivity of each

83
resource used in engineering systems and redesign as necessary to improve
productivity.

An early article by Taylor describes and illustrates the productivity engineering of

belting system based on the cost data accumulated over a period of 9 years
(Industrial Engineering of Belting - 1893). I saw an article on industrial engineering
with the title "continuous reengineering." I agree with the term and promote the
term. Industrial engineering is continuous redesign of products and processes
periodically as well as based on events at any time an opportunity arises. Taylor's
articles makes the steps required to do industrial engineering. Thinking based on
engineering and productivity orientation and then the experiments or prototyping to
validate the idea.

It has to be ensured that the increase in productivity due to the use of low-cost
materials, processes and increasing speed of machines and men, should not lead to
any decrease in quality of the output and or any desirable performance or aesthetic
feature of the product or process. Both Taylor who promoted process industrial
engineering and L.D. Miles, who promoted product industrial engineering - value
engineering insisted on the condition.

Similarly, operators should not feel any discomfort, not have any health problems or
safety issues in the redesigned more productive processes. Gilbreths had done
considerable work on this aspect.

Products and Process are two important outputs of engineering activity.

Product Industrial Engineering

This article with the title "Product Design Industrial Engineering was first published
on 29 September 2012.

I now term this activity as Product Industrial Engineering. I included it in the focus
areas of industrial engineering. In the early days of industrial engineering only some
peripheral features of the product that facilitated material handling and tolerances
were evaluated by industrial engineering for redesign. But Value Engineering,
developed by L.D. Miles brought out the scope for radical redesign of the products
and components to do cost reduction without affecting the quality, functions or
features and customer requirements. It brought out the waste being present in the
design done with effectiveness or performance as the focus at the start of a new
product introduction by companies. So it called for cyclical approach of effectiveness
design followed by efficiency design and also a periodic efficiency design to
incorporate recent knowledge regarding efficiency improvement or cost reduction
and developments in engineering and technology. Product industrial engineering
became an important focus area of industrial engineering and many others
techniques facilitating product industrial engineering were developed by industrial
engineers and other engineers and managers.

84
The major techniques that constitute product industrial engineering are:

1. Value Analysis and Engineering

2. Design for Manufacturing
3. Design for Assembly
4. Design for Additive Manufacturing
5. Design to Cost
6. Design to Value
7. Design to Target Cost
8. Engineering Optimization
9. Six Sigma for Design Improvement - Robust Design (Video)
10. Life Cycle Cost Analysis based redesign
11. Design analysis done during Process Industrial Engineering
12. Lean Product Design Concept

In the product industrial engineering module of IEKC IE Online Course, value

engineering will be discussed in detail and other techniques will also be introduced.
More detailed articles will be developed in this blog for more specialised
information.

Definitions of IE and IE Design for "X"

Many designs for "X" fall under the domain of industrial engineering as per the
definition of of IE.
AIIE

“Industrial engineering is concerned with the design, improvement, and installation

of integrated systems of men, materials, and equipment. It draws upon specialized
knowledge and skill in the mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with
the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict,
and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems.” (AIIE, 1955). [4]

IE Design for "X": Industrial engineering aims to specify, predict, and evaluate the
results to be obtained from such systems. Hence the special and unique role of IE is
results or performance obtained from systems. Productivity, Time and cost are the
original performance dimensions focused by the IE discipline. Slowly more got added.
Still more can be added.

Process Industrial Engineering

Method, operation, process, task etc. are used in the context of improving
production and engineering activities in organizations. The term "Method" was
popularized by method study and methods engineering subjects. The term process
was popularized by Gilbreth when he developed process charts. In the process chart,
operation is one of the activities. Task was used by Taylor. Process seems to be more
popular terminology now as process planning, process orientation and process

85
mapping became popular terms. Industrial engineering carried on processes to do
productivity improvement and reduce cost is termed as process industrial
engineering. Product industrial engineering and process industrial engineering,
redesign of products and processes for productivity improvement and cost reduction
are the core engineering activities in industrial engineering.

The variables or actions that can increase productivity can be many depending on
the level of detail we go down to. At high level machine effort (engines and
engineering including industrial engineering), human effort (operators) and
managerial effort (facilities provision, planning of processes, planning of material
flow and batch flow quantities, and training of operators) have to be identified and
are to be improved.

In the case of process industrial engineering, we can identify the three main areas as
process machine effort industrial engineering, process human effort industrial
engineering and process productivity management. Machine work study or machine
effort study would study all the elements of machine and the machine process.
Human work study (Method study and motion study) would study all human related
aspects and the motions used. Process productivity management would look at
managerial activities related to the process.

Production methods or processes efficiency engineering was indicated by Henry

Towne in his 1886 paper. He specially emphasized that engineers managing
manufacturing shops and works have to focus on reduction of cost of production and
do engineering changes to achieve it. A logical and systematic procedure for
reducing costs, increasing production without an impairment to quality was
described by F.W. Taylor in his 1895 paper. Since then, many more improvement
ways were added to the industrial engineering of processes.

Process Industrial Engineering - Methods and Techniques

Identifying, Analyzing and Installing High Productivity Equipment and Machines

Identifying, Analyzing and Utilizing High Productivity Special Processes
Developing special purpose machines
Installing accessories for productivity improvement
Using Jigs and Fixtures
Using more productive tools -
Using new lubricants
Using new cutting fluids
Cutting parameters optimization
Process parameters optimization - Six Sigma - Tolerances
Assembly line balancing - Redesign of work stations to facilitate balanced load on
work stations and matching the line to tact time.
SMED
Poka Yoke

86
Method Study
Digital Transformation of Processes
Machine Work Study
Operation Analysis
Process Analysis
Electric power consumption analysis and reduction
Predictive maintenance
Preventive maintenance
Total Productive Maintenance
OEE improvement
Lean Manufacturing
Manufacturing Cost Policy Deployment (MCPD)
Six Sigma
Equipment Replacement Study and Decision
Process Industrial Engineering - Case Studies and Examples

Process Improvement - Gilbreths' View

Frank Gilbreth developed process analysis and improvement also along with motion
study. In 1921, he presented a paper in ASME, on process charts. Lilian Gilbreth was
a coauthor of this paper.

PROCESS CHARTS: FIRST STEPS IN FINDING THE ONE BEST WAY TO DO WORK
By Frank B. Gilbreth, Montclair, N. J. Member of the Society
and L. M. Gilbreth, Montclair, N. J. Non-Member
For presentation at the Annual Meeting, New York, December 5 to 9, 1921,
of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 29 West 39th Street, New York.
https://ia800700.us.archive.org/5/items/processcharts00gilb/processcharts00gilb_b
w.pdf

At the end of the paper, the conclusion made is as follows:

The procedure for making, examining and improving a process is, therefore,
preferably as follows:

a. Examine process and record with rough notes and stereoscopic diapositives the
existing process in detail.

b. Have draftsman copy rough notes in form for blueprinting, photographic

projection and exhibition to executives and others.

c. Show the diapositives with stereoscope and lantern slides of process charts in
executives' theater to executives and workers.

d. Improve present methods by the use of —

87
1 Suggestion system
2 Written description of new methods or 'write-ups," "manuals," ''codes," ''written
systems," as they are variously called
3 Standards
4 Standing orders
5 Motion study
6 Micromotion studies and chronocyclegraphs for obtaining and recording the One
Best Way to do Work.

e. Make process chart of the process as finally adopted as a base for still further and
cumulative improvement.

We see in the method described above the method study steps of record, and
examine. The practice of involving the workers in analyzing the process chart which
was later popularized by Alan Mogensen is also present in the method suggested by
Gilbreth to improve a process. Motion study as a later step in the process analysis
method, which was emphasized by H.B. Maynard as part of the operation analysis
proposed by him is also visible in the procedure described by Gilbreths.

H.B. Maynard proposed "Operation Analysis" for process improvement.

So, we can see the methods engineering and methods study which became popular
subsequently were further development of Gilbreth's process improvement
procedure only.

Process Engineering

Process engineering focuses on the design, operation, control, optimization and

Intensification of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Process engineering
encompasses a vast range of industries, such as chemical, petrochemical, agriculture,
mineral processing, advanced material, food, pharmaceutical, software development
and biotechnological industries.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_engineering

Process Industrial Engineering

Process engineering is an established term in engineering. Hence process industrial

engineering, which represents the redesign of processes by industrial engineers to
improve productivity is an appropriate term.

Operation Process Chart, Flow Process Chart and other ways of recording the
process flow are used for study and improvement of processes. Methods
Engineering, Operations Analysis, Method Study and Motion Study are various
methods or procedures of process industrial engineering.

88
The process industrial engineering has to develop analysis and improvement of
technical elements of a process in more detail to make industrial engineering an
engineering based activity to increase productivity in engineering organizations,
departments and activities.

Process industrial engineering also includes improvement of related management

activities. F.W. Taylor was a pioneer in introducing many changes in management
practices to improve productivity. Industrial engineering adopted the same objective.
So within process industrial subject area comes the function of management process
industrial engineering.

Process Analysis, Work Simplification, Method Study, Methods Engineering,

Methods efficiency engineering are terms popular earlier. Process Industrial
Engineering is a better description as it highlights it as part of industrial engineering.
Product Industrial Engineering and Process Industrial Engineering are the two main
components of productivity engineering, which are totally dependent on the
engineering knowledge of the industrial engineer.

The Function of Process Industrial Engineering (Methods Efficiency Engineering)

Process industrial engineering or Methods industrial engineering was the activity

performed by F.W. Taylor and explained first in his paper "A Piece Rate System." As it
evolved over the years, it became a a logical and systematic procedure for
reducing costs, increasing production without an impairment to quality. Process
industrial engineering may be applied with equal success to repetitive work or to
jobbing work, to simple, easily understood operations or to complex, specialized jobs.
It is applicable to all man machine systems, manual work or automated work.

Definition of Process industrial engineering. It may be said that it is the industrial

engineering component which is chiefly concerned with increasing the efficiency of
resources used in a process (operations).

Process industrial engineering is the technique that subjects each operation of a

given piece of work to close analysis in order to eliminate every unnecessary
operation and in order to approach the quickest and best method of performing
each necessary operation; it includes the standardization of equipment, methods,
and working conditions ; it trains the operator to follow the standard method; when
all this has been done, it determines by accurate measurement the number of
standard hours in which an operator working with standard performance can do the
job.

A methods efficiency study always begins with a careful primary analysis of existing
conditions. The reason is that the existing system is taken as an effective system that

89
is producing the required output at quality acceptable to the customers. The first
factors that are considered are the number of pieces made or the yearly activity, the
length of the operation, and the hourly rate of the operator or operators doing the
job. This information permits the computation of the yearly cost of the job. An
estimate is next made of the probable improvement that methods study can make.
This in turn determines the kind and amount of methods-engineering work that can
profitably be undertaken.

The method or process is recorded for the purpose of presenting the study problem
clearly. Then complete information is compiled for each operation concerning such
points as the purpose of the operation,tolerance requirements, material and
material handling, and tools and equipment used.

As a part of methods efficiency engineering, motion study, that is study of motions

of the operator is made. In motion study, each individual motion used in doing the
work is considered in detail to try to shorten the motion or to eliminate it altogether.

After the new method has been devised, information and records describing the
redesigned procedure must be carefully made and communicate. If the method is
available in a written form, frequent audits can be done to make sure it is being
followed.

The operator or operators must next be taught to follow the new method. This may
be done by verbal instructions, demonstrations at or away from the workplace,
instruction sheets or operator process charts ; or by the highly successful procedure
that employs motion pictures.

Development of Process industrial engineering - History

Early Factory Work

Factory work was started by giving work to persons who were already producing the
items required in their own household production. What is the reason for their
factory abandoning their household production work. There can be an offer of
higher payment and the opportunity to devote to production work without spending
time on marketing.

Initially, piecework payment was used factories. The weaver who worked a loom
in his own home was paid for what he produced and not for the number of hours he
spent at work. In the case of piecework, some plan that encouraged a definite
output by the workers was felt necessary. Incentive plans came into existence.
He was using records of past performance and his own judgment of what a man
could accomplish if he worked with an honest effort to fix piece rates.

These two factors proved to be utterly unreliable. Records of past performance told
only how much was produced and gave no indication of the conditions under which

90
the work was done or of the method used by the operator. Under the stimulus of an
incentive, the operator could almost always devise a better method and, by working
steadily with a good effort, could make earnings that often exceeded those of the
foreman. The various problems associate with these incentive plans, defeated the
purpose of incentives which was to stimulate production.

All this time, competition was becoming increasingly keen. The need for incentives
was felt most strongly, and the importance of proper rate setting caused a search for
a better way of handling the matter. Thus the position of rate setter was established.
The new setup gave somewhat better results, but conditions were far from
satisfactory. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, therefore, the more
progressive plants began to feel the need for a better, fairer, and more accurate
method of handling the rate question. The problem was attacked independently in a
number of plants in USA and abroad, and various solutions were offered which have
contributed to a greater or lesser extent to methods-engineering practices.

Taylor's Pioneering Efforts in Process/Methods Improvement

Taylor used stop watch time study of understand the best practices of doing work at
elemental level. Through the study of work and output using time study, Taylor
found that some were following improper methods, many did not take full
advantage of their tools and equipment, and all were subject to many interruptions.
Hence, Taylor often found that a man could do two or three times as much as he had
previously done in a day. Taylor carefully selected individual workman, guided,
trained and made them produce the expected output under the guidance of
management or supervision specialists. As one person produced according to the
expected output, he trained one more man. In this manner gradually more and more
operators were trained to produce the increased output. Since those days, time
study has increased the productivity of industry many fold. It has resulted in
improved conditions, standardization, reduced costs, better production control, and
better satisfied labor wherever it has been properly applied, and it has been applied
to nearly every class of work.

Taylor' s system was to give the workman a definite task to be accomplished in a

definite time in a definite manner. The workman was told in detail how to do the job.
The method was established by careful study.

Taylor's original procedure forms the basis of methods engineering. It has been
improved upon by those who came after him, as is the case when any new science is
developed. Taylor stressed the importance of improving method of doing the job
and he used stop watch time study for that purpose. Frank B. Gilbreth stressed the
importance of the detailed study of methods and thereby made a distinct
contribution to methods efficiency engineering . As an apprentice bricklayer, he
became impressed with the fact that most brick- layers had their own way of doing a
job. Being very observant, he noticed further that each worker had three ways of
doing the same job: one that he taught to other inexperienced workers, one that he
used when working slowly, and one that he used when working at his normal speed.

91
Gilbreth became interested in the reasons underlying this, analyzed the work of
number operators and developed the technique of motion study. The Gilbreths
established a laboratory and studied motions by laboratory methods. As a result,
they made a number of fundamental discoveries and originated the concept of
therbligs, or basic divisions of accomplishment. They were the first to recognize that
there are certain definite principles which govern efficient working practices, and
they developed several techniques for studying the motions used in performing
operations. Of these, the motion study made with the aid of motion pictures, often
called the "micromotion technique' is the best known and most used. Of the
originality, soundness, and value of their contribution to methods engineering, there
can be no question.

As has been pointed out, Taylor's original work forms the basis of modern Methods
efficiency engineering. Paralally, the developments made by the Gilbreths were
incorporated.

Motion study was improved further. Better designs of industrial motion-picture

equipment permit the wider use of the motion picture at a greatly reduced cost. The
element of time has been tied in with the concept of therbligs, or basic divisions of
accomplishment, thus offering a new and valuable approach to methods study. The
leveling principle permits adjusting the time data obtained from a study taken on
any kind of performance over a wide range to a standard level with a high degree of
accuracy, thus permitting the setting of accurate and consistent rates. Finally,
time-formula derivation has been developed to a point that makes possible the quick
and accurate setting of a large number of rates or time allowances with a minimum
of engineering effort. This later became pre-determined motion system. MTM and
MOSt are widely used predetermined motion time systems.

Methods Efficiency Engineering Procedure

Methods efficiency engineering is now a carefully planned, systematic procedure.

Standard process charts have been developed to a state of greater flexibility and
have become more useful for analysis purposes.

Economic Function of Methods efficiency engineering

Under modern business conditions, one of the major problems which faces the
managers of industry is that of constantly reducing costs. Markets are restricted for
any product because many individuals are economically unable to purchase the
product at the current market price. Even in periods of prosperity, millions of people
are able to supply themselves with only the barest necessities of life because of high
prices of many items.

In any country, there are the fewest individuals in the highest group of income and
the greatest number of people are in the lowest group with some groups of people
at intermediate income levels. At each level, there is a group with a certain
purchasing power.

92
The consumers at any economic levels but the highest few have only a limited
amount to spend. All kinds of products are offered to them in various enticing ways.
Competition as a result is keen and ruthless. The only way an industrial unit an hope
to survive under these conditions is constantly to seek to keep production costs as
low as possible.

Taylor's "Shop Management" paper described methods that gave lower production
cost and higher income to operators. Cost reduction methods aim at waste
elimination in machine work and man work so that greater production is secured
with less effort.

Methods efficiency engineering is primarily concerned with devising methods that

increase production and reduce costs. Hence, it plays an important role in
determining the competitive position of a plant. As competition appears to be
become keener, Methods efficiency engineering becomes increasingly important.

Methods efficiency engineering in an industrial unit can never be considered as

completed. Costs that are satisfactory and competitive today become excessive in a
comparatively short time because of the improved developments of other units of
the industry. If the producer who is in a good competitive position today decides
that his costs have reached rock bottom and that no further attempt to improve
them is necessary, within a short while he is likely to find himself facing loss of his
commercial standing as owner of an efficiently managed plant. Only by constantly
seeking to improve can any unit safeguard its competitive position. Conditions in
industry are never static, and steady progress is the only sure way to success.

Cost-reduction work is important as a factor for survival, but it also expands the
industry and the firm. There are various economic strata of society. Assume that a
certain company is manufacturing a product that, although universally desirable, is
priced so high that only those individuals in group C or higher can purchase it. The
market for the product is thus rather limited. If, however, properly conducted
cost-reduction work permits the lowering of the selling price so that the individuals
in group D can purchase the product, the market is at once greatly expanded,
perhaps doubled or even tripled. Henry Ford was among the first to combine
recognition of this principle with the courage to act upon it.

In actual practice, society is not divided into definite groups, but incomes range, in
small steps, from next to nothing to the highest. Hence, each time the selling price of
a product is reduced, even though it is as little as 1 per cent, the product is brought
within the reach of more people. Therefore, it may be seen that cost reduction as a
means of increasing the distribution of the product is at all times important.

Methods Efficiency Engineering and Shop Supervisors

93
The methods efficiency man is by no means the only one who takes an interest in
establishing economic costs and improving methods. The foremen, the tool
designers, and the other shop supervisors all realize the importance of keeping costs
upon a competitive level. Very often they make worth-while improvements in
manufacturing methods. The differences between the methods efficiency man and
the other shop supervisors are two. In the first place, the methods man devotes all
his time to methods work, whereas the other supervisors have numerous duties,
which force them to consider methods work as incidental to their major activities. In
the second place, the methods, man conducts his methods studies systematically
and makes improvements as the result of applying a carefully developed technique.
This technique is based upon a large amount of specialized knowledge which can be
acquired only by special study and training. Therefore, unless a course in Methods
efficiency engineering has been given to the other shop supervisors, their
improvements are less certain and are due more to inspiration than to deliberate
intent.

For these reasons, the major part of methods improvement is usually made by
methods engineers. This is not a necessary condition, however; for the principles
that they use can be learned by the other supervisors and can be applied, in part at
least, during the course of their other work. Certain progressive organizations have
realized this and have given methods engineering training in more or less detail to
their various key supervisors. The results, as may be expected, have been gratifying,
and methods-improvement work has received a marked impetus (Maynard 1938).

It is hoped that this technique will be used by shop supervisors such as foremen, tool
designers, and so on, as well as by methods engineers; for if the principles of
methods efficiency work are understood throughout an organization, that
organization will be in a good position to meet competition, depressions, or any
other economic disturbances which may come its way.

Alan Mogensen advocated work simplification methodology. In this method, he used

to conduct methods work shops based on process chart to supervisors and operators
and used to improve processes with the involvement of the trainees. He was very
successful in this endeavor for three decades and his method was adopted by
Training Within Industry (TWI) program and then from them by Toyota Motors. Now,
industrial engineering is being taught in undergraduate engineering programs to
make all engineers practice industrial engineering and also to train their supervisors
and operators. But in undergraduate programs, only mechanical branch and other
branches are not teaching. It is important that it is taught in all engineering branches.
(Adopted based on the first chapter of Maynard's Operation Analysis.)

Industrial Engineering Optimization

In the IE journals and magazines we need to read articles and papers that point out
how IEs are able to come out with solutions to data development challenges of OR
models.

94
Operations Research methods are characterized as efficiency improvement
techniques by many scholars.

1. From efficiency measurement to efficiency improvement: The choice of a relevant

benchmark, Eduardo González, and Antonio Álvarez, European Journal of
Operational Research, Volume 133, Issue 3, 16 September 2001, Pages 512-520

2. Measuring Efficiency in Primary Health Care Centres in Saudi Arabia, ASMA M. A.

BAHURMOZ,
http://www.economics.kaau.edu.sa/Faculty_Mag/Magallat/A12A2_PDF/122-ASMA9
99.pdf

3. Improving Transportation Efficiency at the Nanzan Educational Complex,

http://www.scienceofbetter.org/can_do/success_stories/iteatnecm.htm

4. Operations Research: The Productivity Engine: How to create unassailable

productivity gains in your business, Lew Pringle, OR/MS Today, June 2000
http://www.lionhrtpub.com/orms/orms-6-00/pringle.html

Lew Pringle wrote:

"Operations research, as a field, is all about the creation and management of

Productivity Gain. In fact, in a very real sense, productivity gain is virtually the sole
purpose of OR. It's what we do. To raise the question of improvement in an
organization's productivity without taking full advantage of all that OR offers would
be analogous to pursuing a required improvement in one's health while ignoring the
entire medical community. The realm of operations research is Productivity Gain.

OR people, in turn, are identifiable by: 1. our focus on productivity, and 2. the way
we find, identify and come to describe, understand, appreciate and represent a
problem. Operations research people are problem-conceptualizers. Our "solutions,"
in this sense, can (and should) be seen as flowing naturally and easily from the
unique way in which we have visualized the problems/opportunities in the first place.
We operate on such traditional quantities as profit, cost, efficiency and other
practical, measurable items. Our goal, ordinarily, is to achieve higher and higher
levels of performance. We are the people whose job it is to create productivity. We
are, in fact, the productivity engine of an organization."

5. Productivity Improvement through Operational Research

G. W. Sears
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General) Vol. 126, No. 2 (1963), pp.
267-269
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2982368?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

6. The Necessity of Implementation of Operations Research for Managers for

Decision-Making and Productivity Increase in Production

95
M. K. Amoli, S. M. T. Hosseini, M. Salehi, "The Necessity of Implementation of
Operations Research for Managers for Decision-Making and Productivity Increase in
Production", Advanced Materials Research, Vols. 488-489, pp. 1651-1656, 2012
http://www.scientific.net/AMR.488-489.1651

Synergy Between Industrial Engineering and Operations Research

Industrial engineering is developed by engineers working in engineering

departments of business companies engaged in manufacture using machines and
metals. No doubt construction which is the earliest engineering activity also
contributed in the development of industrial engineering as Frank Gilbreth was from
construction sector. Operations Research as a discipline is identified with persons
from science background working in the area of military operations. Industrial
engineering and Departments of Mathematics and Statistics embraced the discipline
of operations research in a big way. What is the synergy between industrial
engineering and operations research?

Industrial engineering is system efficiency improvement. It examines proposed ways

of doing work and improve them. Operations research has number of efficiency
improvement tools. Operations researchers developed various standard models and
have the ability to develop custom models that improve the efficiency of operations.
Linear programming models, transportation, and assignment can be cited as
examples using which the operations of an organization can be evaluated for
efficiency of resource use subject to the constraints and optimal or efficient
solutions can be found. Hence industrial engineers have to be the first group among
various corporate organizations to recognize and implement OR models in the
business organizations. This opportunity was correctly identified by the industrial
engineering profession and OR was adopted as an important technique in the
arsenal of industrial engineering.

What is the Contribution of IE to OR?

Industrial engineers could have promoted the practical utilization of OR by proving

data in the form the OR models require. In systems engineering, there is mention of
this step. From the synthesized design for a system design problem, various models
are to be developed to evaluate the proposed design. To use OR models, various
types of data are required and industrial engineers have the advantage of developing
the required data. Why IEs have the advantage? Industrial engineers have the
advantage because they have a strong attachment to measurement in one of their
core subjects work measurement. Industrial engineers also are given inputs in
understanding the financial and cost accounting data. Thus they are in the unique
position to develop and provide the data that OR models required and come out the
most efficient solutions and help the operating managers in implementing the
solutions. But this does not seem to have happened in big scale.

96
The reason for the lack of popularity for OR in many organizations is the lack of this
viewpoint in IEs. IEs have to use OR models as efficiency improvement avenues. To
use OR models they have to develop the required data from the operations of the
organization. They have to interact with the accounting departments meaningfully
and acquire the required accounting data and statements. They have to develop
engineering data and then use appropriate OR models. In the IE journals and
magazines we need to read articles and papers that point out how IEs are able to
come out with solutions to data development challenges of OR models.

Engineering Optimization
Optimization Principle of Industrial Engineering. Maximize the benefit. Minimize the
cost. Maximize the difference.
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2017/06/optimization-principle-of-industrial.html

In engineering design as well as in process planning, optimization is now used.

Industrial engineers have to optimize their engineering redesigns and also check
whether the current engineering solutions are optimized or not? Thus the industrial
engineering optimization focus area is concerned with optimization problems of
product design and process design. Industrial engineering is also concerned with
planning of jobs and flow of material quantities in processes.

Problem Areas for Applying Operations Research

Loading machine centers for maximum utilization of equipment.

Controlling raw materials and in-process inventories.
Planning the minimum production costs schedules through the sequencing and
allocation of men and machines.
Minimizing waiting times between operations
Determining the true incremental benefits of adding new production equipment.
Scheduling direct labour.
Determining the most favourable preventive maintenance plans.
Assigning individuals to specific jobs
Specifying least-cost shipment patterns in multiplant multivendor purchasing
situations.
Locating warehouses so as to minimize freight and production costs.
Allocating advertising budget in the most efficient manner.

Source:
"Operations Research", Chaper 9-3 in Industrial Engineering Handbook, H.B.Maynard
(Ed.) 2nd Edition

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OR Case Studies Discussed in Chapter 11.2 of Maynard's Industrial Engineering
Handbook, 5th Edition
http://www.pitt.edu/~jrclass/or/or-intro.html

REFERENCES

Leachman, R. C., R. F. Benson, C. Liu and D. J. Raar, "IMPReSS: An Automated

Production-Planning and Delivery-Quotation System at Harris Corporation -
Semiconductor Sector," Interfaces, 26:1, pp. 6-37, 1996.
Rigby, B., L. S. Lasdon and A. D. Waren, "The Evolution of Texaco's Blending Systems:
From OMEGA to StarBlend," Interfaces, 25:5, pp. 64-83, 1995.
Flanders, S. W. and W. J. Davis, "Scheduling a Flexible Manufacturing System with
Tooling Constraints: An Actual Case Study," Interfaces, 25:2, pp. 42-54, 1995.
Subramanian, R., R. P. Scheff, Jr., J. D. Quillinan, D. S. Wiper and R. E. Marsten,
"Coldstart: Fleet Assignment at Delta Air Lines,", Interfaces, 24:1, pp. 104-120, 1994.
Kotha, S. K., M. P. Barnum and D. A. Bowen, "KeyCorp Service Excellence
Management System," Interfaces, 26:1, pp. 54-74, 1996.

Industrial Engineering Statistics

F.W. Taylor himself advocated maintaining of records and data for decision making.
The other industrial engineering pioneers also promoted record keeping and data
analysis. As sampling based decision making became more robust, industrial
engineers promoted it as a productivity improvement initiative and imperative. One
of the prominent areas of application is statistical quality control. Sampling was also
used in work measurement and work sampling technique was developed in
industrial engineering. Now six sigma, a statistics based technique is being promoted
by the IE profession.

F.W. Taylor has indicated that data collected for machine shop will be in thousands
of pages. Harrington Emerson included records in his book 12 Principles of Efficiency.
Their contemporary, professor of industrial engineering, Diemer wrote:

Department of Records.
"It is primarily a research and advisory department the results of whose
investigations and whose recommendations are brought up at such meetings of
department heads and others as may have been predetermined. It is the duty of
the record department to see that records kept by various departments are not
merely kept and stored away, but that from each set of records is secured a
method of most effective analysis so that the records of the past may be compared
with records of the present and conclusions may be drawn as to future action. The
individuals engaged in this department must be experts in theory of accounts, the
science of statistics, the art of graphical presentation and cost accounting. The
tendencies and facts indicated by an analysis of the records must be brought forcibly

98
to the attention of all individuals whose actions based on experience and intuition
differ from the action indicated by an analysis of figures, records and statistics."

Reference: Factory Organization in Relation to Industrial Education

Author(s): Hugo Diemer
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 44,
The
Outlook for Industrial Peace (Nov., 1912), pp. 130-140

Industrial engineering has taken up the responsibility of using statistics to make

processes in organizations efficient. May be Walter Shewart is the first statistician to
develop a systematic method for applying the concepts and methods of statistics to
industrial process control problems and industrial engineering has adopted statistical
process control as a method to be installed in companies through IE department.

The role of statistics as a tool of management

J. M. Juran
Statistica Merlandica
Volume 4, Issue 1-2, February 1950, Pages 69-79
First published: February 1950
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9574.1950.tb00414.x
† *Paper presented at the 26th session of the International Statistical Institute in
Bern, September 1949. Reprinted with permission of the author and of the ISI.

Growth of the mass production industries has posed new and complex problems in
industrial management. Scientific solution of these problems necessitates statistical
analysis of the vast quantities of data generated in these industries as a by-product.

Improvements bordering on the spectacular have been achieved in selected

instances of industrial applications of statistical analysis. Quality control and market
research afford two such instances.

The professional statistical societies can do much to aid the greater utilization of
statistics in industry by:

(a). organizing in each society a major division to deal with the problems of statistics
in industry.

(b). sponsoring joint meetings with societies of managers, industrial engineers, and
others interested in industrial statistics.

Important applications of statistics in industrial engineering: Work Sampling,

Statistical Quality Control, Design of Experiments to improve productivity, Six Sigma

Variability

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No two objects in the world around us, nor any two actions performed by the
same or by different individuals, are exactly identical. Precision machine parts
produced in quantity by the same operator busing identical tools and equipment will,
upon examination show a definite variability.

Manufacturers try to reduce the variability of their output. The complete elimination
of variability in production is usually not feasible, and would be entirely
uneconomical even if feasible. Instead, the manufacturer's philosophy is based on a
tolerable, statistically predictable, level of imperfect product.

Source: Siegmund Halpern, The Assurance Sciences, Prentice-Hall, Inc,.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1978,p.66.

Quality control enables us to ascertain sudden or gradual changes in product

variability (or establish trends) to permit the institution of timely corrective action
that will avoid production of costly scrap.

Industrial Engineering Economics

An Article to Note

The Role of IE in Engineering Economics.

By Riel, Philippe F.
IIE Solutions, April 1998

Industrial engineering (IE) plays a significant role in engineering economics. IE promotes investment
justification processes that determine the appropriateness and value of projects. It also supports
investment analyses correlated with the overall corporate strategy. Moreover, IE advocates
evaluation processes that advance interdisciplinary thinking among company employees who design
cost models and evaluation frameworks that are utilized in decision support systems for a variety of
technological projects.

The idea that I advocate in this article is that the set of evaluation methods of Engineering Economics
is an efficiency improvement tool in the hands of industrial engineer. Industrial engineering is human
effort engineering and system efficiency engineering.

The system functional designers come out with an effective system design that produces an output
acceptable to the customer and may also be profitable with reference to the rate of return prescribed
by the organization. That does not mean that it is the most efficient solution. In the system
engineering process, there is a step in which the proposed basic system is evaluated in various
dimensions and further optimization is done. Industrial engineers make efficiency evaluation in
various dimensions and further improve the efficiency. Engineering economics is one such area.
Engineering economics indicates that search for economic efficiency has to take place on either side

100
of currently proposed engineering equipment. Industrial engineers have to consider various
engineering alternatives to the one currently proposed by the system synthesizer to evaluate the
current efficiency and if needed propose alternatives that improve the system efficiency using
engineering economics methods.

A Quote

Engineering Economics is applicable to all the fields of engineering since engineers design and make
things that people buy. However, it is especially significant to Industrial Engineering, Systems
Engineering, and Management Engineering, since these disciplines often are involved in the cost
management of engineering systems.

http://www.download-it.org/free_files/Pages%20from%20Chapter%2016%20-%20Engineering%20Ec
onomics%20-1faea7ed1d0c63b4b3980e536ad46e1e.pdf

Engineering Economic Appraisal - A Special Role for Industrial Engineers

Engineering economic analysis is to be carried out by all engineers. These analysis reports must be
appraised by IE department engineers. IEs can evaluate whether sufficient technical alternatives were
considered in proposing the technical solution now recommended and then check the data and
calculations of the economic analysis. From IE department, the proposal can go the project appraisal
committee.

Human Effort Industrial Engineering

Human effort industrial engineering is a focus area of industrial engineering.
Functions and Focus Areas of Industrial Engineering

Relevant Principles of Industrial Engineering

Human effort engineering for productivity - Principle of Industrial Engineering

In the resources used in engineering systems, human resource is important because
all economic activity is to satisfy needs of various categories of persons. Human
resources employed in engineering systems have their own needs. Industrial
engineers are unique in engineering disciplines in taking up the engineering of
human effort. They have to synthesize the theories of human sciences, some of
which are developed by industrial engineering also, to design human work for an
optimal combination of productivity, income, comfort, health, safety and satisfaction
of the employed.

Motion economy - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Operators use motions to do work directly or indirectly through machines. Principles
of motion economy were developed by Frank Gilbreth initially. The set of principles
is being extended by further research studies. They need to be employed in all
industrial engineering studies in the redesign of human work in engineering systems
of all branches.

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Operator comfort and health - Principle of Industrial Engineering
As human effort engineers, industrial engineers are also concerned with comfort and
health of operators. The productivity improvement should not lead to discomfort,
fatigue and musculoskeletal disorders. Each human effort redesign project must be
accompanied by an assessment of the comfort, fatigue and health dimensions

Selection of operators - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Different types of engineering trades and work require different types of proficiency
from operators. Industrial engineers as well as managers have to identify the
proficiency required and select persons for specific operations. Science provides the
basis for identifying the proficiencies required for a trade and also the method of
evaluating various persons.

Training of operators - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Industrial engineers have to train the operators in the new machine methods
proposed by them and in the new man motions. The need to demonstrate the
expected output from new methods by specially trained IE department operators is
to be emphasized for acceptance of the new methods and resulting higher output.

Motion Study

Motion study is the basic method to study the effort of men in using hands, hand
tools and machines and machine tools. Stop watch time study is used to determine
the best practice of doing any element of work and such best elemental movements
are incorporated in various tasks and operators are trained in the new productive
way. Operator comfort, safety, and health are given due consideration in redesigning
work in human effort industrial engineering.

Purpose: The goal of motion study is to enhance work performance (quantity and
quality of output) of the human operator through analysis and improvement of body
and hand movements. Motion study can be thought of system improvement at a
micro level and is a part of human effort industrial engineering.

In the contemporary work environment, motion study also involves reducing the
ergonomic stresses associated with a job. This reduces costs (medical treatment and
time lost) associated with work injuries. It may also reduce production losses
associated with hiring and training replacement workers as well as rehabilitation of
persons with work-related injuries.

Motion economy was proposed and developed by Frank Gilbreth through various
articles and books and became an important subject of industrial engineering as
Time and Motion Study or Motion and Time Study. This subject was modified by

102
European thinkers and practitioners of productivity improvement as Work Study, by
proposing methods study as an additional component.

Principles of Motion Economy are to be used in motion design, motion analysis,

motion study of human operators. Motion design is a technique of Human Effort
Industrial Engineering, a core focus area of Industrial Engineering. They can also be
used in robot motion design.

Use of the Human Body

1. The two hands should begin as well as complete their motions at the same time.

2. The two hands should not be idle at the same time except during rest periods.

3. Motions of the arms should be made in opposite and symmetrical directions and
should be made simultaneously.

4. Hand and body motions should be confined to the lowest classification with which
it is possible to perform the work satisfactorily.

5. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever possible, and it

should be reduced to a minimum if it must be overcome by muscular effort.

6. Smooth continuous motion of the hands are preferable to straight line motions
involving sudden and sharp changes in direction.

7. Ballistic movements are faster, easier and more accurate than restricted (fixation)
or controlled movements.

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8. Work should be arranged to permit an easy and natural rhythm wherever
possible.

9. Eye fixations should be as few and as close together as possible.

Arrangement of the workplace

10. There should be a definite and fixed place for all tools and materials. (5S)

11. Tools, materials and controls should be located close to the point of use.

12. Gravity feed bins and containers should be used to deliver material close to the
point of use.

13. Drop deliveries should be used wherever possible.

14. Materials and tools should be located to permit the best sequence of motions.

15. Provisions should be made for adequate conditions for seeing. Good illumination
is the first requirement for satisfactory visual perception.

16. The height of the work place and the chair should preferably arranged so that
alternate sitting and standing at work are easily possible.

17. A chair of the type and height to permit good posture should be provided for
every worker.

Design of tools and equipment

18. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more advantageously
by a jig, a fixture, or a foot-operated device. (Jig and Fixture Design)

19. Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible. (Combination Tools)

20. Tools and materials should be prepositioned whenever possible.

21. Where each finger performs some specific movement, such as in typewriting, the
load should be distributed in accordance with the inherent capacities of the fingers.

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22. Levers, hand wheels and other controls should be located in such positions that
the operator can manipulate them with the least change in body position and with
the greatest speed and ease.

References
Ralph M. Barnes, Motion and Time Study Measurement of Work,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980

Productivity Measurement
Relevant Principles of Industrial Engineering
Productivity measurement - Principle of Industrial Engineering
To maintain system level focus, productivity measures at system level have to be
developed and used. The relation between productivity measures at the enterprise
level, process level, and work station level have to be established to facilitate
decision making.

Work measurement - Principle of Industrial Engineering

To determine the best combination of motion elements, measurements of the time
required to do each motion as well as bundles of motion are needed. Work
measurement is an important measure in industrial engineering to select the best
work method for machine elements, purely manual work elements or a combination
of man-machine work elements. It is useful to set day’s task for an operator.
Task-based incentives can be set based on the standard time which is an output of
work measurement.

Cost Measurement - Principle of Industrial Engineering

Productivity improvement has to lead to decreased cost at the unit level for products.
The ultimate proof of productivity improvement is the reduced unit cost reflected in
the reported unit cost of products. As cost accounting is a well-developed
independent area now with statutory bodies in many countries, industrial engineers
have to work in cooperation with them to get the representative cost figures that
are reliable for decision making.

Industrial Engineering Data and Measurements

Industrial engineering is engineering done in response to data generated as

engineering products are produced or as engineering processes are used in the
organizations. The important data used in industrial engineering are costs, human
factor related data, time taken for completing machine tasks, manual tasks and
man-machine tasks, productivity related data, defects related data and resource
related data.

Cost data is the earliest focus for industrial engineers. Henry Towne and F.W. Taylor
first focused on cost data based industrial engineering. Then, the importance of task

105
completion times was pointed out by Halsey and Taylor came out with time study to
find the time taken by manual tasks. Taylor also pointed out to the need to
calculated machine task completion times by formulas. Tayor and Gilbreth focused
on fatigue and its measurement. The definition of productivity emerged and
productivity measurement started. Both Taylor, who advocated redesign or tasks,
methods and processes and Miles who advocate redesign of products strongly
emphasized the objective of maintaining the quality of the system, product or
process while redesigning for cost reduction. Thus industrial engineers have to make
defect or quality measurement before and after redesign and make sure that quality
deterioration does not take place in any dimension.

Thus number of IE measurements have to be made by industrial engineers to do

industrial engineering and present persuasive redesign projects to management for
implementation.

Cost Measurement and Analysis-A Necessary Part of Industrial Engineering

Education & Training
Balbinder S. Deo and Doug Strong
Balbinder S. Deo, Assistant Professor, Department of Finance & Management
Science,
College of Commerce, University of Saskatchewan, 25 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada S7N 5A7.
Doug Strong, Professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering, University of
Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 5V6.

Some Important Points made in the paper.

One of the basic duties of Industrial Engineering professionals is to make

improvements in operations, and systems of operations, to reduce the cost of
operations.

Two assumptions play a major role in promoting the use of physical measures of
productivity.

1. There exists an inverse relationship between physical measures of productivity

and cost.
2. Increasing the physical productivity of resources used in production operations
can reduce the cost of production of a manufactured product or service.

These relationships may hold true provided reduction in the physical quantity of one
resource in one operation does not increase the consumption of other resources in
the same operation and / or in other operations of the production system. Gain in
the physical productivity of one resource may cause loss in others. For example,
increase in the productivity of labor by employing high production capacity machines
may cause loss in the productivity of machinery employed or vice versa. In a similar

106
fashion, within a production system, gain in physical productivity measure of one
functional area may cause loss in productivity of other related functional areas.

Improvement in productivity at the firm level, not just at the functional level, can be
helpful in reducing the cost of production.

The measurement activity done by cost accounting accounts for material, labor and
expenses. To do this all resources used by the organization are recorded for the
purchase, use and salvage disposal if any. Thus resources are measured as part of
cost measured. Defects and defectives produced are also recorded in cost
accounting records based on shop production data.

Cost Measurement in Engineering Profession - An Historical Perspective

Increasing sales and reducing cost of production by productive use of resources in

operations can achieve increase in profit. The use of cost as a measure of
productivity is not new among engineering professionals. Literature describing the
history of engineering provides significant evidence of its use and promotion among
engineers by the pioneers of the profession.

Henry C. Metcalf (1885), as a superintendent of ordnance depots, realized the

importance of cost measurement and analysis in manufacturing. He proposed to
measure costs to the minutest detail possible within the organization to measure the
efficiency of manufacturing and administration operations and also to create plan of
cost of operations by knowing the detailed elements of cost involved for each
operation performed on a product during manufacturing process. He published his
thoughts in a book titled “The Cost of Manufactures and the administration of
Workshops, Public and Private” in 1885, for providing guidance to other engineering
professionals in the field.

Henry Towne (1886), another engineering professional, wrote a paper titled

‘Engineer as an Economist’ for one of the meetings of The American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. According to him, determination of cost was one of the
important duties of an engineer. To achieve this end he proposed the establishment
of a separate shop accounting section at each workshop level to collect cost related
information to meet the cost information needs of engineering professionals.

Hugo Diemer (1910), is the first faculty member of Industrial Engineering subject at
Pennsylvania State College, quoted F.W. Taylor's appeal to engineering
professionals to take up the responsibility of cost related data collection and analysis
as part of profession.

Charles Buxton Going published a book titled, "Principles of Industrial Engineering"

in 1911. He called industrial engineering, “New branch of engineering grown out of
the rise of, and enormous expansion of the manufacturing system.” This branch of
engineering, according to him, “Has drawn upon mechanical engineering, economics,
sociology, psychology, philosophy and accountancy to form a distinct body of science

107
of its own”. In this definition of industrial engineering, inclusion of the subjects of
economics and accountancy testify to the fact that the cost measurement and
analysis was regarded as part of industrial engineering theory and practice at that
time.

Howell, in his presentation at the 1995 International Industrial Engineering

Conference, advised industrial engineers to reclaim their traditional industrial
engineering responsibilities, such as, measurements of labor costs, manufacturing
methods, and productivity improvement, along with other responsibilities so that
their demand in industry, job title and functional identity remains intact. According
to him, cost estimation should be one of the areas for which an industrial engineer
should also be responsible and accountable.

Recent Developments

Recent studies by Barnes (1991), Dhavale (1992), and Eaglesham (1998), found in the
Industrial Engineering literature on Activity Based Costing technique, broadly point
out that some industrial engineers take interest in cost measurement.

Lenz and Neitzel (1995) developed their own methodology to develop a cost
simulation model. In this model, they have used a cost equation that consists of
eight components, such as station cost; labor cost; overhead cost; inventory cost;
automation cost; capacity cost; material cost; and indirect cost. In this type of
modeling, they claimed, all performance measures can be translated into costs by
applying cost equations to the results of factory model.

Deo (2001) developed an Operation Based Costing model to measure cost of each
resource in each operation, and the cost of each operation in a production system. In
this model, an operation is considered as the basic unit of production system. The
structure of the model matches the typical structure of an operation.

It is observed by the authors that cost measurement and analysis is slowly

becoming one of the basic requirements for various job openings related to
industrial and manufacturing engineering area. Education and training of industrial
engineers in cost measurement and analysis, can give them an extra advantage in
raising productivity and reducing cost in industrial organizations. Industrial
engineering schools and departments need to introduce the subject as a necessary
part of industrial engineering education and training for future generation of
industrial engineers.

Work Measurement
F.W. Taylor focused on reduction of machine time and operator times as the
foundation for productivity improvement. So the machine time and operator time
have to be measured and the rationale behind the time taken has to be understood.
Science needs to be developed to hypothesize and validate input variables and time
required to complete various elements of operations and processes. Then inputs can
be modified using engineering alternatives and time can be reduced. Taylor gave the

108
name of "Time Study" to this process of measuring time, understanding the time
taken to do a task and reducing the time by redesigning the process, operations and
elements.

Hence in industrial engineering, to improve performance and productivity, time

taken to complete tasks and elements are measured. Time taken by men for manual
elements, time taken by machines for machine elements and time taken by robots
etc. are measured in work measurement either by direct observation or standard
data or predetermined standard data which is more universal. Time taken by
machine elements are determined by formulae determined for various machines
and processes.

Productivity Measurement - Industrial Engineering Measurements

Productivity in simple terms is production quantity for unit of each resource utilized.
These simple measures are called partial productivity measures. Productivity can
be measured for unit input of various combinations of resources by defining unit of
inputs appropriately. For output from a specific machine can be measured. Output of
manpower of a section can be measured. Productivity is also defined by unit of
total resources. In this case, all outputs and inputs are expressed in money terms.

As an example, output of a machine tool can be calculated and whether it is

improving or not over time can be assessed. Productivity improvement occurs if the
output of the machine tool per unit time is increasing over time. The output can be
expressed as output of parts or as revenue earned or material removed or as cost of
production. The decision of the output is based on the appropriateness to the
situation in the organization.

Waste Measurement

Waste elimination is the objective of industrial engineering. The paper "Scientific

Management" by Taylor is focused on eliminating waste of human effort in
unnecessary and inefficient motions, movements and activities of men.

It is Taiichi Ohno, we brought the waste measurement into more focus with his 7
waste model.

In the TPM model, six big losses and as a further breakup 16 losses were indicated.
Now measuring these wastes with respect to standards and eliminating these wastes
apart from improving the standard themselves has become a significant pursuit.
Hence waste measurement is now an important IE Measurement activity.

Productivity Management

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In the Eleventh edition of "Operations Management for Competitive Advantage"
Chase, Jobs and Aquilano start the preface with statement "Operations Management
(OM) has been a key element in the improvement in productivity in businesses
around the world." Productivity growth created by operations management creates
competitive advantage.

Productivity is defined in simple terms as (output of goods and services)/(input of

resources) and productivity improvement results in reduction of unit cost of
products of the organization. Henry Towne, in a paper presented in 1886 in the
ASME Annual meeting proposed that reducing cost of production is the responsibility
of engineers entrusted with shop management and works management.

"Gain Sharing" Productivity Benefit - Towne

Involving workmen in the task of improving productivity and decreasing the cost of
production received attention and Towne mentioned in 1886 itself that he will
present a paper shortly on the topic

In the paper presented in 1889, with the title "Gain Sharing" Towne suggested a plan
of sharing the reduction of cost production with workmen and foremen. He gave his
argument of the same.

The factors affecting the profit may be divided into several distinct groups, as
follows :

I. Those contributed or controlled by the owner or principal, —^such as capital, plant,

character of buildings, machinery and organization ; and, to a greater or less degree,
the skill, experience, industry, and ability of the owner so far as he personally
manages the business.

2. Those influenced by the mercantile staff, — the buyer and the selling agent in the
case supposed.

3. Those determined by causes beyond the control of the principal and his agents;
such as fluctuations in cost of raw material or in the market value of the finished
product, the rate of interest, losses by bad debts, etc.

4. Those influenced by the workmen or operatives ; such as care of property,

economy in the use of material and supplies, and, chiefly, efficiency in the use of
machinery and employment of labor.

The right solution of "gain sharing" with persons involved in increasing profit will
manifestly consist in allotting to each member of the organization an interest in that
portion of the profit fund which is or may be affected by his individual efforts or skill,
and protecting this interest against diminution resulting from the errors, of others,
or from extraneous causes not under his control. Such a solution, while not simple, is

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attainable under many circumstances, and attainable by methods which experience
has shown to be both practical and successful.

In the case of employees it will be best solved if it can be so formulated that as

presented to the employee, it becomes an invitation from the principal that they
should enter into an industrial partnership, wherein each will retain, unimpaired, his
existing equitable rights, but will share with the other the benefits, if any are realized,
of certain new contributions made by each to the common interest. Let us suppose
that the wages of the operatives are already fairly adjusted according to the
prevailing scale, so that for the employer to offer them a portion of his profits
without a guaranty of return would be equivalent to his giving them more than the
fair market value of their services; while if, under this inducement, they gave him
better or more work than before, they would not receive fair recompense in case, by
reason of causes beyond their control, his business yielded no profit. But let us
suppose, further, that the principal, wishing to enlist the self-interest of his
employees to augment the profits of the business, should offer to the operatives a
proposition somewhat as follows :

"I have already ascertained the cost of our product in labor, supplies, economy of
material, and such other items as you can influence. I will undertake to organize and
pay for a system whereby the cost of product in these same items will be periodically
ascertained, and will agree to divide among you a certain portion ( retaining myself
the remainder ) of any gain or reduction of cost, which you may affect by reason of
increased efficiency of labor, or increased economy in the use of material, or both;
this arrangement not to disturb your rates of wages, which are to continue, as at
present, those generally paid for similar services."

The system for which I have adopted the designation of " Gain-sharing " The system
is now in actual use as affecting some 300 employees, has been in operation more
than two years and is demonstrated to be practical and beneficial. Its most obvious
application is to productive industries, especially those whose product is of a simple
or uniform kind ; but it may be adapted to many others, and also to the business of
large mercantile houses. It is equally applicable to cases where labor is employed
either by the piece, by the day, or by contract, and in no way impairs the existing
freedom of the relation between employer and employee, but tends to confer
substantial benefit on both sides.

The basis or starting-point of the system is an accurate knowledge of the present

cost of product ( or, in the case of mercantile business, the cost of operating it ),
stated in terms which include the desired factors, that is, those which can be
influenced or controlled by the employees who are to participate in the result, and
which exclude all other factors. In some cases the previous method of accounting or
book-keeping may have been such as to supply this information, in which case the
gain-sharing system can be easily and promptly organized. As a general rule it may
be stated that, in the case of an account affecting the operatives in a producing or
manufacturing business, the following items should be included^ viz. : labor at cost,
raw material, measured by quantity only ( for which purpose an arbitrary fixed price

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may be assumed ) ; incidental supplies, such as oil, waste, tools, and implements at
cost ; cost of power, light, and water, where means exist for correctly measuring
them (for which purpose it often pays to provide local meters ) ; cost of renewals
and repairs of plant ; and, finally, the cost of superintendence, clerk hire, etc.,
incident to the department covered by the system. In like manner the following
items should be excluded viz. : market values of raw material ( which are liable to
fluctuation ); general expenses, whether relating to management of works or to
commercial administration, and, in general, all items over which the operatives can
exercise no control or economy.

I will organize the system, will assume the cost of book-keeping and other expenses
incident to it, and will provide all the facilities reasonably required to assist you in
reducing the cost of product ; I will credit the account with the output at the cost
price heretofore obtaining, namely $1 per unit, and will charge it with the items in
the inclusive list ; if at the end of the year the credits exceed the charges, I will divide
the resulting gain or reduction in cost, with you, retaining myself one portion — say
one-half — and distributing the other portion among you pro rata on the basis of the
wages earned by each during the year. " Suppose, then, that at the end of the year it
was found that the cost per unit of product had been reduced from $1 to 95 cents,
that the total gain thus resulting was $800, and that the aggregate wages paid during
the year had been $10,000. One-half of the gain would be $400, which would equal 4
per cent, on the wages fund, so that each operative would be entitled to a dividend
of 4 per cent, on his earnings during the year. This is equivalent to two weeks' extra
wages, no mean addition to any income, and amounting, even in the case of a
laborer earning $1.50 per day, to a cash dividend of $18 at the end of the year.

To accomplish this the Company agrees to organize the method of operation, to

keep the necessary accounts, and in general to facilitate matters so far as it
reasonably can ; the employees, on the other hand, agree to use their best efforts to
increase the efficiency of their work, to economize in the use of supplies and
material, and in general to do their share toward reducing the cost of finished
products.

Hasley

Criticism of Gain Sharing

First The workmen are given a share in what they do not earn. Increased profits may
arise from more systematic shop management, decreased expenses of the sales
department, or many other causes with which the workmen have nothing to do.
Anything given them from such sources becomes simply a gift, the result of which is
wholly pernicious —in fact the entire system savors of patronage and paternalism.

Hasley Plan

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The plan assumes two slightly different forms, according to the nature of the work ;
one form being suited to work produced in such quantities as to be reducible to a
strictly manufacturing basis, and the other form to the more limited production of
average practice. In both forms the essential principle is the same, as follows : The
time required to do a given piece of work is determined from previous experience,
and the workman, in addition to his usual daily wages, is offered a premium for
every hour by which he reduces that time on future work, the amount of the
premium being less than his rate of wages. Making the hourly premium less than the
hourly wages is the foundation stone on which rest all the merits of the system,
since by it if an hour is saved on a given product the cost of the work is less and the
earnings of the workman are greater than if the hour is not saved, the workman
being in effect paid for saving time. Assume a case in detail : Under the old plan a
piece of work requires ten hours for its production, and the wages paid is thirty cents
per hour. Under the new plan a premium of ten cents is offered the workman for
each hour which he saves over the ten previously required. If the time be reduced
successively to five hours the results will be as follows :

In certain classes of work an increase of production is accompanied with a

proportionate increase of muscular exertion, and if the work is already laborious a
liberal premium will be required to produce results. In other classes of work
increased production requires only increased attention to speeds and feeds with an
increase of manual dexterity and an avoidance of lost time. In such cases a more
moderate premium will suffice.

Productivity management activity was practiced and described in a systematic

manner in production shop activities by F.W. Taylor.

In the paper, "A Piece-Rate System, Being a Step Toward Partial Solution of the Labor
Problem," presented to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1895. F.W.
Taylor [1] described a system of management, which was rapid in attaining the
maximum productivity of each machine and man. Thus, productivity management as
an area of management was introduced in the published literature by Taylor in 1895.

Evolution of Productivity Management Practice by Taylor

F.W. Taylor started the productivity improvement and management practice with
the system implemented by him in the works of the Midvale Steel Company, of
Philadelphia . He described the system and developed it further in number of papers
and books. He also implemented the system in number of companies as an executive
and consultant.

Contribution of Taylor – Piece Rate System

The system described in 1895 paper [6] had the objective of rapid attainment of the
maximum productivity of each machine and man. It consisted of three principal
elements:

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(i) An elementary rate-fixing department.
(2) The differential rate system of piece-work.
(3) What he believes to be the best method of managing men who work by the day.

The rate fixing department is actually an engineering department in the machine

shop that determined the production processes of the goods produced and
operations of the machine to get maximum productivity from the machine. The
department personnel also observed large number of operators working on the
machines at elementary operation levels and determined the best way of doing
manual elements. The choice of the best ways of machining operations and manual
operations was done on the basis of time taken. Hence time study or measuring time
is an essential element of this system. But it is very important to emphasize that in
machine shops and in general engineering systems, improvement of the engineering
aspect is the core of the productivity improvement and management system
proposed by Taylor.

Taylor – Shop Management

In Shop Management presented in 1903 [7], Taylor defined art of management "as
knowing exactly what you want men to do, and then seeing that they do it in the
best and cheapest way." The definition identifies two activities. Managers of
business or industrial organizations have to find out what goods and services the
market wants and decide what their organization can produce and sell at the
prevailing market prices. The second activity is then focusing on the doing the
production at the cheapest way. This is an area of productivity improvement and
management. Taylor’s focus in shop management paper/book is productivity
improvement and management. He elaborated the system that he described in piece
rate system further in shop management. He stated that there was enormous
difference between the amount of work which a first-class man can do under
favorable circumstances and the work actually produced by the average man of the
time. The favorable circumstances in engineering sections/departments and
processes are to be created by redesigning the engineering elements. Presently,
industrial engineering identifies machine, material, energy and information as the
key engineering elements in engineering systems. All engineering aspects of an
engineering system are to be examined by industrial engineers to create favorable
circumstances that facilitate operators to get maximum productivity from the
machine effort as well as human effort.

In all man-machine systems the large increase in output is due partly to the changes,
in the machines or small tools and appliances, and the total gain made is due to the
redesign of the system that includes machine effort and human effort. Taylor gave
number of steps in organizing the productivity improvement effort.at enterprise
level. He wrote that before starting productivity improvement effort, some issues
should be carefully considered: First, the importance of choosing the general type of
management best suited to the particular case. Second, that in all cases money must
be spent, and in many cases a great deal of money, before the changes are
completed which result in lowering cost. Third, that it takes time to reach any result

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worth aiming at. Fourth, the importance of making changes in their proper order,
and that unless the right steps are taken, and taken in their proper sequence, there
is great danger from deterioration in the quality of the output and from serious
troubles with the workmen, often resulting in strikes.

Four principles were given in shop management for high productivity. There are:

1. Standardized conditions that enable an operator to complete a task with certainty.

2. A large definite daily task that promises extra income for higher than average
output.
3. High pay for success.
4. Loss in case of failure.

As part of productivity management, many details in the production shop, which

are usually regarded as of little importance and are left to be determined workmen,
and foremen, must be thoroughly and carefully designed and standardized as part of
plan of the work and directions for actual jobs are to be given based on such designs.
Some of the detail specially highlighted in cases of machine shop include the care
and tightening of the belts; the exact shape and quality of each cutting tool; the
establishment of a complete tool room from which properly ground tools, as well as
jigs, templates, drawings, etc., are issued and received back. Each machine tool must
be standardized and a table or slide rule constructed for it showing how to run it to
the best advantage. Modern engineering is practiced with the help of drawings for
designs. Modern shop management for productivity is also to be done similarly
based on process and operation designs or instruction sheets which specify the time
to be taken to complete them.

Taylor made the statement in his shop management paper that almost all shops are
under-officered. He advocated increase in number of shop officers to as high as eight
as part of his productivity improvement organization. The role of top management in
introducing the productivity management activity was also described Taylor. They
have to understand the benefits and challenges of introducing the change in
management process and have to be prepared to handle the objections and
complaints that are likely to arise. They have to approve the investment required to
introduce the productivity management system and provide resources.

Taylor – Scientific Management

In the paper/book, Scientific Management, Taylor expressed the view that the
principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the
employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee [8]. He further
explained that the greatest permanent prosperity for the workman, coupled with the
greatest prosperity for the employer, can be brought about only when the work of
the establishment is done with the smallest combined expenditure of human effort,
plus nature's resources, plus the cost for the use of capital in the shape of machines,
buildings, etc. Or, to state the same thing in a different way: that the greatest
prosperity can exist only as the result of the greatest possible productivity of the

115
men and machines of the establishment--that is, when each man and each machine
are turning out the largest possible output. Thus productivity focus of the paper
“Scientific Management” is brought out clearly by Taylor.

Close, intimate, personal cooperation between the management and the men is the
essence of modern scientific or task management, which gives greatest possible
productivity. The emphasis on machine in machine shops is to be noted. Machine
is to be improved by industrial engineer first and then effort of man to operate the
improved machine operation has to be designed. Taylor in 1911, claimed that at
least 50,000 workmen in the United States were employed under the new scientific
management system; and they were receiving from 30 per cent to 100 per cent
higher wages daily. The companies that successfully employed the scientific
management had increased the output, per man and per machine, on an average to
double the earlier production.

Recent Publications on Productivity Management

Scott Sink authored the book “Productivity Management: Planning, Measurement

and Evaluation, Control and Improvement in 1985 [3]. He also described the
productivity management process with the starting point as productivity
measurement. The steps in the productivity management process are given as: (1)
measuring and evaluating productivity; (2) planning for control and improvement of
productivity based on information provided by measurement and evaluation process;
(3) making control and improvement interventions; and (4) measuring and
evaluating the impact of these interventions. For productivity evaluation, standards
are to be generated by one of the various methods as appropriate. The methods
indicated include: 1. Estimation 2. Engineering approach 3. Historical information 4.
Normative values. Both Sumanth and Sink indicated large number of productivity
improvement methods and techniques which can be used for productivity
improvement.

Propokenko also described productivity management based on productivity

measurement and analysis [13]. Recent research studies in productivity
measurement are summarized in a book on productivity management authored by
Phusawat in 2013 [15].

The literature reveals that Taylor started his productivity improvement publications
with a management system applicable to the whole enterprise using piece rate
system or day-payment system or both. But he highlighted in the paper that
elementary rate fixing the primary tool or system. Differential piece rate helps in
implementing the output specified by rate fixing section. His subsequent works are
also aimed at the enterprise application of shop management or scientific
management.

Applied Industrial Engineering

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The "Applied Industrial Engineering" term was used by Shafeek et al. [2014] . Rao
[2017] stated in Principles of Industrial Engineering that "Industrial engineering
defined as system efficiency engineering has application in all branches of
engineering. Productivity improvement is needed in engineering systems of all
branches and therefore industrial engineering needs to be used in all branches of
engineering. It needs to be taught in all engineering branches."

New engineering areas like biotechnology and nanotechnology are growing.

Productivity improvement is an essential activity in all technology systems. Industrial
engineering programme designers have to answer the question: Is there a need to
start education in a new technology now in the IE programme? But industrial
engineering professionals have to apply the current industrial engineering theory
and practice to the new technologies. We all know presently, industry 4.0 is the
revolution in all engineering disciplines. In this context, the paper by Sackey and
Bester [2016] exploring the implications of industry 4.0 for industrial engineering is a
laudable exercise.

What are the process steps in applied industrial engineering?

An initial proposal.

Monitor - The technology environment for identifying new technologies.

Explore - The selected technology
Analyze - Measure and determine productivity improvement opportunities
Develop - Ideas to improve productivity
Analyze - Economics and optimization opportunities
Participate - in full project report finalization
Incorporate - Productivity improvements
Install - The project
Manage - Productivity maintenance and improvement activities in the projects and
technology

The initial proposal was posted in Linkedin communities for comments and
suggestions. Response indicates general support. (15 June 2018)

Modified steps

Monitor - Explore - Analyze - Develop - Optimize - Participate - Install - Improve

Brief explanation of the Applied Industrial Engineering - Process Steps

Monitor - Technology Monitoring - Applied Industrial Engineering

Explore - Technology Exploration - Applied Industrial Engineering

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Analysis - Productivity Analysis of New Technology - Applied Industrial Engineering

Develop - Develop Productivity Knowledge of New Technology - Applied Industrial

Engineering

Optimize - Optimize Productivity Engineering Ideas - Applied Industrial Engineering

Participate - Participate in New Technology Implementation Projects - Applied

Industrial Engineering

Install - Be An Active Member of the Project Execution and Management Team -

Applied Industrial Engineering

Improve - Continuous and Periodic Improvement of Productivity - Applied Industrial

Engineering

Kambhampati,Venkata Satya Surya Narayana Rao. (2017). Principles of industrial

engineering. IIE Annual Conference.Proceedings, , 890-895.
https://search.proquest.com/docview/1951119980

Sackey, S.M., and Bester, A., (2016), “Industrial Engineering Curriculum in Industry
4.0 in a South African Context,” South African Journal of Industrial Engineering
Vol. 27, No. 4, December, pp 101-114

Shafeek, Hani, Mohammed Aman, and Muhammad Marsudi, (2014), “From

Traditional to Applied: A Case Study in Industrial Engineering Curriculum,”
International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and
Industrial Engineering Vol. 8, No. 10, pp. 3378-87.

Source:
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2018/05/applied-industrial-engineering-process.html

In the book, Introduction to Modern Industrial Engineering, the principles, functions

and focus areas are introduced to the learners.

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Productivity Science

“Productivity science is scientific effort, that in any specific work situation,

identifies the appropriate philosophy, culture, systems, processes, technology,
methods and human physical action and behavior and elements of each of them,
that will maximize positive (social, environmental and economic) outcomes relative
to the resources consumed.”
in Frameworks for Productivity Science of Machine Effort and Human Effort
(Proceedings of the 2020 IISE Annual Conference, L. Cromarty, R. Shirwaiker, P.
Wang, eds.)

Development of productivity science requires application of scientific method.

It involves the following steps.

1. Observing the phenomenon or the event occurrence for number of repetitions

and measuring observable inputs and outputs.

2. Doing correlations between various measurements.

3. Logically connecting measurements with causal effect. Does a measurement has

an effect on other measurements?

4. Developing propositions for measurements have causal connections. Now we call

the measurements as concepts used in the proposition.

5. From the proposition developed, we try to foretell what will happen if a new
repetition is made controlling the input concept. The anticipated result is called
hypothesis. The concepts are now termed variables as these are context specific and
the values can be controlled, varied as per desire of the experimenter.

6. A test of hypothesis is done to check whether the result is as per our forecast or
not.

7. If the result is as per our forecast, the proposition can be used in future to get
desired results.

Productivity science is concerned with developing propositions that indicate

concepts that positively or negatively affect productivity.

Taylor's research on machine tool productivity is the most important productivity

science development study. All industrial engineers have to read it to understand the
effort made by F.W. Taylor to increase productivity of machine tool. Initially, he felt
much more output is possible from a machine and an operator combination. How
will it come? Machines can be operated at higher speeds. He used that reasoning to
carry out experiments and collect data that supported his guess.

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Taylor is the first person who wrote about a system to improve productivity in
machine shop. He contributed to productivity science, productivity engineering and
productivity management. It is important to study the productivity science
developed by Taylor through his paper "The Art of Metal Cutting." Taylor did
research on productivity improvement of machining in turning process for 26 years
and provided number of relations between cutting variables and productivity. An
attempt is made in this series of notes to present the research results and
conclusions in the order of importance given by Taylor regarding productivity
improvement potential.

The numbers refer to passage numbers in the paper.

ELEMENTS AFFECTING CUTTING SPEED OF TOOLS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR RELATIVE

IMPORTANCE

278 The cutting speed of a tool is directly dependent upon the following elements.
The order in which the elements are given indicates their relative effect in modifying
the cutting speed, and in order to compare them, we have written in each case
figures which represent, broadly speaking, the ratio between the lower and higher
limits of speed as affected by each element. These limits will be met with daily in
machine shop practice.

279 (A) The quality of the metal which is to be cut; i.e., its hardness or other qualities
which affect the cutting speed.

Proportion is as 1 in the case of semi-hardened steel or chilled iron to 100 in the case
of very soft low carbon steel.

280 (B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the V tool is made, and the
heat treatment of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 in tools made from tempered carbon steel to 7 in the best high
speed tools.

281 (C) The thickness of the shaving; or, the thickness of the spiral strip or band of
metal which is to be removed by the tool, measured while the metal retains its
original density; not the thickness of the actual shaving, the metal of which has
become partly disintegrated.

Proportion is as 1 with thickness of shaving 3/16 of an inch to 3.5 with thickness of

shaving 1/64 of an inch.

282 (D) The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool, chiefly because of the
effect which it has upon the thickness of the shaving.

Proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to 6 in a broad nosed cutting tool. ,

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283 (E) Whether a copious stream of water or other cooling medium is used on the
tool.

Proportion is as 1 for tool running dry to 1.41 for tool cooled by a copious stream of
water.

284 (F) The depth of the cut; or, one-half of the amount by which the forging or
casting is being reduced in diameter in turning.

Proportion is as 1 with 1/2 inch depth of cut to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut.

285 (G) The duration of the cut; i. c., the time which a tool must last under pressure
of the shaving without being reground.

Proportion is as 1 when tool is to be ground every 1.5 hour to 1.207 when tool is to
be ground every 20 minutes.

286 (H) The lip and clearance angles of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 with lip angle of 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees.

287 (J) The elasticity of the work and of the tool on account of producing chatter.

Proportion is as 1 with tool chattering to 1.15 with tool running smoothly.

288 A brief recapitulation of these elements is as follows:

(A) quality of metal to be cut: 1 to 100;
(B) chemical composition of tool steel: 1 to 7;
(C) thickness of shaving: 1 to 3.5;
(D) shape or contour of cutting edge: 1 to 6;
(E) copious stream of water on the tool: 1 to 1.41;
(F) depth of cut: 1 with 1/2 inch depth to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut;
(G) duration of cut: 1 with 1.5 hour cut to 1.20 with 20-minute cut;
(H) lip and clearance angles: 1 with lip angle 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61
degrees;
(J) elasticity of the work and of the tool: 1 with tool chattering to 1.15, with tool
running smoothly.

(A) quality of metal to be cut: 1 to 100;

279 (A) The quality of the metal which is to be cut; i.e., its hardness or other qualities
which affect the cutting speed.

Proportion is as 1 in the case of semi-hardened steel or chilled iron to 100 in the case
of very soft low carbon steel.

A. QUALITY OF METAL BEING CUT

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THE EFFECT OF THE QUALITY OF THE METAL BEING CUT UPON CUTTING SPEED

1129 we made great numbers of experiments upon the effect of the quality of the
metal being cut upon the cutting speed.

SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL FORGINGS AND CASTINGS ACCORDING TO

THEIR CUTTING SPEEDS

1133 For practical use in the machine shop it is evident that the most important and
logical method of classifying all forgings and castings which are to be machined is in
accordance with their cutting
speeds.

1134 We have divided all metals into classes according to their cutting speeds,
which vary from one another with the common ratio of 1.1, namely: Class No. 1
corresponds to that metal which will give us the highest cutting speed which we are
likely ever to use in a machine shop; Class No. 2 represents a metal whose cutting
speed is that of Class No. 1 divided by 1.1, or [Cutting speed of Class 1/1.1] and so on,
the cutting speed of each class being connected with the one preceding it by the
ratio of 1.1.

1135 It is of great importance to connect this numerical scale of hardness (which

varies by the common rate of 1.1) directly and permanently with certain qualities of
metal and with cutting tools of definitely known cutting properties. As a basis for
accomplishing this we would state that Class No. 13 upon this scale corresponds to a
cutting speed of 60 feet per minute, for a standard cut of 20 minutes duration when
a high speed inch tool (see Folder 5, Fig. 24) of the chemical composition of tool No.
27 (Folder 21) is used, taking a depth of cut of inch and feed of inch.

1136 Our experiments indicate also that Class No. 13 represents a speed of 99 feet
(in round numbers 100 feet) for the best high speed tool (Folder 20, Tool No. 1),
running under the same conditions as stated in paragraph 744.

1137 Using this data as a basis, our scale of "hardness classes" for metals can be
connected with other shapes of tools and other qualities of tool steel, other depths
of cut, and other thicknesses of feed, by reference to the various tables and formula
given throughout this paper.

1138 In using this classification it will be noted that the best modern high speed inch
tool, if cutting metal belonging to Class 1 would have a cutting speed of 316 feet per
minute with a standard inch depth of cut and inch feed; and such a metal as this
would be much softer than any steel which is cut in a machine shop.

1139 By referring to paragraphs 545 to 747, it will be seen that for what we call a
hard steel forging of about the quality of a hard locomotive tire, a cutting speed of

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45 feet corresponds to Class 21 and 1/4, while a soft steel having a cutting speed of
198 feet corresponds to Class 5 and 3/4.

1140 Having a clearly defined hardness classification of this sort for metals enables
us to tie all of our experimental and practical work for years past together, even
although tools of different chemical composition, and therefore of different cutting
speeds, were used. This system of classification is also admirably suited for use on a
slide rule.

THE EFFECT OF THE QUALITY OR HARDNESS OF STEEL FORGINGS UPON THE CUTTING
SPEED
1141 There are three important elements which affect the hardness or the cutting
properties of steel forgings:
a Their chemical composition.
b The thoroughness with which the metal is forged, that is, the amount that the
cross-section of the ingot has been reduced in making the forging and the forging
heat.
c The subsequent heat treatment which the forging receives, that is, whether it has
been laid down to cool in the air, annealed, or oil hardened, and the exact
temperatures of annealing and the rapidity of cooling.

1142 It may be said, however, that for steel containing 0 .40 per cent of carbon or
less, the percentage of carbon is a fairly reliable guide to the hardness or cutting
speed.

BEST GUIDE TO HARDNESS AS IT AFFECTS CUTTING SPEEDS LIES IN THE PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF STEEL AS INDICATED BY THE TENSILE STRENGTH AND PERCENTAGE
OF STRETCH AND THE CONTRACTION OF AREA OF STANDARD TENSILE TEST BARS
CUT FROM THE BODY OF THE FORGING

1143 The physical properties of steel constitute a fairly accurate guide to its cutting
speed; and these properties are best indicated by the tensile strength and
percentage of stretch and contraction of area obtained from standard tensile test
bars cut from such a position in the body of the forging as to represent its average
quality and then broken in a testing machine.

1144 It is of course impossible in most cases for any ordinary machine shop to cut
test bars from the forgings which are actually used in the shop. It is, however,
entirely possible and in many cases desiräble to purchase forgings and castings with
certain guaranteed tensile strength, stretch and contraction, and thus insure both
the superior quality of the metal bought, and at the same time obtain metal
practically uniform in its cutting speed. In our search for a guide to the cutting speed
of metals, this has proven the only reliable index to the cutting speed.

1145 On Folder 23, Table 141, and also on Folder 12, Tables 81 and 83, we record a
large number of steel forgings which were accurately standardized by us in the
course of our experiments. Their

123
chemical composition and physical properties will be found opposite the cutting
speeds for our standard j- inch tool, with standard 20-minute cut, inch depth of cut
arid inch feed, the speeds in one column corresponding to tool No. 27 (Folder 21)
and in the other column to tool No. 1 (Folder 20).

1146 A study of this table, however, will show that in general the cutting speeds
grow slower as the percentage of carbon in the steel to be cut grows greater. In
general, also, it will be noted that the cutting speed becomes slower as the tensile
strength of the metal becomes higher, and that the cutting speed grows faster as the
percentage of stretch increases.

1147 We have discussed at considerable length in paragraphs 506 to 579 (theory as

to why pressure has no relation to cutting), a theory explaining why the cutting
speed increases with an increase of stretch and diminishes with an increase of
tensile strength.

1149 We have developed the following empirical formula which is at least a partial
guide to the cutting speed of steel of good quality when the physical properties of
the forging are known as represented by a standard test bar 2 X inch cut from the
body of the forging and broken in a testing machine.

1150 The cutting speed as represented by this formula will be found in the column in
Folder 23, Table 141, opposite the actual speeds obtained from running the tools,
and an inspection of the figures given in these two columns will indicate the degree
of accuracy with which the formula represents the facts.

1151 We do not feel satisfied with this formula, and shall endeavor to find a better
substitute.

1152 It is well known that in the harder grades of steel, particularly those which are
harder than hard tire steel, both the tensile strength and the percentage of stretch
are variable, that is, materially different results will be shown from test bars cut from
the same forging. For this reason also the tensile strength and stretch, in our
judgment, will never prove an accurate guide to the cutting speed of very hard
forgings. However, it is the best guide at present known, and therefore has a certain
value.

1153 We have tried experiments along several different lines in our endeavor to find
some quick and reliable index to the hardness (i. e., the qualities which affect the
cutting speed) of forgings and castings, all, however without satisfactory, practical
results. Among these we would mention:
a the ordinary abrasive tests in which metals of known hardness are used to scratch
the metal to be examined;
b indenting the metal which is to be cut by pressing a punch or knife edge with a
given pressure down into the face of the metal to be tested, and then measuring the
extent of the indentation.

124
c The use of a special drilling machine, in which standard drills are used under
definite pressure, and in which the distance drilled in a given number of revolutions
is measured.

1156 One of the greatest needs in the art of cutting metals is a more accurate
standard by which to foretell the cutting speed of forgings and castings, and this
should form a subject for future experiments.

EFFECT OF THE QUALITY OR HARDNESS OF THE CAST IRON UPON THE

CUTTING SPEED

1157 It is much more difficult to predict the correct cutting speed for cast iron than
for steel, and as yet no reliable method for doing this has come to our attention.

1158 Viewed from the standpoint of chemical analysis, the cutting speed becomes
slower, the larger the amount of combined or cement carbon contained in the
casting, and the cutting speed becomes less the smaller the amount of silicon
contained in the casting. The amount of combined carbon, however, depends largely
upon the rate or rapidity with which the cast iron has been cooled after being
poured into the mold; so that the mixture of the metal in the cupola does not
constitute an accurate guide to the hardness of castings.

1159 It is needless to call attention to the fact that thin sec tions of cast iron which
are cooled rapidly are harder and must be cut at slower cutting speeds than thick
sections of metal made from the same heat and cast at the same time. Therefore, a
study of the hardness of castings as it affects their cutting speeds must be made in
each machine shop upon the particular castings actually used in order to obtain
reliable results.

THE QUALITY OF RED HARDNESS IN TOOLS PLAYS A MUCH SMALLER PART IN

CUTTING CAST IRON THAN IN CUTTING STEEL THEREFORE, WITH HIGH SPEED TOOLS
THERE IS A MUCH LESS PERCENTAGE OF GAIN IN CUTTING CAST IRON THAN IN
CUTTING STEEL

1160 It is a constant source of surprise that the high speed tools do not make the
same proportionate gain in cutting cast iron as they do in cutting steel. Exact figures
will be found in the table on Folder 20, where by comparing the cutting speeds of
tools No. 85 (old fashioned carbon tempered tool) and No. 65 (old style Mushet
self-hardening tool) with the best high speed tool No. 1, it will be noted that in
cutting cast iron the best high speed tool cuts only about three and one-third times
as fast as the old fashioned carbon tool, while when cutting both very hard and
medium steel, the new high speed tool cuts between six and seven times as fast as
the carbon tool.

In the revision of this note, the language will be simplified. Presently, the passages
from the paper, "The Art of Metal Cutting" are being given as it is.

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Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/06/ie-research-by-taylor-part-1.html

Research by Taylor Related to Productivity Impact

(B) chemical composition of tool steel: 1 to 7;

280 (B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the V tool is made, and the
heat treatment of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 in tools made from tempered carbon steel to 7 in the best high
speed tools.

(C) thickness of shaving: 1 to 3.5;

281 (C) The thickness of the shaving; or, the thickness of the spiral strip or band of
metal which is to be removed by the tool, measured while the metal retains its
original density; not the thickness of the actual shaving, the metal of which has
become partly disintegrated.

Proportion is as 1 with thickness of shaving 3/16 of an inch to 3.5 with thickness of

shaving 1/64 of an inch.

There is a difficulty in understanding research results of Taylor as the folder

containing the tables accompanying the paper "The Art of Metal Cutting" is not
available in the web. We need to understand what we can from the paper only.

(B) chemical composition of tool steel: 1 to 7;

280 (B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the V tool is made, and the
heat treatment of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 in tools made from tempered carbon steel to 7 in the best high
speed tools.

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TOOL STEEL

FOLDER NO. 20 GIVING THE ANALYSES AND CUTTING SPEEDS OF MANY OF THE
LATEST HIGH SPEED TOOLS, AND A COMPARISON OF THESE TOOLS WITH MUSHET
SELF-HARDENING TOOLS AND THE ORIGINAL HIGH SPEED TOOLS AS DEVELOPED BY
MESSRS. TAYLOR AND WHITE

1020 The best tool steel should be capable of producing high speed tools of the
following qualities or characteristics:

126
LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH SPEED TOOLS

1021 (A) Tools should be of such composition that comparatively small errors or
imperfections in the heat treatment will not seriously injure them and thus render
them irregular in their cutting speeds. That is, the steel should be of that
composition from which it is easy to make uniform tools.
1022 (B) Tools should not fire crack easily from the heat treatment.
1023 (C) Tools should be capable of running at the highest standard speed in cutting
either hard, medium, or soft steel; or hard, medium or soft cast iron.
1024 (D) Tools should be difficult to ruin on the grindstone or through overheating in
the lathe.
1025 (E) Tools should be tough in the body; i. e., not liable to break in use even when
receiving severe jars or blows from the work.
1026 (F) Tools should be capable of taking fine feeds in cutting hard metals with
proportionally high cutting speeds as when taking coarse feeds.
1027 (G) Tools should be easy to dress or shape without requiring very high heat.
1028 (H) When injured through use in the lathe, the quality of the tool steel should
be such that the injury can be repaired by grinding off as small amount as practicable
from the tool.
1029 No tool steel has yet been developed which possesses all these qualities in the
highest degree. It is, however, a most interesting and useful fact that the tool steel
marked No. 1 in Folder 20,
Table 128, possesses all except two of these qualities in as high a degree as any steel
that we have tested. The two defects possessed by this steel are that it is rather
difficult to forge into a tool; and although it is very tough in its body, it is not as
tough as tools whose bodies are either annealed or partially annealed.

(C) thickness of shaving: 1 to 3.5;

281 (C) The thickness of the shaving; or, the thickness of the spiral strip or band of
metal which is to be removed by the tool, measured while the metal retains its
original density; not the thickness of the actual shaving, the metal of which has
become partly disintegrated.

Proportion is as 1 with thickness of shaving 3/16 of an inch to 3.5 with thickness of

shaving 1/64 of an inch.

Regarding Thickness of Shaving

289 (A) The quality of the metal which is to be cut is, generally speaking, beyond the
control of those who are in charge of the machine shop, and, in fact, in most cases
the choice of the hardness of metals to be used in forgings or castings will hinge

127
upon other considerations which are of greater importance than the cost of
machining them. This subject will be further treated in paragraph 1129.

290 (B) The chemical composition of the steel from which the tool is made and the
heat treatment of the tool will, of course, receive the most careful consideration in
the adoption of a standard tool. No shop, however, can now afford to use other than
the “high speed tools," and there are so many makes of good tool steels, which, after
being forged into tools and heated to the melting point according to the
Taylor-White process, will run at about the same high cutting speeds, that it is of
comparatively small moment which particular make of high speed steels is adopted.
This subject will be further dealt with in paragraph 965, etc.

(C) EFFECT OF THICKNESS OF SHAVING ON CUTTING SPEED THE MOST IMPORTANT

SUBJECT FOR EXPERIMENT

291 It is the THICKNESS OF SHAVING, then (item C in the list above) which must be
first considered, as this element has more effect upon the design of our standard
tools, and in fact upon the whole problem of cutting metals than any other single
item which is completely under the control of those who are managing a shop.

EXPERIMENTS SHOWING EFFECT UPON CUTTING SPEED OF VARYING THE THICKNESS

OF THE SHAVING, A TOOL WITH STRAIGHT- EDGE BEING USED, REMOVING A
SHAVING IN ALL CASES EXACTLY ONE INCH LONG

292 The following experiments were made to determine the effect upon the cutting
speed of varying the thickness of the shaving. For this purpose a number of broad
nosed tools with straight cutting edges, similar to that shown in Folder 7, Fig. 35,
were forged from ordinary tempered carbon tool steel. Straight cutting edges were
used in order that the shaving should be of the same thickness throughout. The
corner of the tool, however, which cuts at the smaller of the two diameters of the
forging was rounded to a radius of exactly 1/8 of an inch. This was necessary in
order to thin the shaving down sufficiently at this point to absolutely insure that part
of the tool which gives the required smoothness to the forging from giving out
before the tool dulls along the straight line of the cutting edge.

293 In these experiments the tool was set in the lathe as shown in Folder 16, Fig. 111,
so that exactly one inch of the STRAIGHT PORTION of the cutting edge was at all
times under pressure of the shaving. In all cases a feed of 8/100 of an inch was used,
so that the thickness of the shaving was in each case directly proportional to the
depth of the cut.

294 These experiments were made upon a forging of the following chemical
composition:

Carbon . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.369 per cent

Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.517 per cent
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.238 per cent

128
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.043 per cent
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.051 per cent

Tensile test bars actually cut from the body of the forging showed the following
physical properties:

Tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82,947 lbs.

Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21.50 per cent
Contraction of area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30.00 per cent

295 A heavy stream of water was thrown throughout the experiments upon the
shaving just at the spot at which it was being removed from the forging by the tool.

296 Depths of cut of exactly 1/8, 3/16, 1/4 and 3/8 inch were used, corresponding to
thicknesses of shaving of 0.01, 0.015, 0.02 and 0.03 inch.

297 The speeds corresponding to these cuts, each of which was of 20 minutes’
duration, are given in Folder 16, Table 113. These cutting speeds are plotted on
Folder 16, Figs. 114 and 115, and a curve corresponding to the following formula is
drawn approximately through these various points. They are also plotted on
logarithmic paper, on Folder 16, Fig. 113, on which the speed points lie
approximately in a straight line.

V = 1.54/(t^(2/3))

in which
V = cutting speed in feet per minute for 20-minute cut;
t = thickness of shaving in inches.

298 On Folder 16, Table 113, will be seen also the ratio between the cutting speeds
of each of these thicknesses of shaving, from which it will be noted, for example,
that by dividing the thickness of the shaving by 3, the cutting speed is increased in
the ratio of 1 to 1.8. For further description of these experiments, see paragraph
761.

Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/06/part-2-ie-research-by-taylor.html

IE Research by Taylor - Productivity of Machining: Variables Discussed: Shape or

contour of cutting edge and Cutting fluid (water)

(D) shape or contour of cutting edge: 1 to 6;

282 (D) The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool, chiefly because of the
effect which it has upon the thickness of the shaving.

129
Proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to 6 in a broad nosed cutting tool. ,

(E) copious stream of water on the tool: 1 to 1.41;

283 (E) Whether a copious stream of water or other cooling medium is used on the
tool.

Proportion is as 1 for tool running dry to 1.41 for tool cooled by a copious stream of
water.

(D) shape or contour of cutting edge: 1 to 6;

282 (D) The shape or contour of the cutting edge of the tool, chiefly because of the
effect which it has upon the thickness of the shaving.

Proportion is as 1 in a thread tool to 6 in a broad nosed cutting tool. ,

PRINCIPAL OBJECT IN HAVING THE CUTTING EDGE OF TOOLS CURVED IS TO INSURE

AGAINST DAMAGE TO THE FINISHED SURFACE OF THE WORK

307 The above experiments described in paragraphs 293 to 303 upon the effect of
thickness of shaving on cutting speed enable us to explain from the theoretical
standpoint the well known fact that each properly designed roughing tool should
have the line or contour of its cutting edge curved as it approaches the extreme nose
of the tool or that portion of the tool which insures a good and true finish of the
work. A tool whose cutting edge forms a curved line of necessity removes a shaving
which varies in its thickness at all parts. The only type of tool which can remove a
shaving of uniform thickness is one with a straight line cutting edge. The object in
having the line of the cutting edge of a roughing tool curved as that part of the
cutting edge which does the finishing is approached, is to thin down the shaving at
this point to such an extent as will insure the finishing part of the tool remaining
sharp and uninjured even although the main portion of the cutting edge may have
been ruined through overheating or from some other cause.

310 It will be observed that the quality and accuracy of the finish left upon the work
will depend upon maintaining sharp and uninjured throughout the cut that portion
of the cutting edge of the tool which extends, say, from about point 0.005 inch to
point 0.02 inch.

311 By examining the standard cutting speeds noted opposite each of the
straight-edge shavings, Fig. 111, it will be seen that the standard or ruining speed at
point 0.04 inch, for instance, on the curve of our enlarged tool, is 13 feet. From this it
is evident, then, that if the tool enlarged in Fig. 112 were run at a cutting speed of 13
feet per minute so as to just ruin it at point 0.04 inch, the tool at point 0.01 inch
would then be running at less than one-half of the cutting speed which would be

130
required to ruin it. It would be, therefore, well within its safe limit of cutting speed,
and would remain sharp and uninjured until the edge at 0.04 inch had entirely
broken down. It is obvious then that a curved line cutting edge insures the finishing
part of the tool from damage and for this reason the cutting edges of all tools should
be curved, at least as that portion of the edge of the tool is approached which leaves
the work of the proper size and with the proper finish.

TOOLS WITH BROAD NOSES HAVING FOR THEIR CUTTING EDGES CURVES OF LARGE
RADIUS BEST TO USE EXCEPT FOR RISK OF CHATTER

312 Upon appreciating the increase in the cutting speed obtained through thinning
down the shaving, as shown in our experiments with straight cutting edge tools,
described in paragraphs 292 and 303, the tools shown on Folder 7, Figs. 32, 33, and
34, were made, and used on roughing work for years in the axle lathes of the
Midvale Steel Company. The gain in cutting speed of these standard broad nosed
tools over our standard round nosed tool, as shown in Folder 5, Figs. 24 and 23, is in
the ratio of 1.30 :1.

313 This general shape of tool continues to be extensively used, but it is subject to
the disadvantage that it is likely to cause the work to chatter, and so leave a more or
less irregular finish.

314 Were it not for this difficulty, added to the fact that our standard round nosed
tool has a greater all-round adaptability and convenience, the tools illustrated on
Folder 7, Figs. 32 to 34, would undoubtedly be the proper shapes for shop standard.
This matter will be further discussed in paragraph 665. A method is there described
of using two or more broad nosed tools so as to be free from danger of chatter even
upon work which is especially liable to chatter.

REASONS WHY CUTTING EDGE WITH COMPARATIVELY SMALL RADIUS OF

CURVATURE TENDS TO AVOID CHATTER

315 The avoidance of chatter in the tool plays such an important part in the design
of the edge for standard tools that we quote in full from that portion of Dr.
Nicolson's admirable experiments which appears to the writer to offer an
explanation for one of the important causes for chatter.

316 Dr. Nicolson's experiments, which were made with special apparatus (of his own
design) for weighing the pressure of the chip upon the tool, were described in his
paper (published in Transactions, Vol. 25, pp. 672, 673, 674), as follows:

317 The experiments (numbered 725 to 732 inclusive), the results of which are given
in Table 9 are of special interest in regard to: First, the variation of the cut ting force
as the cut progresses at a very low speed; second, the variation of the cutting
stresses with large ranges of speed variation.

131
318 These experiments were made with a tool having a 55 degree cutting and a 67
degree plan angle; a cut inch deep by inch wide being taken.

319 For numbers 725 and 726 the lathe was turned round at a cutting speed of
about 1 foot in 5 hours, by means of a wire rope made fast round the large cone
pulley, and hauled upon by a man operating a winch.

320 A pointer about 5 feet long was clamped upon the forging, and the four
dynamometer gages were read at every half an inch of motion of the end of this
pointer, i. e., at about six one-hundredths (0.0625) of an inch of the cut. The vertical
force varies from 9080 to 8920 every of an inch of motion of the tool, the same wave
length characterizing the variation of the surfacing and traversing forces. The
observations have been plotted in Fig. 340 [see Folder 12, Fig. 86, present paper] on
a base of actual relative tool motion.

REASONS FOR ADOPTING THE PARTICULAR CURVES CHOSEN FOR THE CUTTING
EDGES OF OUR STANDARD TOOLS

325 Having explained the necessity for curved cutting edges in standard roughing
tools, it is desirable to give our reasons for the adoption of the particular curves of
our standard tools, illustrated in Folder 5, Figs. 20a to 25e, and Folder 17, Fig. 120. It
will be noted that as the body of the tool becomes smaller, the radii of cur vature of
the cutting edge also become correspondingly smaller. This change in the curve of
the cutting edge is rendered necessary by the fact that the smaller tools are used in
the small lathes, which, generally speaking, work upon small forgings, from which
cuts are removed which are both shallow in depth and have comparatively fine feeds.
Forgings which are small in diameter are quite as liable to chatter as the larger
forgings which are machined in larger lathes, and in order to avoid this chatter, it is
necessary that a curve for the cutting edge should be chosen which will give a
variation relatively in the thickness of shaving even in small depths of cut. Thus, for
the avoidance of chatter, the curve of the cutting edge should be small in proportion
as the depth of cut and feed which it it normally takes are small

326 As will be seen later, the smaller radius of curvature of the cutting edge involves
a diminution in cutting speed. Therefore, with larger sized tools it becomes
important, on the other hand, to take as large a radius of curvature for the cutting
edge as is compatible with freedom from chatter. The coarser feed which usually
accompanies the larger tool also calls for a larger radius of curvature at the nose of
the tool, in order that the ridges left by the spiral path of the tool along the forging
shall be as low as practicable.

327 The all-round adaptability of the standard tool to a variety of uses also calls for a
smaller radius of curvature the smaller the tool, since standard roughing tools are
continually required to run up against a shoulder or into a corner on the work, and
the fillet in this corner is normally small in proportion as the forging or casting is
small.

132
328 Generally speaking, also round nosed roughing tools of the type shown do not
require the special care in adjusting in the tool post that would be demanded of
tools designed with a straight line cutting edge for the purpose of producing a
smooth finish, etc.

329 By comparing curves of the tools on Folder 5, Fig. 21a, with Folder 5, Fig. 21b, it
will be observed that tools which are to be used for cutting cast iron and hard steel
have slightly larger radii of curvature than those which are to be used for the softer
steel and wrought iron. The reason for this change is that much slower cutting
speeds must be used in cutting hard steels than for soft, and this is also to a less
degree true for cast iron as compared with soft steel.

330 It is a matter of common experience that the slower the cut ting speed, the less
the liability of the tool to chatter. It therefore becomes safe from the standpoint of
chatter to use in cutting hard steel and also cast iron a larger radius of curvature
than would be permissible in cutting soft steel. The fact has already been pointed
out that the larger the radius of curvature, the thinner the shaving, and therefore
the higher the cutting speed, and in the interest of economy, it is of course
particularly desirable in cutting hard steels to increase the necessarily slow cutting
speed as much as practicable.

331 For the following entirely different reason, also, the radius of curvature for tools
to be used in cutting cast iron is made larger than in tools to be used in cutting soft
steel. Cast iron is cut, as will be seen in paragraphs 491 and 512, with less cutting
pressure or resistance to the tool than is required for soft steel. Therefore, in a given
lathe a greater depth of cut and coarser feed can be taken on cast iron than on soft
steel; and, as explained above, the coarser the feed, the greater should be the radius
of curvature of the extreme nose of the tool in order to leave an equally smooth
finish.

332 In many machine shops a very considerable portion of the work consists of cuts
to be taken upon pieces of cast iron; the depth of the cut being comparatively
shallow and the strength and rigidity of the casting begin so great that in order to
use even approximately the full pulling power of the lathe or planer, etc., broad
feeds must be taken. In our standard shop tools, as illustrated in Folder 5, Fig. 21a,
the extreme end of the noses are rounded with too small radii to take a very broad
feed, and yet at the same time leave a reasonably smooth finish. It is therefore
desirable in all such shops to have standard tools available which are especially
designed for work of this character.

333 In Folder 5, Fig. 22, is illustrated a single size of the type of tool which we
recommend ' this purpose. It will be observed that in form it corresponds exactly to
our other standard tools for cutting cast iron and hard steel except that the extreme
nose of the tool is widened out so as to have a curve of very large radius,
approximating to a straight line.

133
(E) copious stream of water on the tool: 1 to 1.41;

COOLING THE TOOL WITH HEAVY STREAM OF WATER UPON THE CUTTING SPEED
or POURING A HEAVY STREAM OF WATER UPON THE CUTTING EDGE OF THE
TOOL

593 Cooling the nose of a tool by throwing a heavy stream of water or other fluid
directly upon the chip at the point where it is being removed by the tool from the
steel forging enables the operator to increase his cutting speed about 40 per
cent.‘ In spite of the fact that (as a result of our experiments) the whole machine
shop of the Midvale Steel Company was especially designed as long ago as 1893 for
the use Of a heavy stream of water (super-saturated with soda to prevent rusting)
upon each cutting tool, until very recently practically no other shops in this country
have been similarly equipped.

594 It is indeed a matter of wonder that this element has been entirely neglected.

595 The following are the important conclusions arrived at as to the effect on the
cutting speed of cooling the tool with a heavy stream of water.

596 (A) On Folder 15, Table 110, are summarized the results of our experiments
upon the gain in cutting speed through the use of a heavy stream of water on the
tool in cutting different qualities of metals with varying types of tools, namely,
modern high speed chromium-tungsten tools, heated to the melting point, the old
fashioned self-hardening tools, and carbon tempered tools.

597 The results obtained with modern high speed tools are the only ones of great
practical interest at present, since no well managed machine shop would use any
other than high speed cutting tools. The other data, however, are given as a matter
of record and historic interest. (See paragraph 631)

598 (B) With high speed tools a gain of 40 per cent can be made in cutting steel or
wrought iron by throwing in the most advantageous manner a heavy stream of
water upon the tool.

599 In designing slide rules or tables, etc., for assigning daily tasks to machinists a 33
per cent increase in cutting steel or wrought iron should be allowed for instead of 40
per cent, owing to the fact that workmen are more or less careless in directing the
stream of water to the proper spot upon the tool.

600 (C) A heavy stream of water (3 gallons per minute) for a 2-inch by 2-inch tool
and a smaller quantity as the tool grows smaller, should be thrown directly upon the
chip at the point where it is being removed from the forging by the tool. Water

134
thrown upon any other part of the tool or the forging is much less efficient. (See
paragraphs 607 to 609)' .

601 (D) The gain in cutting speed through the use of water on the tool is practically
the same for all qualities of steel from the softest to the hardest.

602 (E) The percentage of gain in cutting speed through the use of water on the tool
is practically the same whether thin or thick chips are being removed by the tool.
(See paragraph 630)

603 (F) With modern high speed tools a gain of 16 per cent can be made by
throwing a heavy stream of water on the chip in cutting CAST Iron. (See paragraphs
625 to 627)

604 (G) To get the proper economy from the use of water in cooling the tool, the
machine shop should be especially designed and the machine tools especially set
with a view to the proper and convenient use of water. (See paragraphs 610 to 616)

605 (H) In cutting steel, the better the quality of tool steel, the greater the
percentage of gain through the use of a heavy stream of water thrown directly upon
the chip at the point where it is being removed from the forging by the tool. The gain
for the different types of tools in cutting steel is: a Modern high speed tools 40 per
cent; b Old style self-hardening tools 33 per cent; c Carbon tempered tools 25 per
cent.

606 This fact, stated in different form,is that: The hotter the nose of the tool
becomes through the friction of the chip, the greater is the percentage of gain
through the use of water on the tool. (paragraph 631)

THE PORTION OF THE TOOL ON WHICH THE WATER JET SHOULD BE THROWN

607 A series of experiments has demonstrated that water thrown directly upon the
chip at the point where it is being removed from the forging by the tool will give
higher cutting speeds than if used in any other way.

608 As another illustration of the small value to be attached to theories which have
not been proved, we would cite the following: After deciding to try experiments
upon the cooling effect of water when used upon a tool, it was our judgment that if
a stream of water were thrown upward between the clearance flank of the tool and
the forging itself in this way the water would reach almost to the cutting edge of the
tool at the part where it most requires cooling, and that, by this means the
maximum cooling effect of the water would be realized. We, therefore, arranged for
a strong water jet to be thrown, as shown on Folder 7, Fig. 40b, between the
clearance flank of the tool and the flank of the forging, and made a series of
experiments to determine the cooling effect of water with various feeds and depths
of cut. So confident were we of the truth of this theory that we did not deem it

135
worth while to experiment with throwing streams of water in any other way, until
months afterward, when upon throwing a stream of water upon the chip directly at
the point where it is being removed from the forging by the tool, we found a
material increase in the cutting speed, and thus our first experiments were rendered
valueless.

609 Practically, great difficulty will be found in getting machinists in the average
shop to direct the stream of water on to the chip in the proper way as indicated on
Folder 7, Fig.40a, because when a sufficiently heavy stream of water is thrown upon
the work at this point it splashes much more than when thrown upon the forging just
above the chip; and the machinists prefer slower cutting speeds and less splash.
However, when they are managed under the “task system” with trained speed
bosses who are accustomed to obeying orders, this trouble disappears.

FORTY PER CENT GAIN IN CUTTING SPEED FROM THROWING A HEAVY STREAM OF
WATER UPON THE TOOL IN CUTTING STEEL

610 It has been customary for many years to use under certain circumstances, a
small trickling stream of water upon cutting tools (mostly on finishing tools, and with
the object of giving the work what is called a “water finish”). For this purpose a small
water can is generally mounted upon the saddle of the machine above the tool, and
refilled from time to time by the machinist. Such streams of water, however, have
little or no effect in increasing the cutting speed because they are too small in
volume to appreciably cool the nose of the tool.

611 The most satisfactory results are obtained from a stream of water falling at
rather slow velocity, but with large volume, at the proper point upon the tool; since
a stream of this sort covers a larger area of the tool and is much freer from splash.

612 This water supply should be delivered through pipes fitted up with universal
friction joints, so that the apparatus can be quickly adjusted to deliver the water at
any desired point (the pipe being supported by a rigid bracket attached to the saddle
of the lathe, preferably on the back side so as to be out of the way). In the case of
short lathe beds the water supply can be delivered from overhead through a rubber
hose, and in the case of long lathe beds through telescoping pipes attached to the
saddle (smooth drawn "brass pipes telescoping inside of ordinary wrought iron pipes,
with suitable stuffing boxes being used).

613 About three gallons of water per minute are required for adequately cooling a
very large roughing tool, say, 2 inches by 2 inches section; and proportionally smaller
quantities as the tool grows smaller.

614 For economy, the same water should be used over and over again, and it
should be supersaturated with soda to prevent the machines from rusting. Wrought
iron pipes about 1- inches diameter should lead the water from beneath the
machine below the floor to the main soda water drains at the side of the shop. These
drains are made of pipe from 3 to 5 inches in diameter, with a chain extending

136
through them from one end to the other, the chain being twice as long as the drain
through which it extends. In case of sediment forming in this pipe or in case of chips
passing by the double sets of screens and double settling pots which should be
supplied at each machine, the drain can be quickly cleaned by pulling the chain
backward and forward through it once or twice.

615 The soda water is returned through this system of underground piping to a large
central underground tank, from which it is pumped through a small, positive,
continuously running pump, driven by the main line of shafting, into an overhead
tank with overflow which keeps the overhead soda water supply mains continually
filled and under a uniform head. If the shop is constructed with a concrete floor, a
catch basin for the water can be molded in the concrete directly beneath each
machine. Otherwise, each machine should be set in a large wrought iron pan or
shallow receptacle which catches the Soda water and the chips. In both cases,
however, two successive settling pots—independently screened so as to prevent the
chips, as far as possible, from getting into the return main—are required beneath
each machine.

616 The ends of the 1-inch wrought iron pipes which lead the water from the
machines to a large drain at the side of the shop should be curved up with a
sweeping curve so that their outer ends come Close to the top of the floor of the
shop. The sediment and chips must be cleaned from these pipes from time to time
by means of a long round steel rod from § to 1 inch in diameter, which, after
removing the plug at the outer end of the drain pipes, is shoved through the pipe.
Apparatus of this type has been in successful use for about 23 years with no trouble
from clogging.

DETAILS OF TYPICAL EXPERIMENT FOR DETERMINING GAIN THROUGH HEAVY

STREAM OF WATER ON THE TOOL

617 The following is a detailed description of one of our series of Experiments on the
effect of water on the tool, made in this case for the purpose of determining the gain
from the use of a. heavy stream Of water in cutting an exceedingly hard bar of metal,
especially made and hammer hardened so as to be harder than hard steel of any of
the qualities usually met with in machine shop practice. This experiment is given in
detail as a type of our best method of experimenting in cases of this kind. The
following are the physical tests and the chemical composition of the steel bar
experimented upon.

This bar was hammer hardened.

618 Tools of the shape shown on Folder 5, Fig. 24, were made from tool steel of the
following chemical composition, and were treated by the Taylor-White process (11.
e., heated to the melting point, cooled down, and reheated to 1150 degrees in a lead
bath):

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They were then all standardized to prove their uniformity by being run at a cutting
speed of 16 feet per minute, duration of cut 20 minutes, feed ,1; inch, depth of cut
T“; inch. The ruining speed upon this forging of tools of this type had been previously
proved to be between 16 and 17 feet per minute. The following are the details of the
experiments with water:

619 From the list given above are below extracted those experiments that show the
highest speed at which each tool endured 20 minutes and also the length of time it
endured before ruining at one foot higher speed.

EXPERIMENTS WITH WATER

620 In test No. 261 b tool V. had been ruined at a speed of 24 feet and thereby,
owing undoubtedly to being overheated by the friction of the chip, as was afterward
ascertained, suffered a marked deterioration. This accounts for the lower maximum
speed at which it subsequently stood up.

621 In order to fully ascertain whether the ruining of these tools while running with
a heavy stream of water to try to keep them cool had any marked injurious effect
upon them, the following tests were made without the use of water on the second
day of the experiments:

622 The average cutting speeds of the tools divided by 16 feet gives 1.416 to 1.0 as
the gain made by using water on the tool.

624 Taylor-White tools similar to those described above, having been carefully
standardized, showed a cutting speed when run without water of 60 feet per minute,
and when run under a heavy stream of water of 83 feet, thus indicating a gain of
1.39 to 1.0 from the use of water. The average gain then through the use of water on
the tool for hard and soft forgings is about 40 per cent.

SIXTEEN PER CENT GAIN IN CUTTING SPEED FROM THROWING A HEAVY STREAM OF
WATER UPON THE TOOL IN CUTTING CAST IRON

625 In 1906 after the writing of this paper was well under way it occurred to us that
we had accepted as true without verification through accurate experiments the fact
that water could not be used in cutting cast iron. This is another of the many
instances in which an absolutely erroneous opinion prevails throughout all of our
machine shops without any foundation in fact. It is likely, however, that this opinion
has become so firmly rooted in the minds of all mechanics and foremen from the
fact that a water finish cannot be made on cast iron, while it is in many cases most
desirable for steel.

138
626 To determine the effect of a heavy stream of water in cooling a tool cutting cast
iron, experiments (similar to those described above) were made by us during the
summer and fall of 1906 on a test piece consisting of exceedingly hard cast iron with
cutting tools of three different chemical compositions. The piece of cast iron is the
same as that marked “hard cast iron" on Folder 20, Table 138.

627 The chemical composition of three of the latest high speed tools experimented
with was that of tools Nos. 2, 5 and 7 (Folder 20, Table 138). The following table
represents the average gain made by these tools when they were run with a heavy
stream of water as compared with running under exactly the same conditions dry.

Cutting speed without water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 ft.

Cutting speed with heavy stream of water . . .54 ft. 7 ins.
Gain through use of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 per cent

628 Since writing the section of the paper covering the whole subject of the gain by
cooling the tool with water, we have again met in our experiments with one of the
strange. anomalies which characterize the laws governing the art of cutting metals.

629 When the best of the modern high speed tools, namely, tool No. 1, Folder 20,
Table 138, was run with a heavy stream of water in cutting the hard forging referred
to in the same table, it was shown that instead of a gain of 41 per cent through the
use of water, as had been obtained with tools differing in their chemical composition,
as referred to in paragraphs 610 to 630, there was a gain through the use of water of
only 15 per cent. A lack of time prevented our going more fully into the effect of
water upon high speed steels of the most modern composition with medium and
soft forgings. It is, therefore, manifestly of the greatest importance to carry on
thorough experiments in this field. Our experiments with tool No. 1 gave the
following data:

Cutting speed without water . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 ft. 5 in.

Cutting speed with water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 ft. 8 in.
Gain through use of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 per cent

THE PERCENTAGE OF GAIN THE SAME WHETHER THIN OR THICK CHIPS ARE BEING
REMOVED

630 When in the Midvale Steel Works the gain in cutting speed through the use of
water on the tool was discovered in 1884, a thorough investigation was made with
varying depths of out and thickness of feed—carbon tempered tools being used in
cutting steel tires —and it was found that the percentage of gain in cutting speed
through the use of water was the same whether the chips were thick or thin. These
experiments have not been repeated by us with high speed tools, and it is possible
that, owing to the very great difference in the heat of the high speed and the carbon

139
tempered tools, there is a different ratio of gain for thick and thin chips with high
speed tools. However, our slide rules have been in practical use in cutting chips of all
degrees of thickness for years, using water on the tool, with the same ratio of
increase in speed for thick and thin chips; and it would seem if any material
difference exists between the gain in thick and thin chips, that this fact would have
become evident through the failure of our slide rules to indicate the proper speeds.
A careful experiment on this point is desirable.

631 In 1894—95 experiments were made with a carbon tempered tool containing
1.6 per cent chromium and with tools made from old fashioned self-hardening
Midvale steel, of the following chemical composition:

632 The carbon tempered tools showed an average gain of 25 per cent in cutting a
hard steel forging of the following physical and chemical properties:

The Mushet and Midvale self-hardening tools showed an average gain of 30 per cent
in cutting the same forging. From these figures it will be noted that as the cutting
speeds of tools grow higher, the percentage of gain through the use of water for
cooling the tool grows greater. This would seem to be due to the fact that (taking the
two extremes) the noses of the modern high speed tools are very much hotter under
the great friction caused by the high speed of the chip than are the old fashioned
tempered tools with their slow speeds, and that therefore the water acts in a
considerably more efficient manner in cooling the high speed tools than the slow
speed tools.

Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/07/part-3-ie-research-by-taylor.html

IE Research by Taylor - Productivity of Machining: Variables Discussed: depth of cut,

duration of cut

(F) depth of cut: 1 with 1/2 inch depth to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut;

284 (F) The depth of the cut; or, one-half of the amount by which the forging or
casting is being reduced in diameter in turning.

Proportion is as 1 with 1/2 inch depth of cut to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut.

(G) duration of cut: 1 with 1.5 hour cut to 1.20 with 20-minute cut;

285 (G) The duration of the cut; i. c., the time which a tool must last under pressure
of the shaving without being reground.

140
Proportion is as 1 when tool is to be ground every 1.5 hour to 1.207 when tool is to
be ground every 20 minutes.

Productivity Impact of Depth of cut: 1 with 1/2 inch depth to 1.36 with 1/8 inch
depth of cut;

284 (F) The depth of the cut; or, one-half of the amount by which the forging or
casting is being reduced in diameter in turning.

Proportion is as 1 with 1/2 inch depth of cut to 1.36 with 1/8 inch depth of cut.

EFFECT OF FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT ON CUTTING SPEED

THE EFFECT OF VARYING THE FEED AND THE DEPTH OF THE CUT UPON THE CUTTING
SPEED

The following are the principal conclusions arrived at on this subject:

729 (A) With any given depth of cut metal can be removed faster, i. e., more work
can be done, by using the combination of a coarse feed with its accompanying
slower speed than by using a fine feed with its accompanying higher speed. (See
paragraphs 743 to 751)

730 For example, by referring to any of the sets of experiments in cutting steel,
described in paragraphs 743 to 772, it will be noted that if with a combination of
inch depth of cut and r inch feed, the hardness of the metal were of such a quality,
for instance, that just 100 pounds of chips would be cut off in an hour by using the
same tool on the same forging at its proper cutting speed corresponding to a feed of
inch, the metal would then be removed at the rate of 250 pounds per hour. In most
cases it is not practicable for the operator to take the coarsest feeds, owing either to
the lack of pulling power of the machine or the elasticity of the work. Therefore, the
above rule is only of course a broad general statement.

731 (B) The cutting speed is affected more by the thickness of the shaving than by
the depth of the cut. (See paragraphs 761 to 763) A change in the thickness of the
shaving has about three times as much effect on the cutting speed as a similar or
proportional change in the depth of the cut has upon the cutting speed. Dividing the
thickness of the shaving by 3 increases the cutting speed 1.8 times, while dividing
the length that the shaving bears on the cutting edge by 3 increases the cutting
speed 1.27 times. (See paragraphs 303 to 306)

732 (C) Expressed in mathematical terms, the cutting speed varies with our standard
round nosed tool approximately in inverse proportion to the square root of the
thickness of the shaving or of the feed; (See the various formula from paragraphs
770 to 787)

141
733 (D) With the best modern high speed tools, varying the feed and the depth of
the cut causes the cutting speed to vary in practically the same ratio whether soft or
hard metals are being cut. (See paragraphs 1062 and 815 to 828)

734 (E) The same general formula expresses the laws for the effect of depth of cut
and feed upon the speed, the constants only requiring to be changed. (See
paragraphs 769 to 770) This is a matter of very great importance, as it enables us to
use a single slide rule as a means of finding the proper combination of speed and
depth of cut and feed for all qualities of metal which may be cut. (See paragraph
772)

736 (F) The same general type of formula expresses the laws governing the effect of
the feed and depth of cut upon the cutting speed when using our different sized
standard tools. This is also fortunate as it simplifies mathematical work in the final
solution of the speed problem. (See paragraph 772)

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF EFFECT OF FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT UPON

CUTTING SPEED AND THE DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING THESE EXPERIMENTS

737 A study of the effect of the feed and depth of cut upon the cutting speed
constitutes in our judgment the most important element in the rt of cutting metals.
As pointed out in the opening paragraphs of this paper, the three questions which
must be answered each day in every machine shop by every machinist who is
running a metal cutting machine, such as a lathe, planer, etc., are:

WHAT TOOL SHALL I USE?

WHAT CUTTING SPEED SHALL I USE?
WHAT FEED SHALL I USE?

738 Having already established in a shop standards for the shape and quality of the
tools, there remain but two of these questions to be answered, namely, as to the
cutting speed and the feed. And the decision as to the cutting speed will depend
more upon the depth of cut and feed which are chosen than upon any other
element.

739 Experiments upon these two elements can only be undertaken after practically
all of the other elements in the art of cutting metals have been standardized. A
standard quality of tool steel and its proper heat treatment must have been
established. A standard curve for the cutting edge of the tools, with standard lip
angles, back slope and side slope, must have been established. The effect of the
quality of the metal which is to be cut upon the pressure on the tool and of the
pressure on the tool upon the pulling or driving power of the machine must be
known before it is possible to decide upon the depth of cut and feed.

740 The depth of cut and feed, then, are of necessity almost the last elements to be
experimented upon, and with the exception of determining the combination of the
best tool steel and its proper heat

142
treatment, they constitute the two elements to which we have given the largest
amount of time and study. We have undertaken many sets of experiments upon this
subject since 1881 when we first began its investigation, and as discussed in
paragraph 213 the accurate determination of these laws is rendered especially
difficult owing to the necessity for making such a large number of experiments in
cutting pieces of test metal which are uniform in quality. We have found it difficult to
obtain large enough masses of uniform metal to accurately determine these laws,
and each improvement in the quality of the tool steel which gives higher cutting
speeds calls for larger and larger masses of uniform test metal, thus greatly
increasing the difficulty and expense of these experiments.

741 Moreover, each change in almost any one of our important standards involves in
the end a more or less elaborate investigation as to what modification the new
standard has made in the effect that a change of feed or depth of cut has upon the
cutting speed. Time after time the absolutely necessary changes in standards have
forced us to reinvestigate the effect of feed and depth of cut upon cutting speed;
and viewed from the point of expense alone, such an investigation is truly a serious
undertaking. It is a matter of doubt to the writer whether with our accumulated
experience it would be possible even now for us to make a consistent series of
experiments either upon steel or cast iron with these two elements at a smaller cost
than $5000.
742 All of these facts emphasize the desirability for the greatest care and
consideration in adopting shop standards, and indicate the importance of not
changing shop standards when once adopted except from imperative necessity.

PRACTICAL TABLES GIVING CUTTING SPEEDS CORRESPONDING TO DIFFERENT

DEPTHS OF CUT AND THICKNESS OF FEED ON HARD, MEDIUM
AND SOFT STEEL AND ON HARD, MEDIUM AND SOFT CAST
IRON, WHEN BEST MODERN HIGH SPEED TOOLS OF OUR
STANDARD SHAPES ARE USED

743 Before starting to discuss the experiments upon this subject and the formuh
which we have developed to represent the conclusions drawn from them we give
the following:

744 Folder 24, Figs. 143-154, are practical working tables which will be found useful
by machine shop foremen and machinists as a general guide to determining what
cutting speed to use under several of the usual or typical conditions met with in
ordinary machine shop practice. The cutting speeds given in these tables are based
upon the use of our standard tools, shown on Folder 5, Figs. 24 and 28, for cutting
hard steel and cast iron, and those shown in Folder 5, Figs. 24 and 20b for cutting
medium and soft steel. In making these tables we also assumed the use of the best
quality of high speed tool as represented by tool No. 1 (Folder 20, Table 138),treated
in the best manner, as described by us in paragraphs 979 to 994. The tables were
also based upon cutting three different qualities of steel, having the following
chemical and physical properties, and the following cutting speeds when cut with
our standard inch tool, x cut, for standard 20-minute cut.

143
745 HARD STEEL Cutting speed, 45 ft. per minute; Class No. 21k,
(such for instance as is used in a hard locomotive tire)
Carbon ................................ 0.64 per cent
Manganese ............................. 0.70 per cent
Silicon ................................ 0.21 per cent
Phosphorus ............................. 0.044 per cent
Tensile strength ......................... 118,500 lbs.
Elastic limit ............................. 70,000 lbs.
Percentage of stretch ..................... 14

746 MEDIUM STEEL Cutting speed, 99 ft. per minute; Class No. 13.
Carbon ................................ 0.34 per cent
Manganese ........................... 0.60 per cent
Silicon ................................ 0.183 per cent
Sulphur ............................... 0.032 per cent
Phosphorus ............................. 0.035 per cent
Annealing heat...................... 1275 degrees Fahr.
Tensile strength ........................... 72,830 lbs.
Elastic limit ............................... 34,630 lbs.
Per cent of stretch ......................... 30
Per cent of contraction ...................... 48.73

747 SOFT STEEL Cutting speed, 108 ft. per minute; Class No. 5.
Carbon ................................ 0.22 per cent
Manganese ............................. 0.42 per cent
Silicon ................................ 0.07 per cent
Sulphur ............................... 0.025 per cent
Phosphorus ........................... 0.022 per cent
Annealing heat..................... 1200 degrees Fahr.
Tensile strength ........................... 56,250 lbs.
Elastic limit .............................. 26,590 lbs. Per cent of stretch ........................ 35.50
Per cent of contraction ...................... 56.26

753 This section of the paper is entitled "The Effect of Varying the Feed and the
Depth of the Cut upon the Cutting Speed." It should be noted that a change in feed
produces a change in the thickness of the chip which is cut by the tool, and that it is
the actual thickness of the chip as it crosses the line of the cutting edge of the tool
which causes or produces the change in cutting speed. The thinner the chip or
shaving the higher the cutting speed, and the thicker the chip the slower the cutting
speed. (See paragraphs 292 to 297, explaining the causes for wear on tools and the
effect of the pressure of the chip upon the tool.)

754 Now the actual thickness of the chip is dependent not only upon the coarseness
of the feed that is, the advance of the tool for each revolution of the work, but also:

144
a) upon the shape of the cutting edge of the tool, and
b) upon the position of the tool in the tool post; i. e., the angle at which the cutting
edge of the tool is set with relation to the center line of the work.

758 In paragraphs 307 to 311 we have pointed out, and in Folder 16, Fig. 112, we
illustrate, the fact that with all curved line cutting edges the chip must necessarily
vary in thickness at all points, and that a straight line is the only shape for the cutting
edge of a tool in which the thickness of the shaving is uniform throughout its length.

759 The experiments on the effect of feed and depth of cut which are of the greatest
practical interest, and the results of which are required for everyday use refer to our
standard round nosed tools; but, as just explained, with our standard round nosed
tools the actual thickness of the shaving is affected by a change in the depth of the
cut as well as by a change in the feed, therefore any investigation made with these
standard tools must necessarily include at the same time both the effect of a change
in the feed and in the depth of cut upon the cutting speed.

760 With but little thought, therefore, it becomes evident that for the primary or
more fundamental investigation as to the effect which the thickness of the chip or
shaving has upon the cutting speed, it is desirable to experiment first upon shavings
which are uniform in thickness throughout their whole length, and therefore we first
describe our experiments with different thicknesses of shaving uniform throughout
their length.

Productivity Impact of duration of cut: 1 with 1.5 hour cut to 1.20 with 20-minute
cut;

285 (G) The duration of the cut; i. c., the time which a tool must last under pressure
of the shaving without being reground.

Proportion is as 1 when tool is to be ground every 1.5 hour to 1.207 when tool is to
be ground every 20 minutes.

HOW LONG SHOULD A TOOL BE RUN WITHOUT REGRINDING?

711 It is clear that we have on the one hand the main fact that the more often we
are willing to grind the tool the higher the cutting speed at which the tool can be run,
and therefore the larger the amount of work which will be turned out by the
machine. On the other hand, there are four opposing considerations all of which
tend toward a greater expense the more frequently the tools are ground.
These considerations are:

712 (A) The time required to remove the worn-out tool from the tool-post; get
another sharp tool; set and clamp it into the tool-post; and again start the roughing
cut to exactly the proper size. For

145
exact figures see, Folder 15, Table 108.

713 (B) The time of the tool grinder and the grinding machine and the wear on the
emery wheel each time a tool is ground, which can be expressed in terms of the time
of the lathe hand and his lathe time. For exact figures see, Folder 15, Fig. 108.

714 (C) The cost of the smith's and helper's wages, and fire, blast, etc., in the smith
shop, for dressing a tool; which cost should be divided by the total number of times
the tool is ground before it requires redressing. And this fraction of the dressing cost
can then be expressed also in terms of the time of the lathe hand and his lathe. For
exact figures see, Folder 15, Fig. 108.

715 (D) The cost of the tool steel which is lost every time a tool is redressed. This
cost should also be divided by the total number of times the tool is ground, and
expressed in terms of the time of the lathe hand and lathe. For exact figures see,
Folder 15, Fig. 108.

716 This problem has been put into definite mathematical form and solved by us as
follows: Let us assume that the cost of the grinder's wages plus the cost of the
grinding machine is the same per hour or minute as the cost of the lathe in which the
work is being done plus the wages of the lathe hand for lathes using certain sized
tools; and that for lathes using larger sized tools the grinding machine cost is
proportionally smaller, while for lathes using smaller tools the grinding machine cost
is proportionally larger. Also, in a similar way the cost of the smith and his helper and
of the fuel are expressed in terms of the time of the lathe hand and his machine, as
stated above. This enables us then to arrive at the following mathematical solution
of the problem.

717 Folder 15, Table 108, we have given the time required to dress and grind the
various sized tools, and also the time required to place them in the machine, remove
them from the machine, and start the cut. These data have been compiled from
accurate observations made in each case by a competent observer with a stop watch,
while the grinder, the lathe hand, and the smith were working at their proper normal
speeds. In the same table we have also given the average number of times that each
of the sizes of our standard tools can be reground before requiring to be redressed.
The cost of the tool steel used each time a tool is dressed is also found in the same
table.

Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/07/part-4-ie-research-by-taylor.html

The machining productivity science points discussed in this lesson.

(H) lip and clearance angles: 1 with lip angle 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61
degrees;

146
286 (H) The lip and clearance angles of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 with lip angle of 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees.

(J) elasticity of the work and of the tool: 1 with tool chattering to 1.15, with tool
running smoothly.

287 (J) The elasticity of the work and of the tool on account of producing chatter.

Proportion is as 1 with tool chattering to 1.15 with tool running smoothly.

Shape for Cutting Tools for Productivity

Productivity Impact of lip and clearance angles:
1 with lip angle 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees;

286 (H) The lip and clearance angles of the tool.

Proportion is as 1 with lip angle of 68 degrees to 1.023 with lip angle of 61 degrees.

(H) LIP AND CLEARANCE ANGLES OF TOOLS

334 Contrary to the opinion of almost all novices in the art of cutting metals, the
clearance angle and the back slope and side slope angles of a tool are by no means
among the most important elements in the design of cutting tools, their effect for
good or evil upon the CUTTING SPEED and even upon the pressure required to
remove the chip being much less than is ordinarily attributed to them.

CLEARANCE ANGLE OF THE TOOL

335 The following are our conclusions regarding the clearance angle of the tool. a
For standard shop tools to be ground by a trained grinder or on an automatic
grinding machine, a clearance angle of 6 degrees should be used for all classes of
roughing work. (See paragraphs 336 to 340) b In shops in which each machinist
grinds his own tools a clearance angle of from 9 degrees to 12 degrees should be
used. (See paragraph 339)

336 In seeking for the proper clearance angles for tools, we have as yet been unable
to devise any type of experiment which would demonstrate in a clear cut manner (as,
for example, the experiments cited for lip angles in paragraphs 361 and 367) which
clearance angle is the best. The following, however, are the considerations which
affect the choice of clearance angles.

337 On the one hand, it is evident that the larger the clearance angle, the greater
will be the ease with which the tool can be fed (wedged or driven) into its work, the
first action of the tool when brought into contact with the forging being that of

147
forcing the line of the cutting edge into the material to be cut. On the other hand,
every increase in the clearance angle takes off an equal amount from the lip angle,
and therefore subjects the tool to a greater tendency to crumble or spall away at the
cutting edge, as indicated on Folder 6, Figs. 31a and 31b. It must be remembered
also that the tool travels in a spiral path around the work which it is cutting in the
lathe, and that the angle of this path with a perpendicular line in the case of coarse
feeds taken upon small diameters of work becomes of distinctly appreciable size. In
all cases, therefore, the clearance angle adopted for standard shop tools must be
sufficiently large to avoid all possibility from this source of rubbing the flank of the
tool against the spiral flank of the forging. The clearance angles for roughing tools in
common use vary between 4 degrees and 12 degrees. We have had experience on a
large scale in different shops with tools carefully ground with clearance angles of 5
degrees, 6 degrees and 8 degrees. In the case of one large machine shop which had
used clearance angles ground to 8 degrees through a term of years, they finally
adopted the 6 degrees clearance angle with satisfaction. For many years past our
experiments have all been made with the 6 degree clearance angle, and this has
been demonstrated to be amply large for our various experiments. On the other
hand, a 5 degree clearance angle in practical use in a large shop has appeared to us
through long continued observation to grind away the flank of the tool just below
the cutting edge rather more rapidly than the 6 degrees angle. We have, therefore,
adopted the 6 degrees clearance angle as our standard.

A CLEARANCE ANGLE OF FROM 9 TO 12 DEGREES SHOULD BE USED IN SHOPS IN

WHICH EACH MACHINIST GRINDS HIS OWN TOOLS

339 It should be noted, however, that in shops systematized by us the cutting tools
are invariably ground either on an automatic tool grinder, or by special men who are
carefully taught the art of grinding and provided with suitable templets and gages,
and that in this case the clearance angle for every tool is accurately made to 6
degrees.

340 In shops, however, in which each lathe or planer hand grinds his own tools, a
larger clearance angle than 6 degrees should be used, say, an angle of from 9
degrees to 12 degrees, because in such shops in nine cases out of ten the workmen
grind the clearance and lip angles of their tools without any gages, merely by looking
at the tool and guessing at the proper angles; and much less harm will be done by
grinding clearance angles considerably larger than 6 degrees than by getting them
considerably smaller. It is for this reason that in most of the old style shops in which
the details of shop practice are left to the judgment of the men or to the foreman,
that clearance angles considerably larger than 6 degrees are generally adopted.

LIP ANGLE OF THE TOOL

341 The following are the conclusions arrived at regarding the angle at which tools
should be ground:

148
342 (A) For standard tools to be used in a machine shop for cutting metals of average
quality: Tools for cutting cast iron and the harder steels, beginning with a low limit of
hardness, of about carbon 0. 45 per cent, say, with 100,000 pounds tensile strength
and 18 per cent stretch, should be ground with a clearance angle of 6 degrees, back
slope 8 degrees and side slope 14 degrees, giving a lip angle of 68 degrees. These
angles are used in the tools illustrated on Folder 5, Figs. 21a and 25e. (See
paragraphs 358 to 359)

343 (B) For cutting steels softer than, say, carbon 0.45 per cent having about 100,000
pounds tensile strength and 18 per cent stretch, tools should be ground with a
clearance angle of 6 degrees, back slope of 8 degrees, side slope of 22 degrees,
giving a lip angle of 61 degrees. These angles are used in tools illustrated in Folder 5,
Fig. 25b. (See paragraph 361)

344 (C) For shops in which chilled iron is cut a lip angle of from $6 degrees to 90
degrees should be used. (See paragraph 365)

345 (D) In shops where work is mainly upon steel as hard or harder than tire steel,
tools should be ground with a clearance angle of 6 degrees, back slope 5 degrees,
side slope 9 degrees, giving a lip angle of 74 degrees. (See paragraph 360)

346 (E) In shops working mainly upon extremely soft steels, say, carbon 0. 10 per
cent to 0. 15 per cent, it is probably economical to use tools with lip angles keener
than 61 degrees. (See paragraphs 368 to 370)

347 (F) The most important consideration in choosing the lip angle is to make it
sufficiently blunt to avoid the danger of crumbling or spalling at the cutting edge.
(See paragraphs 352 to 356)

348 (G) Tools ground with a lip angle of about 54 degrees cut softer qualities of steel,
and also cast iron, with the least pressure of the chip upon the tool. The pressure
upon the tool, however, is not the most important consideration in selecting the lip
angle. (See paragraphs 374 and 367)

349 (H) In choosing between side slope and back slope in order to grind a sufficiently
acute lip angle, the following considerations, given in the order of their importance,
call for a steep side slope and are opposed to a steep back slope: a With side slope
the tool can be ground many more times without weakening it; (See paragraphs 379)
b The chip runs of sideways and does not strike the tool posts or clamps. (See
paragraph 380) c The pressure of the chip tends to deflect the tool to one i side, and
a steep side slope tends to correct this by bringing the resultant line of pressure
within the base of the tool, as explained in paragraph 382. d Easier to feed. (See
paragraphs 383 and 384)

350 (I) The following consideration calls for at least a certain amount of back slope.
An absence of back slope tends to push the tool and the work apart, and therefore

149
to cause a slightly irregular finish and a slight variation in the size of the work. (See
para- graph 386)

351 (J) For conclusions as to clearance angle, see paragraph 385.

352 Before it is possible to discuss the proper lip angles for tools, two ways in which
the cutting edge gives out should be described.

353 On Folder 6, Fig. 31a, is shown on an enlarged scale the manner in which the
sharp end of the wedge of the tool spalls off or crumbles away, when the lip surface
of the tool right at the cutting edge is subjected to great pressure. In pars. 516 to 519,
later in the paper, it will be pointed out that in the case of cutting very hard metals
and also in cutting all qualities of cast iron, the pressure of the chip is concentrated
very close to the line of the cutting edge, and the harder the metal to be cut and the
smaller its percentage of extension, the greater will be the concentration of the
pressure close to this line, and the greater will be the tendency of the cutting edge to
spall of or crumble away.

354 On Folder 6, Fig. 31b, is shown another way in which the metal of the lip surface
of the tool spalls off or crumbles away when the line of the cutting edge of the tool is
subjected to great pressure in feeding or forcing the tool into the forging. In this case
the hardness of the metal into which the tool is being fed is the chief element
causing this type of injury to the cutting edge.

MOST IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION IN CHOOSING LIP ANGLE IS TO MAKE IT

SUFFICIENTLY BLUNT TO AVOID DANGER OF CRUMBLING OR SPALLING OFF AT THE
CUTTING EDGE

355 In deciding upon the acuteness of the lip angle of a tool the absolute necessity
of guarding against the spalling or crumbling of the cutting edge from both of the
foregoing causes becomes by far the most important of all considerations. In this
connection’ the essential fact to be borne in mind is that the harder the metal to be
cut, the blunter must be the lip angle of the tool. In the case of chilled iron and
semi-hardened steel, for instance, the lip angle must be made from 86 degrees to 90
degrees. A smaller angle than this will cause the metal at the extreme cutting edge
to spall off or crumble away (quite is much on account of the feeding pressure as
from_ the pressure of the chip) and thus ruin the tool. As the metal to be cut grows
softer, however, the lip angle can be made keener without danger of spalling, until
with standard tools intended to cut the softer steels, say with a high limit for
hardness of about 100,000 pounds tensile strength and 14 percent to 18 per cent
stretch, the smallest lip angle which, in our iudgment, it is on the whole wise to use
would seem to be about 61 degrees.

356 Dr. Nicolson with his dynamometer experiments (see Figs. 328 lad 329 of his
paper) has shown that with a “cutting angle” of 60 degrees, corresponding to a -lip
angle of 54 degrees, clearance angle 6 degrees, tools remove metal with the
minimum of pressure. This is also corroborated in a general way by our observations

150
in cutting dead soft steel, referred to in paragraphs 368 to 370. Therefore from the
standpoint °i pressure, with a view to taking the largest cut with a. given pulling
power and with the least strain upon the working parts of the lathe, ibis angle should
be approached. And although, on the whole, the question of pressure on the tool
has less weight than either the crumbling at the cutting edge, the cutting speed, or
the proper angles for obtaining the longest life and the largest number of grindings
for a given tool, still it must be considered; and it is this which has led us to choose
for our standard in each case

THE KEENEST CUTTING ANGLE WHICH IS FREE FROM DANGER OR SPALLING.

357 As pointed out in paragraph 372, we believe that experiments would

demonstrate the advisability of using still more acute lip angles for cutting dead soft
steels. -

358 Metals which even approach in hardness chilled iron and semi- hardened steel
are but seldom met with in ordinary shop practice and, therefore, in selecting the lip
angles for standard shop tools, we have divided the metals to be cut in a shop into
two classes: a cast iron and the harder classes of steel, say, beginning as a low limit
for hardness with a steel of about 0.45 to 0.50 per cent carbon, 100,000 pounds
tensile strength and 18 per cent stretch; and b the softer classes of steel.

359 Our guiding principle in selecting the lip angles for the tools to be used in cutting
cast iron and the harder classes of steel has been to select what we believe to be the
smallest or most acute lip angle which can be safely depended upon to run without
danger of spalling off at the cutting edge while cutting the harder steels ordinarily
met with in machine shop practice (such as the hardest steels used in this country
for car wheel tires, say of 135,000 to 140,000 pounds tensile strength, and 9 to 10
per cent of stretch, and, for instance, unannealed tool steels, or the harder of the oil
hardened and annealed forgings which are used under government specifications for
making large steel cannon, etc.) ; and after large experience in cutting metals of this
quality we have concluded that it would be unsafe to use a more acute lip angle than
that shown on Folder 5, Fig. 20a, namely, a lip angle of 68 degrees, with clearance
angle of 6 degrees, side slope of 14 degrees and back slope of 8 degrees. We have
demonstrated by repeated trials that tools with the above lip angle are safe from
danger of spalling or of crumbling at the cutting edge, even when cutting tire steel,
gun steel or tool steel.

360 For shops which are engaged mainly in cutting steels as hard as tire steel, We
should recommend as a standard tool one having 6 degrees clearance, 5 degrees
back slope and 9 degrees side slope, giving a lip angle of 74 degrees. Since for this
special work the tools can be run at a high cutting speed, they can be ground in less
time and they can be ground more times for each dressing in the smith shop than
tools with more acute lip angles.

151
361 The following experiment was made in 1906 with a high speed tool of the latest
and best composition. The chemical composition of the tool was that of tool No. 1 in
Folder 20, Table 128.

362 Repeated trials with the same tool ground first with a clearance angle of 6
degrees, back slope of 5 degrees, and side slope of 9 degrees, giving a lip angle of 74
degrees; and afterwards with a clearance angle of 6 degrees, back slope of 8 degrees,
and side slope of 14 degrees, giving a lip angle of 68 degrees. No difference was
indicated in the cutting speed of these two tools when used upon the very hard
forging referred to in Folder 20, Table 128.

363 It is interesting, however, to note that machinists who grind their own tools and
who are accustomed to machining hard tires and metals of the classes above
referred to, invariably use a blunter lip angle than our standard of 68 degrees. After
making a few mistakes by grinding tools with lip angles which are too acute, they are
sure to lean too far toward the safe side, and adopt lip angles which are not quite
sharp enough. They are influenced in this very largely, how- ever, by the fact pointed
out in paragraph 124 that the less acute the lip angle, the easier it is and the less
time it requires to grind a tool. A tool with a lip angle of 80 degrees for example, can
be more easily ground than one with a lip angle of 70 degrees.

364 In those shops which work upon metals of average hardness and in which the
tools are furnished to the machinists ground to the required shapes, and in which
either automatic tool grinders are used or special grindstone men are employed to
grind the tools, more work can be gotten out by grinding the tools to angles at least
closely approximating ours than from the use of tools with blunter lip angles.

365 The reason for preferring the more acute lip angle of 68 degrees, for cutting
medium hard metals to the angle of 75 degrees to 85 degrees adopted by the
average machinist, is that the more acute angle removes the metal with a lower
pressure on the tool (see paragraph 374); while repeated experiments made by us in
cutting medium hard steels indicate that there is little if any difference in cutting
speed between the 68 degrees lip angle and coarser angles. Our standard tools,
therefore are capable of taking heavier cuts than the blunter tools, and in a given
machine working to the limit of its pulling power, can remove rather more metal in a
given time.

WHY TOOL FOR CUTTING SOFT CAST IRON SHOULD HAVE BLUNTER LIP ANGLE THAN
TOOL FOR CUTTING SOFT STEEL

366 It may be a matter of surprise to some that we have adopted a lip angle of 68
degrees for cutting the softer grades of cast iron, while we recommend a lip angle of
61 degrees for the softer steels. It is one of the strange anomalies met with in so
many of the elements of this art, however, that if we experiment with a very soft
cast iron, on the one hand, and a very soft steel, on the other—the standard cutting
speeds of which are each, say, 150 feet per minute with a 13¢ inch depth of cut and
fir inch feed—in the case of the soft steel the highest speed can be obtained only

152
with a cutting edge at least as keen as 61 degrees, and we believe even keener, while
the lip angle corresponding to the highest cutting speed with soft cast iron is 68
degrees or even blunter. The following experiments were carefully made and have
since been verified by repeated trials.

367 In 1894 before the discovery of high speed cutting tools, the standard speed for
cutting soft cast iron was determined for each of two sets of tools, one set having a
lip angle of 61 degrees and the other 68 degrees. These tools were made from
tempered carbon steel of {Q inches by 1% inch section, having the curve of the
cutting edge as shown in standard, Folder 5, Fig. 24. One set was ground with 6
degrees clearance angle, 8 degrees back slope, and 14 degrees side slope, thus giving
a lip angle of 68 degrees. The other set was ground with a clearance angle of 6
degrees back slope of 8 degrees, and side slope of 22 degrees, thus giving a lip angle
of 61 degrees. These two sets of tools were successively run on a carefully
standardized test piece of soft cast iron of about 24 inches diameter. The standard
ruining speed of the 68 degrees angle was 67 feet, while the standard ruining speed
of the 61 degrees lip angle was 651} feet; thus in cutting soft cast iron, changing the
lip angle from 68 to 61 degrees reduced the cut- ting speed from 67 to 65% feet, a
loss of 2.3 per cent in speed. 368 On the other hand, the following result was
obtained repeatedly in experiments made in 1900 upon a carefully standardized test
forging made of soft steel, whose chemical composition and physical properties
were about:
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ , , _ . . _ .0.105 per cent
Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . _ . . . . . ..0.25 per cent
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.008 per cent -
Sulphur . . . . . . . . _ _ _ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . 0.04 per cent
Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ 0.008 per cent
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . ..0.047 per cent
Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,000 pounds
Elastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-1,500 pounds
Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 per cent
Contraction of Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 per cent

Taylor-White treated tools of the chemical composition of tool steel

No.27 on Folder 21 , Table 139, were used. Body of the tool, {V by 1% inch, curve of
the cutting edge, shown in Folder 5, Fig. 24, with a clearance angle of 6 degrees, back
slope 12 degrees, side slope 18 degrees, giving a lip angle of about 61 degrees. The
standard ruining speed with a 13¢ inch depth of cut and a 1'3 inch feed was 150 feet
per minute; tools in other respects exactly like these, except that the back slope was
8 degrees and the side slope 14 degrees (giving a lip angle of 68 degrees), showed in
repeated trials a ruining speed of from 125 to 130 feet.

369 The effect of changing the lip angle from 68 to 61 was to increase the cutting
speed from 125 to 150 feet, a gain of 20 per cent. Thus a more acute cutting angle
used on a tool for cutting soft steel produces just the opposite effect from that
produced in cutting equally soft cast iron.

153
370 The lip angle of 68 degrees used in cutting soft steel, when tried at the high
speed of 150 feet, caused the chip to be much more distorted or upset, and
thickened, and after running a short time at this speed, the chip began to stick to the
lip surface of the tool almost as though it were welded. With the more acute angle of
61 degrees this bunching up of the chip and welding did not occur. It was also
evident that when the chip began to weld to the lip of the 68 degree tool, the power
required to cut the metal was so greatly increased as in a number of cases to entirely
stall or slow down the lathe, whereas with the 61 degrees lip angle, the lathe was
never slowed down in the least. At slower cutting speeds it was not noticeable that
the 68 degrees tool consumed any more power than the 61 degrees tool.

371 It would be interesting to repeat this experiment at the very high speed with a
dynamometer, carefully measuring the pressure of the chip on the tool.

372 The writer believes that it would be profitable to experiment with more acute lip
angles than 61 degrees in cutting dead soft steel such as above referred to,
containing about 0.10 per cent carbon, and °f 48,000 pounds tensile strength, which
approximates to wrought iron. It may be that with this extremely soft steel still
higher cutting speeds could be obtained with more acute angles, in which case it
would be advisable of course to make special tools for cutting this quality of metal in
shops where large amounts of it are used. However, a trial of this sort would not
modify our selection of 61 degrees for the Standard angle for cutting the ordinary
softer steels met with in the average machine shop, because as explained above, our
standard shop lwls for cutting the softer steels are intended for use in cutting metals
With an upper limit of hardness of about carbon 0.45 to 0.50, say, pounds tensile
strength, 18 per cent of stretch or thereabouts, and if a more acute lip angle than,
say, 61 degrees were used in cutting steel of this hardness, there would be danger of
the cutting edge crumbling away or spalling off.

THEORY AS TO WHY AN ACUTE LIP ANGLE PRODUCES A HIGHER SPEED FOR CUTTING
SOFT STEEL AND A SLOWER SPEED FOR SOFT CAST IRON

373 In all matters pertaining to this art a theoretical explanation of the various
phenomena is of less importance than a clear knowledge of the facts. However, it
may still be of interest, at least, to present our theory as to the opposite effects of an
acute lip angle in the case of soft cast iron and soft steel.

374 Dr. Nicolson in his dynamometer experiments has demonstrated the fact that
tools ground with a “cutting angle of 60 degrees” which corresponds to a “lip angle
of 54 degrees” work with a smaller total pressure upon the tool than tools whose
cutting angles are either larger or smaller than 54 degrees, the metals upon which he
experimented being as follows: Medium cast iron, which with a 135 inch depth of cut
and a 11;; inch feed having a standard speed of 49 feet per minute; and steel 60,000
pounds tensile strength and 26 per cent extension, having a standard speed of 111
feet per minute with a 135 inch depth of cut and 11}; inch feed. His
experiments,however, show that although tools of these angles cut with less

154
pressure, yet tools with larger angles can be run at higher cutting speeds. This
confirms our experiments on cast iron as cited above in para- graph 367. The reason
for this phenomenon appears to be as follows:

375 First, the amount of heat generated by the friction of the chip is doubtless
closely proportional to the pressure of the chip upon the tool. Therefore, with the 54
degrees cutting angle and its lower pressure there will be less heat generated than
with the larger cutting angles On the other hand, the heat is carried away from the
cut- ting edge mostly through the metal of the tool itself (very little heat being
radiated into the air); and the more acute the angle of the tool, the smaller will be
the cross-section of the wedge shaped metal of the tool close to the cutting edge, so
that the blunter angled tools will have also a larger section of metal for carrying
away the heat. In addition to this, and of greater importance in our judgment, is the
fact that in cutting cast iron the pressure of the chip comes very close to the cutting
edge of the tool, as explained in paragraph 523, and the more acute its angle, the
more will a trifling amount of wear or damage affect the cutting edge. These two
causes working together operate to enable the blunter cutting edge to run at higher
speeds in cutting cast iron. On the other hand, as pointed out in paragraphs 170 and
516, the pressure of the chip in cutting dead soft steel comes at a considerable
distance from the cutting edge, so that in this case the more delicate edge of the
acute angled tool is further removed from the source of heat and also subject to
much less abrasive wear than in cutting cast iron; and the cross-section of the tool
beneath the center of pressure of the chip is much larger. Therefore, in the case of
very soft steel we have exactly the reverse effect, as described in paragraph 368,
namely, the more acute their lip angles down to 61 degrees (the low limit
experimented with by us), the higher the cutting speeds at which tools can be run.
war

WHY TOOLS SHOULD BE GROUND WITH GREATER SIDE SLOPE THAN BACK
SLOPE

376 We have endeavored above to make it clear that the para- mount consideration
affecting the choice of the lip angle for standard tools has been the avoidance of the
danger of spalling or crumbling at the cutting edge. Having chosen a lip angle which
is sufficiently blunt to avoid danger from this cause, it must still be decided whether
this angle shall be produced, say, altogether by side slope or altogether by back
slope, or by a combination of side slope and back slope; and in settling this question
there are several important, and, as usual, conflicting considerations. These may be
divided into the following groups, which are given in the order of their importance:
a Ease and cheapness of grinding and the effect of repeated grindings upon the
strength and life of the tool;
b Guiding the chip in the proper direction for convenience in operating;
c The effect of pressures produced by side slope and back slope upon the tendency
of the tool to gouge or plunge either forward or sideways;
d The power required to feed.

155
377 In the following brackets are grouped these several considerations, in the order
of their relative importance, as they affect favorably or unfavorably the adoption of a
steep side slope:

IN FAVOR OF STEEP SIDE SLOPE

a With side slope tool can be ground many more times with- out weakening it;
b Chip runs off sideways and does not strike tool post or clamps;
c Less tendency to force and deflect the tool to one side as it tends to bring resultant
line of pressure within base of the tool, as explained in paragraph 382;
d Easier to feed.

AGAINST STEEP SIDE SLOPE

a. Danger of gouging or plunging into the work greater.

378 And in the following brackets are also grouped the same considerations as they
affect favorably or unfavorably a steep back slope:

IN FAVOR OF STEEP BACK SLOPE

a. Does not push tool and work away from one another.

AGAINST STEEP BACK SLOPE

a. Grinds down into body of tool and weakens tool and allows fewer grindings for
given height of tool;
b In case of gouging, the work is more apt to be spoiled through tool plunging
forward as it does with steep back slope than if it plunges sideways as it does with
steep side slope;
c Runs chip directly back against tool, tool post or clamp;
d Harder to feed.

SIDE SLOPE AND BACK SLOPE AS AFFECTED BY THE GRINDING

379 On Folder 7, Figs. 39a and 39b, we show the side view of two tools, in both of
which views the lip angle of the tool is 61 degrees. In the case of Folder 7, Fig. 39b,
the lip angle is attained entirely through back slope while in Folder
7,Fig.39b,andFolder5,Fig.20b (standard tool for cutting soft steels), there is 8
degrees of back slope and 22 degrees of side slope. The cutting edges of both of
these tools are of the same height. An inspection of the drawings will show, however,
that the tool with all back slope can be ground but comparatively few times before
the corner of the grindstone will begin to cut away the body of the tool, thus
weakening it, and allowing a comparatively small number of grindings before the
tool is redressed, while at the same time making the grinding much more expensive,
as explained in paragraphs 435 to 439.

156
SIDE SLOPE AND BACK SLOPE AS THEY AFFECT THE DIRECTION OF THE CHIP

380 With the modern high speeds used in cutting steel the dis- position of the chip
becomes a matter of no small moment, and in many cases it is absolutely necessary
in designing the tool to provide against the jamming of the chip either between a
portion of the tool itself and the lip surface of the tool, or between the nose of the
tool and the clamps or tool post which hold it.

381 It is evident that a steep back slope tends to throw the chip either directly
against the tool or against the tool post or clamps, while a steep side slope guides
the chip off to one side, and this there- fore becomes one of the most important
reasons for adopting a. steep side slope.

THE TENDENCY OF THE PRESSURE OF THE CHIP TO BEND THE TOOL TO ONE SIDE

382 In pars. 417 to 425, relating to the dimensions of the steel to be used in the body
of the tool, will be seen the desirability of keeping the resultant line of pressure of
the chip upon the tool within or as near as possible to the base of the tool. Dr.
Nicolson’s experiments (Fig. 336 of his paper) show that the side pressure of the chip
upon the tool diminishes as the cutting angle becomes more acute and reaches a
minimum with an angle of 60 degrees. Therefore a steep side slope will tend to keep
the resultant line of pressure within the base of the tool.

THE EFFECT OF SIDE SLOPE AND BACK SLOPE UPON THE POWER REQUIRED TO FEED
THE TOOL

383 The diagram in Fig. 3.36 in Dr. Nicolson’s paper also indicates the desirability of a
steep side slope even to the extent of 30 degrees in diminishing the power required
to feed. 384 A tool ground with a slope of 30 degrees offers a resistance to feeding
of but 1 per cent to 10 per cent while a tool ground with :1-5 degrees slope meets
with a feeding resistance equal to from 1? per cent to 20 per cent of the total
pressure on the tool.

385 For further discussion of feeding resistance, see paragraph 581.

BACK SLOPE NEEDED TO SECURE BETTER FINISH AND GREATER ACCURACY IN SIZE

386 A study of all of the above elements would lead to the conclusion that tools
should be designed with all side slope and no back slope. There is, however, one
element which makes it desirable to have a certain amount of back slope; namely,
the fact that a steep back slope diminishes the tendency of the chip to push the tool
and the work away from one another, and it is evident that the greater the pressure
tending to force the tool and the work apart, the greater will be the irregularity in
the finish left by the nose of the tool upon the work. This irregularity both in size and
finish is particularly noticeable in those cases in which the tool and its supports are
not especially rigid, and in which the depth of the cut varies from one part of the

157
forging to another; and also when the surface of the forging is more or less eccentric
or uneven owing to the irregularities left by the hammer in forging.

387 In paragraph 217 special attention has been called to the necessity for great
rigidity in all parts of the lathe to be used in experimenting. There are a few
important elements, however, which can only be studied through the use of a lathe
in which the supports for the tool are more or less yielding, and even somewhat
loose rather than rigid. These elements are: a the tendency of the tool to gouge or
plunge into the work; and b the forcing of the tool and the work apart.

388 It is evident that the effect of the acuteness of the angle of slope of the tool is
directly opposite in these two cases. The more acute the angle of slope, the greater
the tendency to gouge, and the less the tendency to push the work and the tool
apart. It may be said that in well managed machine shops the tool supports will be
properly adjusted so as to avoid any lost motion or looseness, and that there- fore
the tendency to gouge from this cause should not be considered. The fact is,
however, that we are dealing with shops as they are, and even in many of the best
shops, machines will be found whose tool supports are entirely too springy and more
or less less worn or out of proper adjustment. We have made repeated careful
experiments with lathes having springy tool supports and with more or less lost
motion, and in such machines, providing the tool is fastened tight in the tool post,
we have found that the tools ground to our standard angles, shown on Folder 5, Figs.
20a and 20b, very rarely gouge or plunge forward or sideways seriously. The danger
of plunging forward, however, has been one of the reasons influencing the adoption
of a back slope as small as 8 degrees.

389 The tendency of the tool and work to push apart, on the other hand, is very
marked with tools designed with all side slope and no back slope. A series of
experiments was tried with a set of tools, in the one case having 6 degrees clearance,
8 degrees back slope, 14 degrees side slope; and in the other case, a set having 6
degrees clearance, a back slope of minus 5 degrees, or more properly a forward
slope of 5 degrees; and a side slope of 25 degrees. The lip angle of the first of these
sets being 68 degrees, while the lip angle of the second was about the same. One of
the principal reasons for comparing these types of tools was that the tool when
ground with 5 degrees front slope makes what is known as a shearing cut and that a
shearing out has the special advantage of leaving a smoother finish.

390 The standard speeds of these two tools were found through accurate
experiments to be practically the same, there being less than l per cent difference
between the two in favor of the 8 degrees back slope. With these tools, however,
even when used in a lathe with a comparatively rigid and a tight and well adjusted
tool support, there was a. most noticeable difference in the tendency to push the
tool and the work apart. With heavy cuts a much smoother and better finish was left
by the tool with the 8 degrees back slope in spite of the shearing effect of the other
tool; and it was evident to all of those who watched the experiment that the tool
with back slope was greatly to be preferred to the other. It may add weight to
understand that this particular experiment was made at the request of the

158
superintendent and foreman of a large machine shop in which tools ground with the
i degrees front slope had formerly been “standard. These men, however, were
completely convinced through watching the two types of tools working under
exactly uniform conditions.

Productivity Impact of elasticity of the work and of the tool:

1 with tool chattering to 1.15, with tool running smoothly.

287 (J) The elasticity of the work and of the tool on account of producing chatter.

Proportion is as 1 with tool chattering to 1.15 with tool running smoothly.

CHATTER OF THE TOOL

633 The following are the general conclusions arrived at on the subject of chatter of
the tool:

CHATTER CAUSED BY THE NATURE OF THE WORK

634 (A) Chatter is the most obscure and delicate of all problems facing the machinist,
and in the case of castings and forgings of miscellaneous shapes probably no rules or
formulae can be devised which will accurately guide the machinist in taking the
maximum cuts and speeds possible without producing chatter. (See paragraph 648)

635 (B) It is economical to use a steady rest in turning any piece Of cylindrical work
whose length is more than twelve times its diameter. (See paragraph 669)

CHATTER CAUSED BY THE METHOD OF DRIVING THE WORK

636 (C) Too small lathe-dogs or clamps or an imperfect bearing at the points at which
the clamps are driven by face plate produce vibration. (See paragraph 659)

CHATTER CAUSED BY CUTTING TOOLS

637 (D) To avoid chatter, tools should have cutting edges with curved outlines and
the radius of curvature of the cutting edge should be small in proportion as the work
to be operated on is small. The reason for this is that the tendency of chatter is much
greater when the chip is uniform in thickness throughout, and that tools with curved
cutting edges produce chips which vary in thickness, while those with straight cutting
edges produce chips uniform in thickness. (See para- graph 661)

638 (E) Chatter can be avoided, even in tools with straight cutting edges by using two
or more tools at the same time in the same machine. (See paragraphs 664 and 665)

159
639 (F) The bottom of the tool should have a true, solid bearing on the tool support
which should extend forward almost directly beneath the cutting edge. (See
paragraph 663)

640 (G) The body of the tool should be greater in depth than its width. (See
paragraph 662)

CHATTER CONNECTED WITH THE DESIGN OF THE MACHINE

641 Chatter caused by modifications in the machine may be classified as follows:

642 (H) It is sometimes caused by badly made or fitted gears.

643 (J) Shafts may be too small in diameter or too great in length.

644 (K) Loose fits in the bearings and slides may occasion chatter.

645 (L) In order to absorb vibrations caused by high speeds, machine parts should be
massive far beyond the metal required for strength. (See paragraph 656)

THE EFFECT OF CHATTER UPON THE CUTTING SPEED OF THE TOOL

646 (M) Chatter of the tool necessitates cutting speeds from 10 to 15 per cent
slower than those taken without chatter, whether tools are run with or without
water. (See paragraphs 671 to 677)

647 (N) Higher cutting speed can be used with an intermittent cut than with a steady
cut. (See paragraphs 678 to 680)

648 Of all the difficulties met with by a machinist in cutting metals, the causes for
the chatter of the tool are perhaps the most obscure and difficult to ascertain, and in
many cases the remedy is only to be found after trying (almost at random) half a
dozen expedients.

649 This paper is chiefly concerned with chatter as it is produced or modified by the
cutting tool itself. Some of the other causes for chatter, however, may be briefly
referred to. These may be divided into five groups:

(A) The design of the machine;

(B) the nature and proportions of the work being operated upon;
(C) the care and adjustment of the parts of the machine;
(D) the method of setting the work in the machine or of driving it; .
(E) the shape of the cutting tools, manner in which they are set in the machine and
the speeds at which they are run.

160
Causes (A) and (B) are outside the control of the machinist. Elements (C), (D) and (E)
are or should be to a large extent under the control of the management of the shop.

650 (A) Referring, now, to cause (A), “The design of the machine” the chief elements
causing chatter in the design of a machine are:

651 (Aa) Gears which are set out of proper adjustment or the teeth of which are
untrue. It should be noted that involute teeth will run smoothly whether their pitch
diameters exactly coincide or not, whereas the epicycloidal teeth are almost sure to
rattle unless their pitch lines are maintained in their exact proper relations one to
the other.

652 (Ab) Chatter is frequently caused through mounting the driving gears upon
shafts which are either too small in diameter or too long. A large excess in the
diameter of shafts beyond that required for strength is called for in order to avoid
torsional deflection which produces chatter.

653 (Ac) Lathe shafts and spindles must of course be very accurately and closely
fitted in their bearings, and the caps adjusted so as to avoid all play.

654 (Ad) For heavy work the lathe tail stocks should be fastened to the bed plates
with bolts of very large diameter, and should be lightened down with long handled
wrenches.

655 (Ae) The lathe bed itself should be exceedingly massive, and should contain far
more metal than is required for strength or even to resist ordinary deflections; and
the moving tool supports should also be heavy far beyond what is required for
strength.

MASSIVE MACHINES NEEDED FOR HIGH SPEEDS

656 Undoubtedly high cutting speeds tend far more than slow speeds toward
producing minute and rapid vibrations in all parts of the machine, and these
vibrations are best opposed and absorbed by having large masses of metal
supporting the cutting tool and the head and tail stocks. It is largely for the purpose
of avoiding vibration and chatter in machines that the high cutting speeds
accompanying the modern high speed tools call for a redesigning of our machine
tools. While it is true that in many cases a very great gain can be made by merely
speeding up a machine originally designed for slow speed tools, this increase in
speed almost invariably produces a corresponding increase in the vibration or
chatter, and for absorbing this, the lathes and machines of older design are, in many
cases, too light throughout.

657 (C) Cause (C) namely, “The care and proper adjustment of the various parts
of the machine” is almost entirely under the control of the shop management. It is of

161
course evident that so far as the effect of chatter is concerned, one of the most
important causes can be eliminated from the shop by systematically looking after
the careful adjustment of all of the working parts of the machine to see that the caps
of the bearings are always so adjusted as to have no lost motion and yet not bind,
and so that all gibs and wedges for taking up wear upon the various slides are kept
adjusted to a snug fit. It is our experience, however, that the adjustment of the
various parts of the machine should in no case be left to the machinist who runs his
lathe, but that the adjustment and care of machines should be attended to
systematically and at regular intervals by the management. In large shops a repair
boss with one or two men can be profitably kept steadily occupied with this work. A
tickler, however, should be used for reminding the repair boss each day of the
adjustment of machines and the overhauling which should be attended to on that
day.

658 (D) Cause (D), namely, “The method of setting the work in the machine or of
driving it,” is in many cases capable of being directly under the control of the
machinist.

659 (Da) One of the most frequent causes for chatter lies either in having too light or
too springy clamps or lathe dogs fastened to the work for the purpose of driving it,
or in having vibration at the point of contact between the lathe dog, and the face
plate of the lathe, or the driving bracket which is clamped to it. In heavy work the
clamps should be driven at two points on opposite sides of the face plate, and great
care should be taken to insure a uniform bearing of the clamps at both of these
driving points. Chatter through vibration at this point can frequently be stopped by
inserting a piece of leather or thick lead between the clamps and the driving
brackets on the face plate; which has the effect both of deadening the vibration and
equalizing the pressure between the two outside diameters at which the clamp is
driven by the face plate.

660 (Db) A dead center badly adjusted so as to be either too tight or too loose on the
center of the work, or any lost motion in the tail stock of the lathe is such an evident
source of chatter that it need not be dwelt upon.

661 (E) Cause (E) namely, “The shape of the cutting tools, the manner in which
they are set in the machine and the speeds at which they are run.” In paragraphs 312
and 315 we have attempted to explain the effect of a uniform thickness of chip in
causing chatter, and have indicated that the proper remedy for this is to use a round
nosed tool, which is always accompanied by a chip of uneven thickness.

662 In paragraphs 415 and 425 we have also referred to the desirability of having the
body of tools deeper than their width in order to insure strength as well as to
diminish the downward deflection of the tool, which frequently results in chatter,
particularly when the tools are set with a considerable overhang beyond their
bearing in the tool post.

162
663 In paragraphs 450 and 459 we have also called attention to the great desirability
of designing tools with their bottom surfaces extending out almost directly beneath
the cutting edge, and of truing up the bottom surface of the tools, so as to have a
good bearing directly beneath the nose of the tool on the tool support. If sufficient
care is taken in the smith shop and the smith is supplied with a proper surface plate,
the tools can be dressed so as to be sufficiently true on their bottom surfaces for all
ordinary lathe work.

664 As indicated in paragraphs 315 to 325, it has been the necessity for avoidance of
chatter which has influenced us greatly in the adoption of round nosed tools as our
standard. As shown in paragraph 312, tools with straight cutting edges, which
remove chips uniform throughout in thickness can be run at very much higher
cutting speeds than our standard round nosed tools; but owing to the danger of
chatter, from these tools, their use is greatly limited, in fact, almost restricted to
those special cases in which chatter is least likely to occur. Attention should be called,
however, to a method by which straight edge tools have been used successfully for
many years upon work with which there was a very marked tendency to chatter.

665 While at the works of the Midvale Steel Company we superintended the design
of a large lathe for rough turning gun tubes and long steel shafts; in which tools with
long straight cutting edges were used without chatter, and yet at the high speeds
corresponding to the thin chips which accompany this type of tool. This lathe was
designed with saddle and tool posts of special construction, so that two
independently adjustable tool supports were mounted on the front side of the lathe
and one on the back side. In each of these slides a heavy straight edge tool was
clamped. The three tools were then adjusted so that they all three removed layers of
metal of about equal thickness from the forging, and, although the tendency toward
chatter,- owing to the uniform thickness of the chip,—as indicated in paragraph 315,
was doubtless as great with these straight edge tools as with any others, the period
of maximum or of minimum pressure for all three tools never corresponded or
synchronized so that when one tool was under maximum pressure, one of the others
was likely to be under minimum pressure. For this reason the total pressure of the
chips on all three tools remained approximately uniform and chatter from this cause
was avoided.

666 (B) Cause (B), namely, “The nature and proportions of the work being
operated upon.”

667 In assigning daily tasks to each machinist with the help of our slide rules, the
element which still continues to give the greatest trouble to the men who write out
these instructions is deciding just how heavy a cut can be taken on the lighter and
less rigid classes of work without causing chatter. This branch of the art of cutting
metals has received less careful and scientific study than perhaps any other. While
the element is one which must always remain more or less under the domain of
“rule of thumb,” since the causes which produce chatter, particularly in castings of
irregular shapes, are so many and complicated as to render improbable their

163
successful reduction to general laws or formulae, undoubtedly much can be done
toward attaining a more exact knowledge of this subject, and experiments in this line
present a most important field of investigation.

668 The following rule (belonging to the order of “ rule of thumb ”) which has been
adopted by us after much careful and systematic observation, extends over work
both large and small, and covers a wide range:

IT IS ECONOMICAL TO USE A STEADY REST IN TURNING ANY PIECE OF METAL WHOSE

LENGTH IS MORE THAN TWELVE TIMES ITS DIAMETER

669 When the length of a piece becomes greater than twelve times its diameter, it is
necessary to reduce the size of the cut to such an extent that more time will be lost
through being obliged to use a light cut than is required to properly adjust a steady
rest for supporting the piece.

670 There is one cause for chatter which would seem to be impossible to foresee
and guard against in advance; i.e., chatter which is produced by a combination of
two or more of the several elements likely to cause chatter. If, for instance, the
natural periods for vibration in the tool and in the work or in any of the parts of the
lathe and the work happen to coincide or synchronize, then chatter is almost sure to
follow; and the only remedy for this form of chatter seems to lie in a complete
change of cutting conditions; a change, for instance, to a coarser feed with an
accompanying slower cutting speed, or vice versa. Unfortunately, for economy,
higher speeds rather than slow speeds tend to produce this type of chatter, and the
remedy therefore generally involves a slower cutting speed.

THE EFFECT OF CHATTER UPON THE CUTTING SPEED

671 A tool which chatters to any great extent must be run at a rather slower cutting
speed than a tool which runs free from chatter, as will be seen by the following
carefully tried experiment:

672 A forging, 14 feet long, 4 and 5/8 inches diameter, made out of exceedingly hard
steel which was especially hammer hardened and uniform, was placed in the lathe,
and standard cuts 3/16 inch depth, and 1/16 inch feed (with our standard round
nosed tool 7/8 inch) were taken upon it in such a way that they first ran smoothly
without chattering; other cuts were then taken in such a position on the forging that
the tool chattered badly throughout its cut. This was accomplished by using a steady
rest in one case so as to prevent chatter, and in the other case running without the
steady rest. All of the tools had been carefully standardized before starting the
experiments, and proved uniform and capable of running at maximum cutting
speeds. The forging had also been proved uniform, and its standard cutting speed
had been shown to be between 15.5 and 16 feet per minute.

673 In the two tables below in paragraph 674 are given the details of the cutting
speeds obtained with and without chatter. In one of these experiments the tool was

164
run without water and in the other the tool was cooled through the use of a heavy
stream of water.

674 An examination of the results of this experiment indicates in general that chatter
causes a reduction in cutting speed of from 10 per cent to 15 per cent whether tools
are run without water or with a heavy stream of water to cool them.

675 The following EXPERIMENTS SHOW THAT CHATTER CAUSES A REDUCTION IN

CUTTING SPEED OF 10 PER CENT TO 15 PERCENT WHETHER THE TOOLS ARE RUN
WITH OR WITHOUT TO COOL THEM. (See paragraphs 671 to 676)

676 Experiment No. 125b was made for the purpose of again showing conclusively
that both the tool and the forging had been properly standardized. It will be noted
that this tool, free from chatter, broke down in 14.5 minutes at a cutting speed of 17
feet 6 inches, whereas the tool just above it ran all right at 15 feet for 20 minutes,
showing that both the forging and tools had been properly standardized.

677 Accurate experiments on the chatter of the tool are difficult to make because
the comparatively small diameter of work which is needed to insure chatter calls for
an extremely hard piece of metal (i. e., slow cutting speeds) in order to make the
runs, which must last for 20 minutes, extend through a sufficiently short distance
over the length of the forging so that the tools shall not be in danger of chattering. It
was for this reason that we were obliged to make the above forging out of extremely
hard metal.

HIGHER CUTTING SPEED CAN BE USED WITH AN INTERMITTENT CUT THAN WITH A
STEADY CUT

678 An intermittent cut, however, has a. very different effect upon cutting speed
from that produced by chatter. We have observed in a large number of cases that
when a tool is used in cutting steel with a heavy stream of water on it (and this is the
proper method of cutting steel of all qualities), a rather higher cutting speed can be
used with an intermittent cut than with a steady one. The reason for this is that
during that portion of the time when the tool is not cutting, the water runs directly
on those portions of the lip surface and cutting edge of the tool which do the work
and for this reason the tool is more effectively cooled with intermittent work than
with steady work. As an example of intermittent work, the writer would cite:

a. cutting the outside diameter of a steel gear wheel casting, in which case the tool is
only one-half its time under cut;
b. or turning small pieces of metal which are greatly eccentric;
c. or, for example, all planer and shaper work which is not too long.

679 It would seem from a theoretical standpoint that a tool would be greatly
damaged (and therefore a slow cutting speed would be called for) by the constant
series of blows which its cutting edge receives through intermittent work. It will be

165
remembered, however, that in planer work (and this class of intermittent work
comes to the direct attention of every machinist), the tool is more frequently injured
while dragging backward on the reverse stroke of the planer than it is while cutting,
and it is very seldom that a tool is damaged as it starts to cut on its forward stroke. In
all cases, however, where the tool deflects very greatly, when it starts its cut on
intermittent work slower speeds are called for than would be required for steady
work.

680 The above remarks on intermittent work do not, of course, apply to cast iron
with a hard scale or the surface of which is gritty. It is evident that in all such cases
owing to the abrasive action of the sand or scale on the tool, intermittent work is
much more severe upon the tool than a steady cut.

Source: https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/07/part-5-ie-research-by-taylor.html

Productivity Science of Machining - Excerpts from Stephenson and Agapiou's

Book, Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, third edition, 2016

Number of productivity related ideas in the area of metal cutting were given by
Stephenson and Agapiou in their book "Metal Cutting Theory and Practice." (Third
Edition, 2016) These relationships are to be used in developing ideal machining set
up and cutting conditions for the operation under study and they are to be
compared with the current set up and conditions in use.

About Dr. Agapiou

Dr. Agapiou’s research and teaching interests include modeling and optimization of
metal-cutting operations, including cutting tools and machining systems, and
modeling manufacturing part quality for machining lines to improve part quality,
process, and productivity.

p16
He (Taylor) felt that shop productivity could be greatly increased if standard best
practices were dictated by a central planning department.

As a result of these experiments, Taylor was able to increase machine shop

productivity at Midvale by as much as a factor of 5.

p.32
Also, the complexity of the tool has inhibited the introduction of new tool materials,
so that productivity gains in drilling have lagged those made in turning and milling
over the past 30 years. A number of manufacturers have developed diamond or CBN
tipped or coated drills to attempt to address this limitation.

p.98

166
The number of tools was reduced from 17 to 12. The positioning time (of tools) was
found to be the largest contributor to productivity improvement, with the cutting
time the second contributor.

p.99
Conventional Std. High Speed Advanced High Speed
Machine Machine Machine
Productivity 100% 137% 179%
(High speed machining gave 179%)

In high speed machining centers (HSMCs), the machining time for a feature may be
significantly lower compared to a conventional machine due to high spindle speed
and the resulting feed high feed. But, the machining time is typically one-third of the
total time, with the remainder being used for machine travel, tool changes, spindle
acceleration/deceleration, and pallet changes and rotations. To increase production
rate, reducing the noncutting time has to be attempted. In the HSMCs, fast
acceleration capabilities of axis are being used to permit reduction of noncutting
time. A focus on raising only the cutting speed proves cost-effective in just a few
applications, such as aerospace applications in which parts are machined from billets
or rough forgings.

In an example, time study comparison of a standard CNC machine, a conventional

(STD) HSMC, and an advanced HSMC in machining an aluminum automotive part
were given in the book. The cycle time for the advanced HSMC is lower than that
of the standard STD HSMC. The reduction is facilitated by the process change such
that different diameter holes are machined with a single end mill and multifunctional
tools. That way, the number of tools was reduced from 17 to 12. The corresponding
reduction in positioning time was found to be the largest contributor to productivity
improvement, with the cutting time the second contributor.

119
Their traveling speed and positional accuracy determine machine tool productivity
and part quality in many applications.

Slides are machine components, which move a workpiece or tool on guideways (or
ways) to a specified position and hold it in position under machining loads. Their
traveling speed and positional accuracy determine machine tool productivity and
part quality in many applications. Therefore, in addition to stiffness and damping,
parameters considered in the selection and design of guideways are machine speed
and acceleration/deceleration requirements.

Currently, slide speeds are generally around 20 m/min, although machines with
slide speeds between 40 and 50 m/min are not uncommon. Speeds between 70 and

167
100 m/min have been achieved on some high-speed machines. The maximum feed
rate is typically between 40% and 50% of the maximum rapid travel rate.

145
A pallet changing system improves productivity because a part is loaded while
another is being machined.

The pallet structure is a component of a machining system contributing to machine

performance. The workpiece is clamped to a pallet that is usually located on an
indexing table, is clamped in the desired orientation prior to cutting. A multiple
pallet changing system improves productivity because a part is loaded while another
is being machined. A standard pallet may utilize four conic couplings. The clamping
unit engages at the center of the conic coupling. This arrangement of four conical
couplings has been proven accurate and rigid for up to 1.5 × 1.5 m pallets with load
capacity up to 12 tons.

Application example:
2/20/2009
Shop Reduces Setup Time With Multi-Pallet Machines
MAC Machine Company.
Multi-pallet systems from Matsuura contain anywhere between 2 and 32 pallets.
With 32 pallet system the shop can machine as many as 32 different parts, one
right after the other, on a single milling machine.
https://www.mmsonline.com/articles/shop-reduces-setup-time-with-multi-pallet-m
achines

155
152. R. L. Rickert, AC servos increase machine tool productivity, Mach. Des. 57:4
(February 21, 1985) 135–139.

159

An improperly designed tool may wear or chip rapidly or unpredictably, reducing

productivity, increasing costs, and producing parts of deteriorating quality. Tooling
thus has a major influence on the productivity and economics of a process.

Cutting-tool material and design have a strong impact on machining performance.

Properly designed tools produce parts of consistent quality at higher cutting speeds
and feeds and also have long and predictable useful lives. An improperly designed
tool may wear quickly or chip rapidly or unpredictably, reducing productivity,
increasing costs, and producing parts of deteriorating quality. Tooling has a major
influence on the productivity and economics of a process. Therefore it is important
to consider all material options and tooling geometries for a given application with
associated range of speeds and feeds and their typical failure modes. In high-volume
applications, perishable tooling costs are typically 3% of the component cost. Using
higher cost tool capable of running at higher material removal rates (MRRs) normally
is profitable since a 20% increase in the MRR could reduce the total cost per

168
component by 15%. Modifying tooling to increase tool life can also be attempted as
50% increase in tool life reduces the total cost per component by 1%–2%.

p.165
For nonferrous work materials, WC tools will exhibit 2–3 times the productivity and
10 times the life of HSS tools. In steels, they give 2 times the productivity and 5 times
the life.

p.166
Basic guidelines for selecting carbide grades are (1) use the lowest Co content and
finest grain size, provided edge chipping and tool breakage do not occur; (2) use
straight WC grades whenabrasive edge wear is of concern; (3) use TiC grades to
prevent crater wear and/or both crater and abrasive wear; (4) use TaC grades for
heavy cuts in steels.

169
FIGURE 4.8 Comparison of microhardness (VHN-1 kg) at 1000°C and toughness of
ceramic tool materials using P01 carbide as a baseline. (After Mehrotra, P.K.,
Productivity Improvement in Machining by Applying Ceramic Cutting Tool Materials,
A Systems Approach to Machining, ASM, Materials Park, OH, 1993, pp. 15–20.)

187
Even though the range of rake angles is generally −5° to +15°, higher positive angles
are slowly being used to improve productivity.

196
Multipoint boring bars are often used to improve stability and to increase
productivity in high volume applications.

200
Rotary milling cutters can be used in some applications to improve productivity.

213
Significant improvements in productivity have resulted from the acceptance of solid
carbide drills. Compared to HSS drills, carbide drills permit an increase in productivity
by a factor of 2–10, and/or increase in hole quality. Solid carbide drills are especially
well suited for high throughput precision hole manufacturing.

235
Internal coolant is more effective; this method cools and lubricates the cutting edge
and reduces thermal shock in addition to removing chips, and therefore often results
in improved tool life and productivity.

276

169
26. P. K. Mehrotra, Productivity improvement in machining by applying ceramic
cutting tool materials, A Systems Approach to Machining, ASM, Materials Park, OH,
1993, pp. 15–20.

279
119. J. Skoglund, Carbide drills: The answer to high-productivity steel drilling, Cutting
Tool Eng. (February 1990) 35–37.

290
An important outgrowth of modular tooling has been quick-change tooling, which
has led to significant improvements in productivity.

389
T. L. Schmitz and K. S. Smith, Machining Dynamics: Frequency response to Improved
Productivity, Springer, New York, 2009.

444
Increasing machine tool productivity with high pressure cryogenic coolant flow,
Manufacturing Technology Directorate, Wright Laboratory, Air Force Systems
Command Report WL-TR-92-8014, May 1992.

507
8.7 PROCESS SIMULATION APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Simulation in current processes helps to increase productivity, part quality, and
reduce tooling and production costs.

541
It should be noted, however, that reducing the cutting speed has no impact on
productivity in many transfer machining operations, specifically those in which the
cutting time is substantially lower than the cycle time of the line. In transfer machine
operations, the cycle time should be determined by optimizing the speed and feed in
critical operations; in the other operations, the cutting speed should be reduced to
use all of the available cutting time and increase tool life.

554
Since fracture results when the tool is loaded beyond its structural limit, it can be
prevented either by reducing the cutting load or by increasing the structural strength
of the tool. Since reducing the cutting load usually requires reducing the metal
removal rate and thus the productivity of
the process, increasing the structural strength of the tool should be attempted first.

561
Tool wear is one important factor contributing to the variation of cutting forces and
surface finish. In transfer line applications, worn tools are often changed on a
statistical basis at a rate dictated by the shortest life expectancy for multi-tool
operations. In such cases, significant useful life of the tools may be wasted and
system productivity may be reduced.

170
575
Many parts are machined to produce surfaces with consistent dimensions, forms,
and finishes for locating, sealing, or similar applications. In many cases, especially
finishing operations, surface flatness, and finish requirements restrict the range of
tool sizes, geometries, and feed rates that can be used. Moreover, since the
machined surface finish becomes rougher and less consistent as the tool wears,
stringent finish requirements may also limit tool life and thus strongly influence
machining productivity and tooling costs.

597
Oil-based fluids reduce heat build-up because they have better lubricity and are
also typically used at lower wheel speeds. Burn limits and residual stress predictions
can also be computed using grinding simulation programs and used to suitably adjust
infeed cycles, the number of passes, and wheel characteristics to maximize
productivity.

659
J. D. Christopher, The influence of high pressure cryogenic coolant on tool life and
productivity in turning, SME Technical Paper MR90-249, 1990.

674
Schmitz, T.L., and Smith, K.S., Machining Dynamics Frequency Response to Improved
Productivity, Springer, 2009.

707
Although a decrease in rigidity in a machine tool is generally undesirable, it may be
tolerated when it leads to a desirable shift in natural frequencies (especially in high
speed machining) or is accompanied by a large increase in damping or by a beneficial
change in the ratio of stiffnesses along two orthogonal axes, which can result in
improved nonregenerative chatter stability. However, reducing the tool–workpiece
compliance is not always possible in practice, and other approaches, discussed next,
should be examined before productivity is sacrificed by reducing the depth of cut to
ensure stable operation.

748
P. Vanherck, Increasing milling machine productivity by use of cutter with
non-constant cutting-edge pitch, Proceedings of the Advanced MTDR Conference,
Vol. 8, Pergamon Press, London, U.K., 1967, pp. 947–960.

751
The selection of optimum process parameters directly affects the productivity,
manufacturing cost, and part quality.

755
The second level of a COS interacts with the first level. It uses detailed part geometry,
machine motion, and tooling data files to calculate individual machine motions and

171
cutting times based on the optimum cutting conditions identified by the first level of
the COS. In this case, the CAD model is imported to be machined, the size of the
starting part is specified, the user selects the machine to be used, and whether high
speed or conventional conditions are used. The software will select the sequence of
operations, cutting tools, tool path, cutting conditions, etc. This analysis can provide
information on gross productivity, and estimate of the required investment, and
detailed data on individual machine stations and station performance. Such
computer programs analyze both the whole system and individual machining
stations to balance work loads, increase productivity, and decrease investment.
Compared to manual methods, such machine and part processing simulations can
significantly reduce the total time required to develop and analyze manufacturing
systems. Several variations of the machining system, the processing sequence, and
tooling designs can be evaluated with minimal effort once the initial analysis of the
system is completed.

765
Noncutting time; the part process sequence for the various operations, which
significantly affects the part cycle time, should be considered in the optimization.
There are three stages to planning part processes for such systems: (1) determining
the cutter trajectory from geometric models of machining processes, (2) developing
mechanistic models for the machining operations, and (3) applying optimization
methodologies for the machining system.

765
The productivity of a conventional transfer line, FTL, or FMS, is affected by the
cutting conditions, the rapid machine travel rate, and the speed of the transfer
mechanism.

766
Reducing idle time by reducing the cutting speed and feed combinations prolongs
tool life, reduces tool failure, and reduces the probability of machine failure.
Therefore, the use of all or a substantial portion of the idle time should result in
higher system uptime and higher productivity.

There are two approaches to the solution of the tool magazine system reliability
problem: (1) the use of cutting tools of high reliability, and (2) the use of redundant
tools. The use of redundant tools in the machine’s magazine results in an increase in
production tooling costs, but tends to increase productivity and reduce production
costs. The mathematical solution for the optimum number of redundant tools in a
magazine can be determined when the reliabilities of the individual tools are known.

767
The majority of tools have a single function and are used for only one operation or
are made to machine a single part feature. However, the use of multifunctional
cutting tools has become necessary in single spindle manufacturing systems in order
to increase productivity and/or quality and to reduce cost.

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784
Even though vegetable oils are more expensive than mineral oil–based formulations,
they may be cost effective in some applications due to reduced consumption (less
dragout than mineral oils) and improved tool life and productivity.

803

In appropriate applications, MQL implementation may be justified by increased

productivity, capital cost avoidance, or variable cost avoidance. In many drilling
operations, such as crankshaft oil hole or large structural applications, penetration
rates are significantly higher for MQL than for alternative wet or dry processes,
leading to an increase in throughput. Capital cost avoidance is a significant driver for
applying MQL in high volume machining systems such as those used in automotive
powertrain manufacture, since in these systems the capital associated with a coolant
system (including piping, pumps, filters, and chip driers) may be a significant fraction
of the total system cost. Increased throughput in MQL operations may also
contribute to capital cost avoidance. MQL also permits the avoidance of variable
costs for filter media and chip drying, and often a reduction in costs for maintenance
and coolant management resources, but these savings may be offset to some degree
by increased tool costs.

822
Anon., Less lubricant, more productivity, Aerosp. Manuf., July 2010, 27.

913
High-speed dry machining (Powercutting) was introduced by Gleason in the 1990s,
and dry machining has become standard for completing cutter systems on
contemporary bevel gear cutting machines due to its increased productivity over
lower-speed wet processes.

920
Recently introduced wheels containing “Cubitron,” a controlled shape alumina
sol–gel, have a more efficient cutting action than randomly oriented abrasives and
have enabled further gains in productivity.

Advances in fabrication of ceramic corundum abrasives based on sol–gel process

Chinese Journal of Aeronautics
Volume 34, Issue 6, June 2021, Pages 1-17
Open access
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1000936120303228

929
F. Klocke and A. Klein, Tool life and productivity improvement through cutting
parameter setting and tool design in dry high-speed bevel gear tooth cutting, Gear
Technol., May/June 2006, 41–48.

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Source:
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2020/04/productivity-science-of-machining.html

Productivity Science of Human Effort - F.W. Gilbreth

Source:
MOTION STUDY: A METHOD FOR INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE WORKMAN
BY FRANK B. GILBRETH, Published in 1911 by D Van Nostrand Company, New York

The aim of motion study is to find and perpetuate the scheme of perfection. There
are three stages in this study:

1. Discovering and classifying the best practice.

2. Deducing the laws.
3. Applying the laws to standardize practice, either for the purpose of increasing
output or decreasing hours of labor, or both.

There is no waste of any kind in the world that equals the waste from needless,
ill-directed, and ineffective motions. When one realizes that in such a trade as
brick-laying alone, the motions now adopted after careful study have already cut
down the bricklayer's work more than two-thirds, it is possible to realize the amount
of energy that is wasted by the workers of this country.

By motion study the earning capacity of the workman can surely be more than
doubled. Wherever motion study has been applied, the workman's output has been
doubled. This will mean for every worker either more wages or more leisure.

Our duty is to study the motions and to reduce them as rapidly as possible to
standard sets of least in number, least in fatigue, yet most effective motions. This
has not been done perfectly as yet for any branch of the industries. In fact, so far as
we know, it has not, before this time, been scientifically attempted.

PLACE OF MOTION STUDY IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

Motion study as herein shown has a definite place in the evolution of scientific
management. Its value in cost reducing cannot be overestimated.

In increasing output by selecting and teaching each workman the best known
method of performing his work, motion economy is all important. Through it, alone,
when applied to unsystematized work, the output can be more than doubled, with
no increase in cost.

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When the Interim system takes up the work of standardizing the operations
performed, motion study enables the time-study men to limit their work to the study
of correct methods only. This is an immense saving in time, labor, and costs, as the
methods studied comply, as nearly as is at that stage possible, with the standard
methods that will be synthetically constructed after the time study has
taken place.

Even when Ultimate system has finally been installed, and the scientifically timed
elements are ready and at hand to be used by the instruction card man in
determining the tasks, or schedules, the results of motion study serve as a collection
of best methods of performing work that can be quickly and economically
incorporated into instruction cards.

Motion study, as a means of increasing output has consciously proved its

usefulness on the work for the past twenty-five years. Its value as a permanent
element for standardizing work and its important place in scientific management
have been appreciated only since observing its standing among the laws of
management given to the world by Mr. Frederick W. Taylor, that great conservator
of scientific investigation, who has done more than all others toward reducing the
problem of management to an exact science.

Now tremendous savings are possible in the work of everybody, they are not for
one class, they are not for the trades only; they are for the offices, the schools, the
colleges, the stores, the households, and the farms. But the possibilities of benefits
from motion study in the mechanic trades are particularly striking, because all trades,
even at their present best, are badly bungled.

PRESENT STAGE OF MOTION STUDY AND PRODUCTIVITY SCIENCE - 1911

We stand at present in the first stage of motion study, i.e., the stage of discovering
and classifying the best practice. This is the stage of analysis.

The following are the steps to be taken in the analysis:

1. Reduce present practice to writing.

2. Enumerate motions used.

3. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

4. Reduce best practice to writing.

5. Enumerate motions used.

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6. Enumerate variables which affect each motion.

Gilbreth started with a list of variable that are of help in developing science of
human effort (motion).

Frank B. Gilbreth - Framework for Motion Economy

A framework provides list of variable relevant for scientific study of a phenomenon.

Using the framework descriptive studies and explanatory studies are done by other
scientists. Every element that makes up or affects the amount of work that the
worker is able to turn out must be considered separately; but the variables which
must be studied in analyzing any motion, group themselves naturally into some such
divisions as the following:

I. Variables of the Worker.

1 . Anatomy.

2. Brawn.

3. Contentment.

4. Creed.

5. Earning Power.

6. Experience.

7. Fatigue.

8. Habits.

9. Health.

10. Mode of living.

11 . Nutrition.

12. Size.

13. Skill.

14. Temperament.

15. Training.

II. Variables of the Surroundings, Equipment, and Tools.

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1. Appliances.

2. Clothes.

3. Colors.

4. Entertainment, music, reading, etc.

5. Heating, Cooling, Ventilating.

6. Lighting.

7. Quality of material.

8. Reward and punishment.

9. Size of unit moved.

10. Special fatigue-eliminating devices.

11. Surroundings.

12. Tools.

13. Union rules.

14. Weight of unit moved.

III. Variables of the Motion.

1. Acceleration.

2. Automaticity.

3. Combination with other motions and sequence.

4. Cost.

5. Direction.

6. Effectiveness.

7. Foot-pounds of work accomplished.

8. Inertia and momentum overcome.

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9. Length.

10. Necessity,

11. Path.

12. "Play for position."

13. Speed.

In taking up the analysis of any problem of motion reduction we first consider each
variable on the list separately, to see if it is an element of our problem.

Our discussion of these variables must of necessity be incomplete, as the subject is

too large to be investigated thoroughly by any one student. Moreover, the nature of
our work is such that only investigations can be made as show immediate results for
increasing outputs or reducing unit costs.

The nature of any variable can be most clearly shown by citing a case where it
appears and is of importance. But it is obviously impossible in a discussion such as
this to attempt fully to illustrate each separate variable even of our incomplete list.

Since first writing these articles for Industrial Engineering it has been of great
interest to the writer to learn of the conscious and successful application of the
principles involved to the particular fields of work that have interested various
readers. It was thought that unity might be lent to the argument by choosing the
illustrations given from one field. The reader will probably find himself more
successful in estimating the value of the underlying laws by translating the
illustrations into his own vocabulary, by thinking in his own chosen material.

The practical value of a study such as this aims to be will be increased many fold by
cooperation in application and illustration. The variables, at best an incomplete
framework, take on form and personality when so considered.

In taking up the analysis of any problem of motion reduction we first consider each
variable on the list separately, to see if it is an element of our problem.

Our discussion of these variables must of necessity be incomplete, as the subject is

too large to be investigated thoroughly by any one student. Moreover, the nature of
our work is such that only investigations can be made as show immediate results for
increasing outputs or reducing unit costs.

The nature of any variable can be most clearly shown by citing a case where it
appears and is of importance. But it is obviously impossible in a discussion such as
this to attempt fully to illustrate each separate variable even of our incomplete list.

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Most of the illustrations are drawn from bricklaying. The bricklaying illustrations are
the most interesting, because it is the oldest mechanical trade there is. It has passed
through all the eras of history, it has been practiced by nations barbarous and
civilized, and was therefore in a condition supposed to be perfection before we
applied motion study to it, and revolutionized it.

Since first writing these articles for Industrial Engineering it has been of great
interest to the writer to learn of the conscious and successful application of the
principles involved to the particular fields of work that have interested various
readers. It was thought that unity might be lent to the argument by choosing the
illustrations given from one field. The reader will probably find himself more
successful in estimating the value of the underlying laws by translating the
illustrations into his own vocabulary, by thinking in his own chosen material.

The practical value of a study such as this aims to be will be increased many fold by
cooperation in application and illustration. The variables, at best an incomplete
framework, take on form and personality when so considered.

VARIABLES OF THE WORKER

ANATOMY

A careful study of the anatomy of the worker will enable one to adapt his work,
surroundings, equipment, and tools to him. This will decrease the number of
motions he must make, and make the necessary motions shorter and less fatiguing.

Examples.
1. If the bricklayer is left-handed the relative position of the pile of packs to the
mortar box is reversed.

2. The staging is erected so that the uprights will be out of the bricklayer's way
whenever reaching for brick and mortar at the same time.

3. Packs can be piled at a height with reference to the height of the mortar box that
will enable stock to be picked up more easily by bending over sideways than by
bending forwards. This latter case is, of course, on work where the non-stooping
scaffold is not used.

4. The planks on the bricklayer's platform of the non-stooping scaffold, if made of

two unconnected planks, will enable the bricklayer to lean either toward the stock
platform or toward the wall without any other effort than that of throwing his
weight on one foot or the other, taking advantage of the spring of the planks.

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5. The inside plank of the bricklayer's platform must extend in under the stock
platform, or the bricklayer's leg will strike the edge of the plank of the stock platform
when he reaches for stock.

6. The stock platform must not be wider than the minimum width that will permit
holding the packets, or the lower-priced packet man will not place the packs exactly
in that position that will require the least amount of straining of the high-priced
workman, the bricklayer.

The numbers show the correct sequence of courses and tiers as laid from the
non-stooping scaffold for the fewest, shortest, and most economical motions under
the " Pack-on-the-wall " method.

BRAWN

Workmen vary widely as to their brawn and strength.

When the actual work is being done, due consideration should be given to the
percentage of efficiency that the men available possess. But all calculations should
be made on the basis of using first-class men only. All data should be gathered from
observations on first-class men only. In fact, so-called first-class men are not good
enough. The best man obtainable anywhere is the best for observation purposes.
The data gathered on that best man will then be considered as 100-per-cent quality.
The men finally used can then be considered as of a certain percentage of perfect
quality, and it should then be the aim of the management to attain 100-per-cent
quality. This is one of the most important factors in the success of intensive
management. The manager who wins is the one who has the men best suited for the
purpose. Intensive management must not only recognize quickly the first-class man,
but must also attract first-class men.

Everybody concedes that the size of the output depends, first of all, on the quality of
the men.

Example. We have found that a first-class laborer, if his work is so arranged that he
does not have to stoop over, but can do his work with a straight back, can handle
ninety pounds of brick on a packet day after day and keep in first-class physical
condition, while laborers of a class that does not have the right food cannot handle
continuously over sixty to seventy pounds of bricks on a packet.

It is obviously better to have all one class of men, so that all instruction cards will be
as nearly alike as possible. The size of the shovel, the weight of the hammer, the
number of brick on the packet these are variables that must also be considered
when making out the instruction card and these are all influenced by the brawn of
the worker.

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CONTENTMENT

Contentment affects the output of the worker. If he is contented, he will have his
mind on his work, and he will be more willing to carry out the motions exactly as
directed on the instruction card. The contented worker also does not require so
large a percentage of rest for overcoming fatigue from his intensive efforts.
Contentment makes for loyalty to the management, for cooperating for
maintainment of the best conditions.

CREED

The term "'creed" is used to cover religion, nationality, etc., everything that might
act as a bond of sympathy between workers and the people with whom they come
in contact. On work where the output of each man is recorded separately, the
question as to whether the creed of the workman is the same as that of his foreman,
or superintendent, or employer, is of little consequence.

In places where the output of each man is not recorded separately, it is a recognized
fact that instructions of the foreman or employer will be more apt to be carried out
where there is a bond of sympathy between the employees, the foreman, and the
employers. A bond of sympathy between the workman and the people who are to
occupy the edifice upon which they are working will also increase the output.

EARNING POWER

The matter of classifying men by their relative earning power is as important as

classifying them by their relative brawn. It is better, of course, to have men as nearly
as possible of one class only, and that the best class. Classing men by their earning
power simplifies the work of the planning department in many ways. It enables it to
prescribe the same motions to the entire class of men, to place them all under nearly
the same conditions, to prescribe the same tools and surroundings, to place them
together, and, finally, to have an athletic contest between the men of the same
class.

Furthermore, the motions to be made are often entirely different for workmen of
different earning power.

Examples. i. With masons and laborers of low earning power it is sometimes

advisable to place the brick on the packets any way that will give the fewest motions
for loading the packets, and to let the bricklayers lay them with their customary
numerous motions, until men of higher earning power may be obtained to take their
places.

2. With bricklayers and laborers of high earning power it is better to have the
laborers pile the brick upon the packets so that the brick will be in that position that

181
requires the least amount of motions of the bricklayer to pick them up and to lay
them.

It is obvious that all motions performed in handling or transporting material before

the material is used, cut up, or fabricated, should, theoretically, be performed by
low-priced men, and that the work done by the high-priced men should be limited as
far as possible to the work of permanent character. As an example of this, the
carrying of the brick and mortar to the scaffold is done by the mason's helper, while
the carrying of the brick from the packet to its final resting place in the wall is done
by the mason. This same principle can be carried much further in all trades than is
usually customary to-day. For example, we have found that piling the brick face up
and with the top side nearest the palm of the bricklayer's hand when his arm hangs
in a natural position will save an average of one motion of the high-priced bricklayer
per brick.

We have found a great increase in the number of brick it is possible to lay, and a
decrease in the cost of laying them if the brick are placed by the low-priced man in
the nearest practicable place in feet and inches from the place where they will finally
rest in the wall. Not only this, but the receptacle must be left with the material on it,
so that the higher-priced man can lift the receptacle and its contents simultaneously
at the exact time the materials are wanted to a place still nearer to the place where
the material will be finally used, to be transported from there to their final resting
place by a still higher-priced man.

This use of the term "low-priced men" does not mean the use of mediocre men.
The men used, of whatever price, should be the best men of that class obtainable.

EXPERIENCE

That previous experience is an element to be considered is obvious. On a short job

it may not be advisable to attempt to change radically the life-time customs of a
local workman. But recording the output of each man separately will tell whether or
not it is advisable to make out the instruction card in accordance with the previous
experience of the workman, or in accordance with the way in which actual records
have proved to be productive of the highest outputs. Experience varies widely, and
the habits formed are often difficult to overcome.

Example. A bricklayer from certain sections of New England has been accustomed to
pick up mortar with a trowel at the same time that he picks up brick with the other
hand. This is called the " pick-and-dip method." The size and shape of his mortar
receptacle, the arrangement of the brick and mortar on his scaffold, the shape of the
scaffold itself, the sequence in which he builds the vertical tiers and the horizontal
courses, and, finally, the labor- union rules themselves, are fashioned after the
consequences of using a small trowel, just large enough to pick up sufficient mortar
for one brick only.

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A bricklayer so trained finds it difficult at first to adapt himself to the " string mortar"
method of the West. The western-taught bricklayer experiences the same difficulties
in adapting himself to the " pick-and-dip " method with the speed of the eastern
bricklayer. But their difficulties are nothing compared with those that the employer
experiences who puts the good points of both systems on any one job.

Not only do habitual motions become fixed, but also the previous experience of the
bricklayer is often the cause of his making too many motions, i.e., unnecessary
motions. He seldom, if ever, has been rigidly trained to use a certain number of
definite motions. It takes time and patience to induce him to adopt a standard
method.

On a small job it is advisable to select those men for the leads and the trigs who are
best fitted to be leaders, that is, who are best prepared by previous experience to
carry out without delay the requirements of the instruction cards but give due
consideration to the previous experience and habits of work of the workmen.

On a large job, however, it is most economical to insist on standard methods and

standard motions that will produce the highest outputs, without regard to the
previous training of the workmen. Attract and retain those workmen who can follow
out their instruction card and as a result produce the high records of outputs.

FATIGUE

Fatigue is an important variable to consider when selecting those motions that will
give the most economy and that make the " standard motions." It goes without
saying that the motions that cause the least fatigue are the most desirable, other
things being equal.

Continuous hard work, however, like proper training, puts the body into that
condition that best overcomes fatigue. Fatigue is due to three causes:

1. Fatigue due to coming to work improperly rested (fatigue brought to the job).

2. Unnecessary fatigue, due to unnecessary work, unnecessary motions, or

uncomfortable positions, surroundings, and conditions of working.

3. Necessary fatigue, due to output.

Every motion causes fatigue. The same motions in the same trade cause about the
same fatigue for all first-class men, and they all require about the same amount of
rest to overcome fatigue, provided their habits and mode of living are the same
outside of working hours.

The amount of fatigue caused and the percentage of rest required in many different
kinds of work have been computed by Frederick W. Taylor with great exactness. He

183
has assigned the various workers to classes and accurately computed the "task" from
his records. We know that the amount cf rest actually required by a workman
increases with the discomfort of the position in which he works. We also know that
the speed, hence the output of the worker, decreases rapidly if there is much fatigue
to overcome.

Example. A bricklayer can lay brick for a few minutes quite as quickly when he picks
up the brick from the level of the platform on which he stands (see Fig. 9), as he can
when he picks up the brick from a bench twenty-four inches above the level of the
platform on which he stands (ses Figs. 10, n, and 12), but he cannot keep that speed
up, because he requires more rest to overcome the greater fatigue.

It is not simply for the welfare alone, although that reason should be sufficient, but
for economic reasons as well, that the men should be so placed and equipped that
their work is done under the most comfortable conditions.

Examples. 1. It is a recognized fact that a cluttered-up floor under a workman's feet

will tire him quite as much as the productive work that he is doing. A
smooth-planked floor will enable a bricklayer to lay many more brick than will earth
that has been leveled off.

2. A bricklayer can stoop over and pick up anything from the floor with one hand
with much less fatigue if he has a place to rest his other hand while he is stooping,
because he puts his weight on one foot and lifts his other foot out behind him, which
does not tire the muscles of his back nearly so much.

Slow motions do not necessarily cause less fatigue than quick motions, and, per unit
of work done, may cause much more fatigue than quick motions.

The amount of work done per motion may not be fatiguing proportionately to the
size of the unit.

Example. - Lifting ninety pounds of brick on a packet to the wall will fatigue a
bricklayer much less than handling the same number of brick one or two at a time.
Consequently with the same amount of fatigue the workman will handle several
times as many brick on packets as he can handle one or two at a time.

We have, then, under this variable two tasks to perform:

1. To eliminate unnecessary fatigue. This we do by studying and fixing the variables;

that is, by standardizing the work.

2. To provide for rest from necessary fatigue, and to utilize rest time.

184
Under scientific management the evils of soldiering are eliminated, and the correct
definite percentage of rest required is recognized and provided for. When a man is
prevented by causes beyond his control from doing his regularly assigned work, he is
told to use the opportunity for rest, not to take such rest as can be obtained by
making slow and useless motions, that will give him an industrious appearance to
the casual observer, but to rest, the 100-per-cent kind of rest.

There are cases where chairs and reading tables have been provided with beneficial
effect for workers to occupy when delayed for a few minutes. They get the rest, and
their presence at the table acts as a danger signal to the management.

When a man is fatigued to the point where it is impossible for him to do his best
work he should be made to rest. He must not do anything but rest until he is in that
condition that will enable him to fly at his work and perform it with the fastest
standard motions possible.

Rest does not necessarily mean idleness. The worker can spend the rest period
reading his instruction card, or filling out his record of output on the card, or in some
other form of restful work. A change of work is often a rest. By performing the
above two tasks well, we secure the greatest output per day and the fewest hours
per day without injury to the health of the men.

HABITS

The habits of the workman have much to do with his success in eliminating
unnecessary motions and in adopting quickly and permanently standard methods.
The term ''habits," as here used, includes not only personal " habits," so-called, but
also habits of thinking, habits of working, etc.

Habits brought to the work may act as a deterrent or as an aid to its best
performance. They embrace a group of sub-variables which are difficult to describe
and analyze, and are of immense importance in influencing output.

That acquiring good habits of work makes the worker more versatile as well as more
efficient is forcefully stated by Mr. Gantt in his book on "Work, Wages, and Profits."
He says:

"The habits that a man has to acquire to become efficient in one class of work stand
him in good stead in becoming efficient in other work. These habits of work are
vastly more important than the work itself, for it is our experience that a man who
has become efficient in one thing, readily learns to become efficient at doing other
things."

HEALTH

The health of the worker may be affected by:

185
1 . Other things than his work and the conditions under which it is done.

2. The work.

Consideration of other things than the work may properly be left to the welfare
department. This department can most successfully define the scope of its work by
attempting to improve the man himself and his surroundings in every way that will
make him a better and more successful worker. This criterion will satisfy both
employer and employee as to the appropriateness, justness, and utility of the work
of the welfare department.

The life of the man when away from work is only in so far subject to the inspection
and jurisdiction of the so-called "welfare" department as that department can show
itself able to make of the man a more valuable economic unit to himself and to the
community.

If the welfare department makes an efficient workman the product of its work, the
philanthropic by-products will take care of themselves.

The work itself should be laid out in such a way that its performance will add to and
not subtract from health. A proper study and determination of the variables that
affect the surroundings and the motion will go far to insure this. Moreover,
standardized work will transform the workman.

Henry L. Gantt, in a most stimulating paper on "Training the Workmen in Habits of

Industry and Cooperation," read before the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, December, 1908, says of workmen:

"As they become more skilled, they form better habits of work, lose less time, and
become more reliable. Their health improves, and the improvement in their general
appearance is very marked. This improvement in health seems to be due to a more
regular and active life, combined with a greater interest in their work, for it is a
well-known fact that work in which we are interested and which holds our attention
without any effort on our part, tires us much less than that we have to force
ourselves to do."

This Mr. Gantt says in speaking of the benefits of the "task and bonus" system; but
the same thing is undoubtedly true of men working under standards derived from
motion study.

MODE OF LIVING

Mode of living has been more or less touched upon under " health" and " habits." It
is a complex variable, difficult to analyze and difficult to control. Its effects on output
are for this reason all the more far-reaching and demand scientific investigation.

186
NUTRITION

This is a subject that has been investigated much more scientifically with regard to
horses and mules than with regard to workmen, but cases are seen on every hand
where it is more profitable to furnish the most nutritious food to the men gratis than
to permit them to have the usual poor food of the padrones' storehouse. In the
building of a new town in Maine it was found to be economical to spend
considerable sums of money for supplying food for the men at less than cost, rather
than to have them eat the food provided by the local boarding houses. The nutritive
value of various foods and the amount of energy which various diets enable one to
put forth have been made a study in training soldiers. There must be many data
available on the subject, and the government should collect them and issue a
bulletin for the use of the welfare departments of large employing organizations.
The army might also serve as an example in many other ways to the student of
economics. The " Tactics" are admirable "instruction cards," conforming to many of
the laws motion study. It seems unfortunate that the governments of the world up
to the present time have confined all of their attempts to standardize motions to the
arts of war, and have done nothing in this line in the arts of peace.

(Remarks: What is appropriate nutrition? How do you communicate it to your

workforce?)

SIZE

Size of men, with relation to their motions, has much more influence than is usually
realized.

Short men are usually the best shovelers where the shovelful need not be raised
much in doing the work, such as in mixing mortar and concrete. Few foremen realize
that this is because a short man does fewer foot-pounds of work in doing the same
amount of shoveling. On the other hand ; when men are shoveling in a trench, the
taller the men, usually, the more the output per man.

Oftentimes a staging is built at a height below a set of floor beams that enables the
men to work to best advantage. On such a staging men should be selected of as
nearly the same height as possible.

SKILL

The workman with the most skill is usually the one who can adapt himself quickest
to new methods and conditions.

Example. A bricklayer who has great skill in his trade can instantly lay a brick in the
same manner that he is once shown. To get him to do so constantly when not
supervised is difficult, but that can be quickest impressed upon his mind if he is
shown the reason for every change demanded of him.

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To make sure that the worker of the future acquires his skill properly, is the most
important task here. This can be done only by insisting continuously on conformity
to scientifically derived standards from the beginning of his training. (Training has
to specially designed to give the level of skill that gives output as per standard,
quality and productivity, and cost.)

Example. The best results from a motion- study standpoint can be attained only by
teaching the apprentice from his first day to lay the brick with the standard motions
regardless of the looks of the work. If the work is not good enough to permit the
brick to remain on the wall, a skilled bricklayer should fix it, until the apprentice can
lay the brick with the prescribed standard motions in a manner good enough to
permit the work to remain as a part of the structure.

The apprentice should not be permitted to depart from the standard motions in any
case until he has first acquired them as a fixed habit. The most pernicious practice is
the generally accepted one of first having an apprentice do perfect work and then
attempting to make speed later. The right motions should be taught first, and the
work taken down and rebuilt until it is up to standard quality. This is the only way to
get the full benefits of the economics of motion study. (See Figs. 13 and 14.)

The workman who will make the highest outputs of the future will be he who has as
a habit those standard motions that are the most productive when operated under
standard conditions.

TEMPERAMENT

The temperament of the man has more to do with the motion he uses than one
usually supposes.

Example. Many expert face bricklayers would quit a job rather than lay common
brick on interior walls, even though they might earn higher wages on the inside work.
Other bricklayers prefer to lay common brickwork, not that they doubt their ability
to lay the face brick, but because they like the strenuous athletic contests for high
scores of output and high pay. To them there is no monotony in laying common brick
day after day, for to the skilled mason brick are not so nearly alike as are human
beings.

A bricklayer interested in his work will often remember the characteristics of one
certain brick years after he has forgotten the wall upon which it was laid.

Therefore the temperament of the man must be taken into consideration when
placing the men. When they are best placed they follow their instructions on the
subject of motion, and higher scores will be the result.

TRAINING

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" Training" is so closely related to "skill" and "experience" that it is difficult to
separate it from them. We use the word to mean both the worker's theoretical and
practical equipment for his work, his entire preparation. The problem is to see that
the worker has both kinds of equipment, acquired in the most useful, balanced
method possible.

The training of the available worker must always be considered in estimating the
time that it will take him to acquire standard methods and the output that can be
expected of him. The training of the worker of the future should be planned to fit
him for standard work. The training of the apprentice on the work to-day is usually
defective because he has little or no training in theory at the same time that he is
getting his practice. Furthermore, the journeyman who is his instructor not only has
had no training in pedagogy, but often lacks the benefits of the elements of a
common-school education. The usual time of apprenticeship in the building trades in
this country is three years, or until the apprentice is twenty-one years old.

SUMMARY

Before turning to the variables of the surroundings, it may be well to summarize. The
variables of the worker consist of the elements of the equipment that the worker
brings to his work, both those that he was born with and those that he has acquired.
These are mental and physical.

We have concluded:

1. That first-class men should always be secured if that be possible.

2. That everything possible should be done to preserve and to add to the natural
powers and capacities that the worker brings to his work.

3. That standard practice derived from motion study does add to the natural powers
of the worker, and both shortens his hours of work and adds to his output.

4. That training based on the laws underlying standard practice will enable the
worker of the future to attain still higher efficiency and output.

Source:
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CHAPTER III - VARIABLES OF THE SURROUNDINGS

APPLIANCES - CLOTHES - COLOR - ENTERTAINMENT - HEATING, COOLING,

VENTILATING - LIGHTING - QUALITY OF MATERIAL - REWARDS AND PENALTIES - SIZE

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OF UNIT MOVED - SPECIAL FATIGUE-ELIMINATING DEVICES - SURROUNDINGS -
TOOLS - UNION RULES - WEIGHT or UNIT MOVED

We turn now to the variables of the surroundings. These differ from the variables of
the worker in that we can influence them more quickly and more directly. In
discussing the variables of the worker, we deal more or less with the past and the
future. The variables of the surroundings are of the present.

APPLIANCES

The " standard conditions" maintained by the employer are a most important factor
for high outputs. It is obvious that the appliances furnished the workman and the
motions used are interdependent on each other.

Examples. 1. The bricklayer could not be expected to pick up the brick so that he
would not have to spin or flop it in his hand unless it were delivered to him in the
right position on a packet.

2. The bricklayer could not be expected to have so high an output if he had to stoop
over in order to pick up his stock as he would have to do if the scaffold did not have
a bench that obviated bending.

3. The bricklayer could not be expected to lay brick without turning around or
bending over unless he was provided with packs of bricks that could be lifted bodily
and placed upon the wall in units as large as could be economically handled.

4. The bricklayer could not be expected to do away with those motions that are
necessary to remove the lumps from under a brick if there were holes in the sand
screen and no pug mill to break up the lumps.

It is most important that the workman should be given "handy conditions" under
which to work, that is, the "most comfortable," or those that require the "least
percentage of rest" to overcome fatigue.

Examples. 1. The bricklayer must obviously have a scaffold to stand upon that
permits adjusting the height of the platform on which he stands to a standard
distance below the top of the ever-growing wall on which he is laying the brick. We
have found that the best height is from twenty-four to thirty-two inches below the
top of the wall. If the wall is being laid overhanded, the height should not be over
twenty-four inches, while if the wall is not being laid overhanded, thirty-two inches is
the better
height.

It is obvious that the bench from which the stock is picked up should be maintained
at a standard distance above the platform on which the man stands. Also the
platform on which the laborer walks should be located at the standard distance
below the stock platform that will enable him to deposit the brick and mortar in a

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manner that will cause the least fatigue. Therefore, the three platforms for
bricklayer, stock, and tender should be fixed with relation to one another, and
movable in relation to the top of the wall, capable of being hoisted as the wall grows
without stopping or disturbing the men.

2. The elevator for hoisting the brick and mortar should always be arranged so that it
can, when desired, land above the top of a staged wall, and thus the brick and
mortar can be wheeled down to the scaffold on the floor below. Then the tenders
can wheel down with full loads and wheel the empty barrows up to the floor above.

3. Make a table, barrel, or box to put near the workman, no matter what his trade is,
so that he will not have to stoop over and pick up his tools. Provide something to
lean his shovel against or to hang his shovel on when he is alternately shoveling and
wheeling to cut down time and to reduce the fatigue of stooping over and picking up
the shovel.

The motions to be used and to be avoided are largely determined and affected by
the appliances used; therefore for the highest outputs the right appliances must be
devised, standardized, used, and maintained, otherwise the motions cannot be
standardized. Furthermore, it is much easier to standardize motions with standard
appliances than without them.

CLOTHES

The clothes that the workman wears may be a hindrance or a help to him in his work.
Tight or ill-fitting clothing may restrict motions. Fear of ruining clothing may
seriously cut down the speed of the worker.

On the other hand, clothing designed and specially adapted to the work that the
worker has to do may increase output to a surprising extent.

Not till the advantages have been appreciated of having working clothes made the
subject of study from the motion-economy standpoint will manufacturers provide
the garments needed. But they are only too anxious to meet every demand as soon
as they are conscious of it. Once let the specialized clothes for the worker be
standardized and they will be placed immediately upon the market in
inexpensive, durable, and attractive shape.

As for their reception by the worker, as soon as he realizes that they increase his
efficiency, and are a badge of specialization and not of servitude, he will be ready
and glad to welcome them.

COLOR

The stimulating effect of color upon workers is a subject to be investigated by

psychologists. The results of their study should be of great benefit, especially to

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indoor workers. Motions could undoubtedly be made simpler by the proper
selection of the color of painting and lighting in the workroom.

In our work we have to deal chiefly with color as a saver of motions. Color can be
seen quicker than shape. Therefore, distinguishing things by their color is quicker
than distinguishing them by the printing on them.

Examples. 1. The various pipes in a pipe gallery can best be recognized by painting
them different calm.

2, The right-hand end of the packet is pointed black, in order that when carried in
the right hand of the laborer it can be placed so that the bricklayer can pick up each
brick without spinning or flopping the brick in his hand,

3, Painting took different colors, and also the place where they are to be placed in
the drawer or the chest the same color, saves motions and time of motions when
patting them away and finding them next time,

4. When low-priced men bring packages of any kind to higher-priced men to use or
handle, the packages should always be painted stenciled, or labeled with a
distinguishing color on one end and on top. This will enable the low-priced workman
to place the package in the manner called for on the instruction card with the least
thought, delay, and motions. It win also enable the high-priced man to handle the
package with no such lost motions as turning the package around or over.

5. Oftentimes the workmen who are best fitted physically for their work cannot read,
or at least cannot read English. Even if they could it would take some time to read
the stenciled directions on the non-stooping-scaffold to the effect that "this side
goes against the brick wall." It will greatly reduce the number of motions to paint the
side that goes next to the wall a different color from the side that goes away from
the wall.

ENTERTAINMENT

Music.
The inspiring and stimulating effect of music has been recognized from ancient times.
That some of the trades can have their motions affected in time and speed by music,
to a point that will materially affect the size of their outputs, is a recognized fact.

The excellent and direct effects of entertainment upon health, fatigue, etc., are
subjects for the scientist to study and the planning department and the welfare
worker to apply. The effects of entertainment upon output should be studied by the
student of motion economy. This variable alone furnishes a vast field for
investigation.

HEATING, COOLING, VENTILATING

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Heating, cooling, ventilating, and humidizing are closely allied, because all can be
done with one and the same apparatus, and all greatly increase the workman's
comfort, health, and possible number of motions.

Maintaining desired temperature in summer as well as winter by forcing into

workrooms air that has been passed over heating or refrigerating coils has a great
effect on the workman. Many factories, such as chocolate factories, have found that
cooling the air for better results to the manufacturing process also enables the
workers to produce more output an output quite out of proportion to the cost of
providing the air.

In many trades requiring great alertness and physical strength the proper heating
and ventilating will allow the workman to dress in a costume specially adapted to his
work, or to strip almost to the athlete's suit, with a consequent increased number
and effectiveness of motions.

The degree of temperature and the percentage of humidity desired for each day of
the year should be determined. The man in charge of the heating should receive no
bonus for small consumption of fuel unless he also maintained the temperature and
humidity called for on his instruction card.

The subjects of heating, ventilating, etc., are well covered by Mr. Hugo Diemer in his
book on "Factory Organization and Administration." The proper time to consider
these subjects is when the building is designed, but too often at that time the
all-important question is, How cheaply can the building be built? Ultimate saving will
justify almost any conceivable first costs.

LIGHTING

The subject of lighting has, indirectly as well as directly, a great influence upon
output and motions, as upon the comfort of the eye depends, to a large extent, the
comfort of the whole body.

The arrangement of lighting in the average office, factory, or house is generally

determined by putting in the least light necessary in order that the one who
determined the location of the light may be able to see perfectly. This is wrong. The
best light is the cheapest. By that is not meant that which gives the brightest light. In
fact, the light itself is but a small part of the question. Go into any factory and
examine every light, and you will notice that as a rule they are obviously wrong. A
light to be right must pass five tests:

a. It must furnish the user sufficient light so that he can see.

b. It must be so placed that it does not cause the user's eyes to change the size of
the diaphragm when ordinarily using the light.

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c. It must be steady.

d. There shall not be any polished surfaces in its vicinity that will reflect an
unnecessary bright spot anywhere that can be seen by the eyes of the worker.

e. It must be protected so that it does not shine in the eyes of some other worker.

The use of polished brass and nickel should be abandoned wherever it will shine in
the worker's eye.

For work done on a flat surface, like the work of a bookkeeper or a reader, the light
should be placed where the glare will reflect least in the worker's eyes; where the
work is like the examining of single threads, the relative color and figured pattern of
the background, as well as good light, is important. This is obvious. So is nearly
everything else in good management. Go into the buildings among the workers, the
students, and the scientists and see how rarely it is considered. All of this is not a
question of getting the most out of the light. Light in a factory is the cheapest thing
there is. It is wholly a question of fatigue of the worker. The best lighting conditions
will reduce the percentage of time required for rest for overcoming fatigue. The
difference between the cost of the best lighting and the poorest is nothing compared
with the saving in money due to decreased time for rest period due to less fatigued
eyes.

It is a similar case to the taxicab concerns they charge their drivers with gasoline and
tires and mileage, accidents, etc., but they furnish the lubricating oil free. The fallacy
of the common practice of putting the lighting in the hands of the man whose merit
is measured inversely as the coal bill is obvious.

The sub-variables involved make the problem as to exactly what lighting is most
desirable difficult of solution. The proper solution will have such a beneficial effect,
not only upon the man's work, but also upon his welfare, that no time or effort
expended upon it can be too great.

QUALITY OF MATERIAL

It is essential to the use of standard motions and the resulting large output that all
material used shall be in exactly that state in which it can be most easily handled by
the worker.

Examples. 1. If there are lumps in the mortar, due to pieces of brick or shavings or
lumps of lime, or cement or coarse pebbles in the sand, it is impossible for the
bricklayer to do his best work.

2. If the sand is not selected with reference to the thickness of joints, if the sequence
of tiers and courses (see Figs. 15 and 16) and the thickness of joints is determined by
the whim of the bricklayer on the lead, instead of by the planning department, it is
out of the question to expect high outputs. On the other hand, if the material is of

194
exactly that consistency with which it can be best handled, and the other conditions
are determined on the instruction card, much better speed can be obtained.

3. When using cement mortar made of cement and sand and no lime, the bricklayer
will do more and better work if a tender is kept on the stock platform tempering the
mortar to just the right consistency for the bricklayers.

4. If the brick are all handled in packs on packets from the time that they arrive upon
the job until they reach the bricklayer's hand, they will each be of better quality, due
to there being little or no chipping from handling and throwing about. The bricklayer
will then be saved the useless motions of picking up brick that are chipped and
discarding them again, to be used only when laying in the filling tiers.

REWARDS AND PENALTIES

The stimulus that rewards and penalties give motions is obvious. The discussion of
reward and punishment would come under the head of compensation. It must be
left to the cost reducing system to determine just what system of compensation will
induce the men to do their swiftest, best work.

SIZE OF UNIT MOVED

The most advantageous size of unit to use is a difficult problem to solve, and is often
controlled by some outside factor. For example, the most economical size of brick
has been determined by the cost and other conditions relating to the making and
baking, and not by the conditions of handling and laying. When the conditions of
laying are studied scientifically, as they are to-day, one is forced to the conclusion
that, for the greatest economy, the size of common brick should be changed
materially from that of the present practice in America. The usual size of the brick
used in England is much larger than the customary size used here.

It is obvious that there is some size of unit that is the most economical to make the
standard package for handling brick in bulk. We have found it to be ninety-two
pounds for a first-class laborer, either for piling or loading and unloading brick from
carts. (See Figs. 17 and 18.)

Careful examination of brickwork with the object in view of selecting the most
profitable motions has entirely revolutionized the methods of bricklaying. For
example, the size of unit that is picked up when loose brick are handled must be one
brick for each hand. The packet enables us to pick up about eighteen brick at once.

The fountain trowel permits us to pick up and carry to the wall and spread mortar for
twenty-one brick at one time without dropping the regular trowel which forms a
temporary handle to it. (See Fig. 19.)

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The two-wheeled trucket permits carrying twelve packets, or 216 brick (see Fig. 20),
while the hod carries 18 brick, and the one-wheeled barrow carries 60 loose brick.

SPECIAL FATIGUE-ELIMINATING DEVICES

Only the careful student of management realizes how much the speed of the worker
can be increased by providing him with all possible aids toward doing his work.

Mr. Fred. W. Taylor, in his paper on " Shop Management," tells of a study he made of
overhauling a set of boilers.

"He [the writer] did all of the work of chipping, cleaning, and overhauling a set of
boilers, and at the same time made a careful time study of each of the elements of
the work. This time study showed that a great part of the time was lost owing to the
constrained position of the workman. Thick pads were made to fasten to the elbows,
knees, and hips; special tools and appliances were made for the various details of the
work. . . . The whole scheme was much laughed at when it first went into use, but
the trouble taken was fully justified, for the work was better done than ever before,
and it cost only eleven dollars to completely overhaul a set of 300 horse-power
boilers by this method, while the average cost of doing the same work on day work
without an instruction card was sixty- two dollars."

In reading this, it must be remembered that the fatigue-eliminating devices were

only one element in increasing speed and reducing costs. But, on the other hand, it
must be remembered also what a large element they were in adding to the comfort
and ultimate well-being of the worker.

SURROUNDINGS

"Surroundings" have been previously discussed under "Fatigue," . "Appliances," etc.

It is only necessary to say here that the surroundings of the worker should be
standardized, the standard being derived from a study of all the variables.

It is obvious that the highest possible records of output cannot be obtained unless
the workers are furnished with a standard instruction card made out by the best
man obtainable, one who knows more about their work than they do, and who can,
and does, provide them with standard conditions that fulfill the most economical
conditions of motions. Even then daily outputs and unit costs must be watched, so as
to take advantage of the slightest change of conditions that affect costs. In practice,
the unit costs must always also include the wages of the recorder, otherwise one
cannot tell when the wages of the recorders are not deceiving as to actual unit costs
under this intensive management.

196
TOOLS

The influence of the tools used upon the output is large. No workman can possibly
comply with standard motions unless he has the standard tools. No worker should
ever be obliged to furnish his own tools, if large output is expected. When workmen
are obliged to furnish their own tools (due to their having too much thrift, lack of
money, or fear of having them stolen), they usually use one size only of the same
kind of tool. On many kinds of work greater output can be obtained by using two or
more sizes of a tool.

Example. The bricklayer should use a smaller trowel on pressed brick and a larger
trowel on common brick.

Again, where workmen furnish their own tools, they use them after they are too
much worn. A shovel with a worn blade will require several motions to push it into
the material to fill it. It is cheaper in this case to cut off the handle of the shovel, so
that the men cannot use it. Where no records are kept of their individual outputs the
men always choose the shovel with the small blade.

It is especially important that apprentices should be supplied with proper tools.

According to the usual practice the apprentice is taught with any tool procurable. He
becomes adept and skilled, but often becomes so accustomed to the poor tool he
has used that he finds it difficult to adapt himself to the use of a better new tool.
This seriously hinders his complying with demands for standard quantities of output.

Tools should be of standard size and pattern. Workmen should invariably be made to
use a tool that will enable them to make standard-sized outputs instead of using a
tool that may seem " handier" to them. You cannot expect a man to comply with
standard motions unless he has the standard tool for which his standard instruction
card was made out.

The customary method in the past for determining the best weight of tool to use was
to guess at it, and to use that size of tool which was thought to be the "handiest," or
which it seemed could be used with the least fatigue.

Makers of hand tools cater to the whims of the local workmen, and, as a result, hand
tools are made of many different designs in different parts of the country. Makers
spend and waste great sums of money making experiments and conducting selling
campaigns of odd or new designs of tools that have no merit from a
motion-economy standpoint. There should be a bureau of testing, where the actual
value of new shapes, designs, and sizes of tools could be tested and rated in
percentages of efficiency from the standpoint of motion study.

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Critics will say that such a scheme will crowd out new designs, and the benefit of the
individual's inventions will be lost. But it would not; on the contrary, the testing
would give great stimulus to inventors, designers, and tool makers, for they could
then obtain the immediate attention of the buyers, because they would have the
standard stamp of merit that comes from the record of a test that
excelled previous standards.

We have testing stations for everything else. Think what the societies for testing
materials have done for the progress of the world! Their records are usable forever,
in any part of the world, once they are made.

When machines have to be tended, two separate sets of motions must be provided
for:

1. The set that the worker uses when he is tending the machine.

2. The set that the worker uses to prepare tools and material for the machine while
it does not require his attention.

All machines have to be tended more or less. Even automatic machinery has to have
attention, and it is most important here to have motion study, because of the
earning value of the machine being lost while it is shut down.

One sees occasionally a machine that can have any and every lever operated without
the operator taking a single step, but comparatively few machines are constructed
with this in mind.

Machines requiring constant starting and stopping and hand feeding or adjusting
should have their various levers so positioned that the "laws of least effort of
simultaneous motions" are complied with.

These laws will be discussed under " Variables of the Motion." It is only necessary to
say here that motions should be similar on each side of a fore and aft vertical plane
passing through the body. It is so necessary to have the motions similar that often
counterbalances and springs can be installed to reverse the motion, thus also
causing the hardest work to be done in the most convenient direction.

Anything that is used very often can be returned to place better, as well as with less
motions, by gravity, or by the application of the gravity by some such means as a
string and a weight. It requires some skill to use a wrench, but it requires no skilled
motion or thought to return the wrench to its exact resting place with handle
pointing in the most economical direction for picking up the next time it is used.

The average machine to-day is designed for a short demonstration of quick output,
with less regard for the least percentage of rest required for overcoming fatigue due
to continuous operation. With demand will come supply of machines that fulfill all
economical motion requirements.

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UNION RULES

The local rules of some unions are sometimes a hindrance to standardizing motions
and thereby increasing output. The higher wages from higher outputs under
intensive management soon convert the desirable members, however.

Many unions believe that extremely high outputs per man are against the interests
of the union as a whole, on the theory that they may "work all of their members out
of a job." Furthermore, they often think that the sacrifice that their one union may
make in the world's endeavor to reduce the cost of living generally, is not properly
offset by having any one trade or any one locality practicing intensive outputs. A few
practical object lessons of the general increase in business resulting from higher
wages and simultaneously created lower-production costs will, however, always
convince the most prejudiced believer in artificially restricted maximum outputs.

The compensation of workers will not be discussed here, although the basis of
compensation does affect motions.

WEIGHT or UNIT MOVED

Generally speaking, the weight of the unit moved is of three kinds:

1. The weight of that part of the body that is moved.

2. The weight of a tool used, such as a hammer or a trowel.

3. The weight of material used, such as a brick, or the mortar on the trowel.

Other things being equal, the less of the body moved the less fatigue.

The weight that the tool should be is determined by the use of the tool. In the case
of a sledge hammer, increased weight means increased efficiency. A twenty-five
pound sledge might break a block of granite in halves in five blows, while a ten
pound hammer might require one hundred blows. In the case of a trowel, increased
weight means decreased efficiency. The heavier the trowel, the greater the fatigue
with no accompanying gain in output. .

We have determined that a cutting-out hammer for brickwork should weigh,

exclusive of the handle, 3.75 pounds, but that a hammer for drilling plug holes in
granite, for making dog holes in heavy stone blocks, should weigh 4 pounds.

The weight of units moved should be standardized.

Example. There is undoubtedly a certain sized load in a shovel that will enable a
first-class man to accomplish the largest output with his maximum effort. Taylor has
found his weight to be 21.5 pounds. The size of shovels that should be used should

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therefore be designated on the instruction card accordingly, and exactly 21.5 pounds
should be the standard unit of weight of material shoveled.

SUMMARY

This discussion of the variables of the surroundings, etc., is not detailed because
general discussion is self-evident, and detailed discussion must be too specialized to
interest the general reader.

It is only necessary to call attention to the general laws, logical and psychological,
which underlie these variables, and their effect on standardizing motions. Each
student naturally applies these laws to his own field, and sees for himself the
opportunities for further study and application.

Source:
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CHAPTER IV -VARIABLES OF THE MOTION

ACCELERATION - AUTOMATICITY - COMBINATION WITH OTHER MOTIONS, AND

SEQUENCE - COST - DIRECTION AND USE OF GRAVITY - EFFECTIVENESS -
FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK ACCOMPLISHED - INERTIA AND MOMENTUM OVERCOME -
LENGTH

A discussion of variables of the motion opens up a field so large that it is only

possible here to attempt to show the method of investigation, and to show that each
variable is a necessary factor in making motions standard, leaving to the universities
and to properly created and equipped bureaus of the national government the task
of reducing motion study to an exact science.

ACCELERATION

In considering acceleration of speed as an element of any motion, we must

determine:

1. The amount of acceleration that it is possible or economical to obtain.

2. The means by which the acceleration can be obtained.

3. The effect of the acceleration on

a. Economy in time required to make the motion.

b. Economy in time required for rest to overcome the fatigue of having made the
motion.

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Examples. 1. Laying brick on a wall from a floor, from the height of the floor level up
to three feet eight inches high above the floor, can be done with greatest speed
when the brick to be picked up are each maintained at a height of one foot three
inches, plus two-thirds the height that the wall is higher than the level of the floor on
which the bricklayer stands. The brick to be picked up should never be higher than
three feet eight inches under any circumstances.

By maintaining the height of the brick to be laid in this relative position to the height
of the wall, the brick will always be in a position that permits the bricklayer to
accelerate the speed of transportation of the brick by using the path of the quickest
speed.

While bricklayers know nothing about this in theory, they very soon discover it in
practice by means of their higher recorded output. Greater outputs will be
noticeable as an immediate result of maintaining the brick as nearly as possible at
the heights above stated.

2. In laying the filling tiers in any one course, it is most economical to lay the farthest
filling tier first and the next farthest tier second, and so on. This enables the
brick-layer to accelerate the speed of transportation of the brick up to the instant
that it is deposited in the mortar.

The above practice is, of course, much more important on shove-joint work than on
brick-and-brick construction.

3. The possible benefits from acceleration should be taken into consideration when
determining the sequence in which the tiers shall be laid. The position of the feet of
the bricklayer is an important factor in obtaining the acceleration desired. For the
best results the feet should be on separate springy planks, so that the transportation
of the brick can be speeded up, in addition to the speed of the arms by simply
throwing the body by the aid of the spring of the plank. (See Fig. 13.)

AUTOMATICITY

Nearly all often-repeated motions become automatic. This is especially true of

motions that require no careful supervision of mind or eye.

The automaticity of motions is of great assistance to the worker whose training and
methods conform to standardized motions. This fact makes it necessary to have the
apprentice taught the right motions first, last, and always.

The automaticity of motions is a hindrance to the worker who has been accustomed
to old-fashioned surroundings, equipment, and tools, and who must adapt himself to
standard surroundings.

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Example. A remarkable example of making unnecessary motions as a matter of habit
is noticeable in places where the local bricklayers have been accustomed to laying
brick that have a decided difference in the top and bottom. This difference makes it
necessary to lay no brick upside down on the line. When these bricklayers first
worked from packets with the brick in the right position to seize right-side up, they
would invariably flop and spin each brick in their hands, first wrong-side up and then
back again to the original right-side-up position.

The worker who has been trained wrong also finds it difficult to change his habits
when he conforms to standard methods.

Example. Occasionally we find the bricklayer who will spin or flop a brick that is to be
laid in the middle of the wall, although it makes no difference which face of the brick
is uppermost in these tiers.

The best way to cure motions that are not necessary but that are made from force of
habit is to count the motions aloud, endeavoring to keep down to the standard
number of standard motions.

When work is done by both hands simultaneously, it can be done quickest and with
least mental effort if the work is done by both hands in a similar manner; that is to
say, when one hand makes the same motions to the right as the other does to the
left.

Most work is accomplished when both hands start work at the same time, and when
the motions can be made at the same relative position on each side of a central fore
and aft vertical plane dividing the worker's body symmetrically.

Even if motions cannot be planned to be similar for each hand and performed
simultaneously, the plane in which the work is to be done should be carefully
located.

If motions are so arranged as to be balanced, as suggested, it is possible not only to

take advantage of automaticity, but also to cut down jar to the body. It is on this
well-known principle that the shockless jarring machine is built. Balanced motions
counteract each other. The result is, less bracing of the body is necessary, and less
fatigue ensues.

COMBINATION WITH OTHER MOTIONS, AND SEQUENCE

A motion may be combined with motions that are (a) similar to it, and (b) dissimilar
to it.

(a) If the motions combined are similar to it, advantage must be taken of the
automaticity. Care must also be taken that all the motions made in a series of similar
motions are necessary. Sometimes one effective motion is preferable to several not
so effective.

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Examples. 1 . When tapping a brick down to grade with a trowel, one brisk tap will
do the work as well as several light taps, and with much less time and effort.

2. If it is necessary to spread mortar on a face tier, one stroke of the trowel will do
the work as well as several.

(b) If the motions combined are dissimilar, two motions may often be transformed
into one.

Example. - - The motion used to spread mortar may be combined with the motion
used to butter the end of the brick laid just before the mortar was thrown. Thus, the
two operations may be transformed into one, and a saving of time and motions will
result. In fact, so doing may have other distinct advantages, such as leaving better
keying for plastering direct upon the wall.

This subject of combinations of motions can barely be touched here. Its full
treatment involves all other variables, and it can never be considered standardized
till each separate motion is a standard.

COST

The cost of motions, absolute and relative, is a subject too large for any person, firm,
or corporation to hope to cover. If complete data are ever to be gathered on it, the
cost keeping, recording, and deducing will have to be done by the government.

But all work done by the individual investigator will result in real cost reducing, with
increase of output, which is the ultimate purpose of all motion study.

The relative cost of labor and material must be considered.

Examples. 1. A bricklayer should never stop to pick up dropped mortar. The mortar
dropped is not so valuable as the motions necessary to save it.

2. That quality of mortar that is easiest handled by the bricklayer is usually cheapest.
The cost of grinding up the lumps in the sand, cement, and lime is less than the cost
of the motions necessary to pick the lumps out with a trowel.

3. It is usually cheaper to fill a closer, say less than one-half a brick in size, on the
interior tiers, with even the best of cement, than it is to cut a special piece of brick to
fit or to walk a few steps to find one the right size. The extra cost of the mortar is
negligible compared with the cost of the motions.

The relative cost of motions of higher and lower grades of labor must also be
considered.

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It is obvious that, other things being equal, it is cheaper to have a low-priced man
instead of a high-priced man make the same motion; but only the most careful study
can determine all of the motions that could be taken from the high-priced man and
allotted to one or more grades of lower-priced men. This can never be wholly or
properly accomplished until our present trades, with their inherited conditions and
traditions, have been reclassified to meet modern conditions.

In some trades it is very difficult to effect such division of work, as unions are
opposed to having anything relating to skilled work done by laborers.

Examples. 1. In the most highly unionized districts carpenters only are allowed to
unload the rough lumber from the cars, and none but carpenters are allowed to
transport, lift, and erect, as well as to fabricate it.

2. In bricklaying the case is slightly different. The work of transporting the brick to
the place where they are to be laid has always been done by tenders and laborers.
The bricklayer never wheels or carries brick. This is a tradition long handed down.
Yet he is most jealous that no part of his own work shall be done by a tender or a
laborer.

During the time that brick construction was practically without competitors in its
field, the bricklayer could insist on his ancient privileges and prosper.

The inroads of concrete, both plain and reinforced, however, have changed
conditions, and the bricklayer himself is, more than any other one factor, the cause
of many cases of substitutions of concrete for brick.

The architecture of any country is determined by the relative cost of building

materials in place, and the history of the world shows that the way to get the most
of any one thing used is to make it the lowest in price.

The one thing that will reduce the price of brickwork more than any other is to
reduce the cost of the motions,

After the laws underlying motion study have all been applied, the cost of motions
can still be reduced from one-third to one-half by separating the motions of the
bricklayer into at least two classes, such as, for example:

1. Those that require skill.

2. Those that require nothing but strength, endurance, and speed.

Those that require skill should be divided into several classes, according to the
amount of skill required; those that chiefly require skill should be handled by
mechanics, and those that chiefly require strength, endurance, and speed should be
handled by specially trained laborers. This is the only way to enable brickwork to

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compete with concrete, when all of the architects, engineers, owners, and
contractors shall have learned the full possibilities of concrete.

It will be urged that such division of the work of bricklaying will lower the general
skill of the bricklayers as a class. Far from it! All operations requiring skill will remain
in the hands of the bricklayer, who, escaping all work that unskilled hands could do,
will have the more time and energy to devote to the "art" element of his work.

But we are not at this time discussing " brickwork as a lost art" - we cite bricklaying
here as an example of the cost of motions, the result of the effects of cost of
motions, and of the possibilities and importance of motion study as a method of
attack in cost reducing and in standardizing the trades for the greatest possible
economy.

What greater service can the bricklayer do both his trade and the people who own
or occupy houses than to reduce the cost of the motions in brickwork without
reducing his own wages or increasing his hours?

The elimination of wastes is the problem that has been forced to the attention of the
entire world to-day, and of America particularly. The elimination of wastes in the
trades offers the largest field for savings.

Every trade must be reclassified, and must have the brawn motions separated from
the skill motions. Scientific division of the work to be done is as sure to result in
higher wages and lower production costs as did F. W. Taylor's separating the
planning from the performing.

The reason that our country is not astounded and confused at the appalling
unnecessary loss to its inhabitants on account of unnecessary, wasteful, and
improper motions of its workers is due to ignorance of the existence of this loss, and
to ignorance of any method of eliminating it.

The loss due to the present classification of the trades alone is probably more than
sufficient to pension, under full pay, one-half of the workers of the country; is
certainly enough to enable all of the women and children in the trades to remain out
of the trades and be paid at their regular wages.

While such action is not even recommended, the illustration is used to emphasize
the enormous waste going on daily and yearly.

That we go on year after year submitting to this waste because our present trades
are handled in accordance with ancient conditions entirely out of place in our
present civilization, is no longer necessary and without excuse.

Let the government call its scientific managerial experts together and make a test of
one trade, reclassify it, and publish the data. The object lesson thus presented will
cause to be taken the necessary further steps to remedy the present system of

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handling the trades. The workers will each be able to earn higher wages when the
unions see that they are benefited, and the labor interests will cooperate. The cost
of living will be reduced as by no other means, and all this by scientifically
reclassifying the trades!

DIRECTION

In most cases, the direction of a motion that is most economical is the one that
utilizes gravitation the most. Oftentimes delivering material to a high-priced
workman by leaving the material in a high position also makes easy unloading for the
low-priced workman.

Example. Stacking up packs 2 feet high saves motions, and saves stooping when the
laborer unloads his trucket. (See Fig. 21.)

" Direction" admirably serves as an illustration of the close interrelation of the

variables. It is closely connected with "path." It involves discussions of anatomy,
acceleration, and speed. It demands consideration of all variables of surroundings,
equipment, and tools.

The best ''direction of motion" is not only important in itself for increase of output; it
must also be kept constantly in mind in standardizing the placing of both materials
and men.

EFFECTIVENESS

Effectiveness has been touched upon in discussing " combination with other
motions."

An effective motion is one that produces the desired result. Oftentimes whole
processes, methods, and operations can be so changed as to make the succeeding
motions much more effective.

Example. The introduction of the fountain trowel, used in connection with an

ordinary trowel, made each motion in handling mortar much more effective. (See
Figs. 19, 22.)

FOOT-POUNDS OF WORK ACCOMPLISHED

After all, a human being or a work animal is a power plant, and is subject to nearly all
the laws that govern and limit the power plant. It is a law of motion study that, other
things being equal, the less number of foot-pounds of work done by the workman,
the smaller percentage of working hours he must devote to rest to overcome
fatigue.

It is therefore of great importance in obtaining the largest possible output that the
work shall be so arranged and the workman so placed that he can do his work with

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the least possible amount of foot-pounds of work done per unit of output
accomplished. This is where the philanthropic employer has often been rewarded
without knowing it. In his desire to make conditions such that the workman was
most comfortable while working, he reduced the number of foot-pounds of work to
that which was absolutely necessary to do the work. He surrounded the workman
with conditions that enabled him to have no fatigue, except that which was acquired
from the motions of the work itself. He made conditions such that the workman was
enabled to overcome the fatigue from his motions in the quickest possible time. (See
Fig. 23.)

INERTIA AND MOMENTUM OVERCOME

There are two ways by which the amount of inertia and momentum may be reduced.

1. By standardizing surroundings and equipment so that the inertia and the

momentum are limited to practically that of the materials, and not the materials plus
arms and body.

Example. Picking up ninety pounds of brick at one lifting.

2. By so standardizing motions that as few starts and stops as possible occur from
the time the material leaves the stock pile till the time it is in its final resting place in
the work.

Example. In laying brick by the " pick-and-dip " method on face tiers, a brick is lifted
in one hand and a trowel full of mortar in the other. The brick must come to a full
stop in the bricklayer's hand while the mortar is being laid and the bed prepared,
and then move to its final resting place, unless brick and mortar are dropped in two
different places.

In laying brick by the " stringing-mortar " method, the mortar is laid and the bed
prepared before the bricks are lifted. The brick are conveyed from the pack to the
wall without interruption or delay.

Standard methods of performing work may enable the worker to utilize the
momentum.

Example. If the bricks are conveyed from the stock platform or pack to the wall with
no stops, the momentum can be made to do valuable work by assisting to shove the
joints full of mortar. If, instead of being utilized, the momentum must be overcome
by the muscles of the bricklayer fatigue, not full joints, will result.

The ideal case is to move the brick in a straight path and make the contact with the
wall overcome the
momentum.

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LENGTH

A general rule of motion economy is to make the shortest motions possible.

Eliminating unnecessary distances that workers' hands and arms must travel, will
eliminate miles of motions per man in a working day as compared with usual
practice.

Example. Put the wheelbarrow body as close as possible to the pile that is to be put
into it, so that the distance the packets are carried from the pile to the barrow, or
the sand from the pile to the barrow, will be the shortest distance possible.

Of the necessary distance to be walked or reached, have as much of it as possible

done by the low-priced man, and have as little of it as possible done by the
high-priced man.

Example. - With brick, have the tender put the pack of brick as near the final resting
place of the brick as conditions will permit, so that when the high-priced man picks
up a pack of, say, eighteen bricks, he requires a short motion only.

Have the high-priced worker always use first the stock that is nearest, this rule
requiring the shortest motions in conveying the stock to its final resting place.

Example. In picking up brick from a packet or a scaffold the nearest brick should be
picked up first. The brick that are farthest away serve as a reserve stock pile, to be
picked up only in the emergency of not having any others nearer to pick up. It .may
be that the brick farthest away may not need to be used on that piece of work at all,
or at least their place will not be occupied so many times by bricks to be transported
with longer motions.

Standard tools, equipment, and surroundings are essential if length of motions is to

be made standard.

As already said when discussing clothes, the workman of the present should have
even his overalls, belt, and clothes so designed that they will hold the different kinds
of tools that are oftenest used, so that they may be picked in in the shortest time
that is, with pockets for nails, clips, clamps, etc. The tools should be so placed that
the least and shortest motions can be used after they are picked up, as cartridges are
placed in a cartridge belt.

NECESSITY

The necessity of the motion is such an important variable that an investigator is

tempted at first glance to divide all motions into necessary and unnecessary, and to
eliminate with one stroke those that appear to him unnecessary. A more thorough
investigation will be apt to prove that no such summary elimination is advisable.

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A motion may be an unnecessary motion in a necessary sequence, or it may be a
necessary motion in a certain sequence, but the whole sequence may be
unnecessary or inadvisable.

Example. In opening a paper bag of cement the average untrained laborer usually
cuts the bag in two and removes the paper in several pieces and with many motions.
The correct way is to cut the bottom with a shovel and pull the bag upward in one
piece by grasping the bag just above the string.

This example shows both how motions may be unnecessary in themselves and how
they may belong to a sequence that is unnecessary.

The only final solution as to the necessity of a motion will come when the trades are
completely standardized. It is impossible to determine whether or not a motion is
absolutely necessary until the method of doing the work in which it is used is
standard.

Examples. 1. Motions which were relatively proved necessary in laying brick by the "
pick-and-dip " method or " stringing-mortar " method, the brick being lifted from the
stock platform, became absolutely unnecessary when the "packet-on-the-wall"
method of handling brick was adopted.

2. The same thing is true of motions eliminated by handling mortar in a fountain

trowel.

The final solution of the problem of necessity of motions will be discussed later,
though the subject is so large that no amount of discussion could do more than
touch it.

PATH

The determination of the path which will result in the greatest economy of motion
and the greatest increase of output is a subject for the closest investigation and the
most scientific determination. Not until data are accumulated by trained observers
can standard paths be adopted. The laws underlying physics, physiology, and
psychology must be considered and followed. In the meantime, merely applying the
results of observation will reduce motions and costs and increase output to an
amazing degree.

The path most desirable is usually that which permits gravitation to assist in carrying
the material to place.

Example. We have found that the most economical height for laying brick is
twenty-four inches above where the bricklayer stands, while it is most economical to
pick the brick from a height about three feet above where the bricklayer stands; that
is, about one foot higher than the top of the wall where the brick is to be laid.

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The path is affected by the direction that the material is to be shoved as it moves
into its final resting place.

Examples. When the packet is placed on the wall it should be placed so that the brick
can be picked up and moved in a comparatively straight line with the direction that
the brick will be shoved for filling a joint.

In theory the ideal path would be in a line of quickest speed from the stock platform
to the wall.

In practice it is seldom that the most economical path for carrying a brick or mortar
from the stock platform to the wall is exactly a straight line from one to the other. It
will generally be most economical to move the brick in the path that will bend the
arms the least and that will permit almost a swing from the shoulder.

PLAYING FOR POSITION

Each motion should be made so as to be most economically combined with the next
motion, like the billiard player who plays for position.

The direction in which a motion is made may affect the time required for a
subsequent motion.

Example. In laying brick the motion of placing the mortar for the end joint can be
done quickest if it is done in the direction of the next motion, such, for example, as
the next motion that puts the trowel in the position to cut off the hanging mortar.

The sequence of motions in bricklaying, that determines when the particular motion
is to be made that puts the mortar in the end joint, depends upon whether the
"pick-and-dip" or the " stringing-mortar " method is used.

When the motions are made in the correct sequence, many of them can be
combined so that two, and in some cases three, motions can be made as one motion,
in but little more time than is required for one motion.

Example. Cutting off mortar, buttering the end of the laid brick, and reaching for
more mortar all as one motion, in the " pick-and-dip " method.

SPEED

Usually, the faster the motions, the more output. There are other advantages to
speed of motions besides the fact that they require less time. Speed increases
momentum, and this momentum may be utilized to do work.

Example. The momentum of the brick helps to shove the mortar better into the joint.

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Again, high outputs are generally the result of the habit of speed in motions. Habits
of speed are hard to form, and they are hard to break.

Next to fewest motions, speed of motions is the most important factor of high
record of outputs.

The list of variables here given makes no claim to being complete. The field of study
is so immense that it is impossible as yet to give a complete and detailed method of
attack.

It will be noted in reading the discussion of the variables that it has been found
extremely difficult to handle each one separately. It is needless to tell the student,
the investigator, the cost-reducing manager, that, difficult as the task is, for the best
results each variable must be studied alone. The effects of all variables but one must
be eliminated, or, better perhaps, all variables but one must be maintained constant.

Quicker results may often be obtained by studying several variables simultaneously,

and for short jobs this may be advisable. But for long jobs of repetitive work there is
no way so accurate and satisfactory as studying one variable at a time.

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF MOTION STUDY

WORK ACCOMPLISHED

CONSIDERED in relation to the time during which it has been applied to the trades,
scientific motion study can show most satisfactory results.

The workers in the field as well as in the office have been quick to appreciate and
adopt the new methods suggested by motion economy.

This has been especially the case in the crafts. Nearly every proficient workman loves
his trade. He loves the joy of achievement. He can achieve most when useless
motions have been eliminated for him, and he welcomes improvements, as the
bricklayers have welcomed the brick coming right side up on the packet.

MAGNITUDE or WORK TO BE DONE

To the casual reader it may seem that the task of evolving standard practice from
usual present practice, and from the best practice, is simply a case of observing,
recording, and eliminating. The student will see that it requires the closest
concentration to do even the necessary scientific observing and recording, while to
deduce and systematize standard motions for any one trade would furnish a life
work for several trained scientists.

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It is a difficult task for an inexperienced or untrained observer to divide an operation
correctly into its motions. Enumerating the variables that affect each motion is a
task big enough to satisfy the most ambitious student of waste elimination.

VALUE OF CHARTS

We have found it helpful in recording our observations to use charts. Some such
form as that shown on pages 88 and 89 is used.

This chart is one made during an observation of bricklaying before the invention of
the packet, the packet scaffold, and the fountain trowel.

The operation of laying a brick was divided into the motions of which it consisted
(column 1). The usual (present) practice of the time (given as "the wrong way,"
column 2) showed the units into which the operation was divided. The best practice
of the time ("the right way," column 3, now obsolete) was charted in such a way that
its relation from a motion standpoint to the usual practice was clearly shown.

Column 4 shows how the usual practice may be transformed into the best practice. It
would serve as an instruction card to the workman, showing him not only where his
method needed to be improved but also exactly how to improve it.

This chart, together with a plan showing the workman where he should put the stock
and where he should place his feet (Fig. 14), and with pictures showing how he
should lay the brick, etc., proved most successful for instruction as well as for
recording.

At first glance this chart, and the others like it, which we used at that time, seem
very crude. In fact, compared to what has since been done to standardize operations,
they are crude. But they mark a distinct phase of motion study. They show plainly, as
careful reading will prove, that an earnest study of motions will automatically
promote the growth of the study.

For example, study of column 4 in the sample chart given led to the invention of the
packet scaffold, the packet, the fountain trowel, and several other of the best
devices, and the u packet-on- the- wall" method now used in brickwork.

These inventions in their turn necessitated an entirely new set of motions to perform
the operation of laying a brick.

So, likewise, the progression also went on before the days of conscious motion study:
observation, explanation, invention, elimination, and again observation, in an
upward helix of progress.

The great point to be observed is this: Once the variables of motions are determined,
and the laws of underlying motions and their efficiency deduced, conformity to

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these laws will result in standard motions, standard tools, standard conditions, and
standard methods of performing the operations of the trades.

Conformity to these laws allows standard practice to be attained and used. If the
standard methods are deduced before the equipment, tools, surroundings, etc., are
standardized, the invention of these standard means is as sure as the appearance of
a celestial body at the time and place where mathematics predicts that it will appear.

It is as well to recognize first as last that real progress from the best present method
to the standard method can never be made solely by elimination. The sooner this is
recognized the better. Elimination is often an admirable makeshift. But the only real
progress comes through a reconstruction of the operation, building it up of
standardized units, or elements.

It is also well to recognize the absolute necessity of the trained scientific investigator.
The worker cannot, by himself, arrange to do his work in the most economical
manner in accordance with the laws of motion study. Oftentimes, in fact nearly
always, the worker will believe that the new method takes longer than the old
method. At least he will be positive that many parts, or elements, of the process
when done under the new method take longer than under the old style, and will not
be in sympathy with the scheme because he is sure that the new way is not so
efficient as his old way. All of which shows that the worker himself cannot tell which
are the most advantageous motions. He must judge by the fatigue that he feels, or
else by the quantity of output accomplished in a given time. To judge by the quantity
of output accomplished in a given time is more of a test of effort than a test of
motion study, and oftentimes that element that will produce the most output is the
one that will cause the least fatigue.

The difference in amount of merit between any two methods can perhaps be best
determined by timing the elements of the motions used in each. This is the method
of attack usually accepted as best, because it separates each motion into its variables
and analyzes them one at a time. It is out of the question to expect a workman to do
such timing and to do his work at the same time. Furthermore, it is an art in itself to
take time-study observations, an art that probably takes longer to master than does
shorthand, typewriting, telegraphy, or drafting.

Few workers have had an opportunity to learn the art of making and using
time-study observations, because our school educators have not had any mental
grasp of the subject themselves. Add to the difficulties to be overcome in acquiring
the knowledge of observing, recording, and analyzing the time-study records, the
knowledge necessary to build up synthetically the correct method with each element
strictly in accordance with the laws of motion economy each by itself and when used
together in the particular determined sequence, and you will see the reason why the
worker by himself has not devised, cannot, and never will be expected to devise, the
ultimate method of output. It does not then, after all, seem so queer that the
workman's output can always be doubled and oftentimes more than tripled by

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scientific motion study. Again, scientifically attained methods only can become
Ultimate methods.

Any method which seems after careful study to have attained perfection, using
absolutely the least number of most effective, shortest motions, may be thrown
aside when a new way of transporting or placing material or men is introduced. It is
pitiful to think of the time, money, strength, and brains that have been wasted on
devising and using wonderfully clever but not fundamentally derived methods of
doing work, which must inevitably be discarded for the latter.

The standardizing of the trades will utilize every atom of such heretofore wasted
energy.

The standardizing of the trades affords a definite best method of doing each
element.

Having but one standard method of doing each element divides the amount of
time-study data necessary to take by a number equal to the number of different
equally good methods that could be used.

The greatest step forward can be made only when time-study data can be made by
one and used by all. A system of interchange and cooperation in the use of the data
of scientific management can then be used by all persons interested.

This reduction and simplification of taking time study is the real reason for insistence
upon making and maintaining standards for the largest down to the smallest
insignificant tool or device used.

Much toward standardizing the trades has already been done. In this, as in almost
countless other lines of activity, the investigator turns oftenest with admiration to
the work of Frederick W. Taylor. It is the never-ceasing marvel concerning this man
that age cannot wither nor custom stale his work. After many a weary day's study
the investigator awakes from a dream of greatness to find that he has only worked
out a new proof for a problem that Taylor has already solved.

Time study, the instruction card, functional foreman-ship, the differential rate piece
method of compensation, and numerous other scientifically derived methods of
decreasing costs and increasing output and wages these are by no means his only
contributions toward standardizing the trades whose value it would be difficult to
overestimate; they are but a few of the means toward attaining standards which
have been placed by Taylor, their discoverer, within the hands of any man willing to
use them.

FUTURE WORK IN STANDARDIZING THE TRADES

The great need to-day in standardizing the trades is for cooperation. In other times
all excellent methods or means were held as "trade secrets," sometimes lost to the

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world for generations until rediscovered. The day for this is past. Thinkers of to-day
recognize that the work to be done is so great that, given all that every one has
accomplished and is accomplishing, there is room and to spare for every worker who
cares to enter the field. Cooperation and team work is the crying need.

Conservation and comparison of knowledge, experiments, data and conclusions are

what we need. The various engineering journals are to be commended for
recognizing the importance of this, and for furnishing an excellent means for
recording and spreading much needed information.

The ideal conservator of knowledge in this, as in all other branches, would be the
United States government. The government should maintain a permanent bureau,
with experiment stations, as is done with the Department of Agriculture.

Individual investigators, corporations, and colleges, all would be willing to turn over
the results of their work to such a government bureau. The colleges would
cooperate with such a bureau, as do the agricultural colleges with the Department of
Agriculture. The bulletins of such a bureau would be invaluable to the men in the
trades, as are the agricultural bulletins to the farmers.

The Department of Agriculture is an excellent model. The form for a department or

bureau of trades is all at hand. It is only necessary to translate the language of
agriculture into the language of labor. It is only through such a bureau that the
trades can formally be standardized.

Such a bureau would have two main tasks: (i) To subclassify the trades; (2) To
standardize the trades.
The first task should be successfully completed before the second is undertaken.

We have spoken briefly, in considering cost of motions, o the necessity of separating

those motions that require skill from those that require nothing but strength and
endurance.

This sub-classifying of the trades according to the types or grades of motions that
they use, or according to the brawn, brain, training, and skill required to make the
motions, will cut down production costs. It will raise the standards of all classes. It
will do away with differences between employers and employees. It will eliminate
unnecessary waste. It will raise the wages of all workers.
It will reduce the cost of living.

We might call such a sub-classification as desired a " functional" classification of the

trades.

For example, for brickwork we recommend five classes:

Class A. Ornamental and exterior face brick and molded terra cotta.

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Class B. Interior face tiers that do not show at completion, where strong, plumb, and
straight work only is needed.

Class C. Filling tiers where only strength is needed.

Class D. Putting fountain trowels and brick packs on the wall near the place, and in
the manner where the other three classes can reach them with greatest economy of
motion.

Class E. Pack loaders, brick cullers, and stage builders.

The pay of the A and B classes should be considerably higher than is customary for
bricklayers. The pay of the C, D, and E classes should be lower than is customary for
bricklayers, but much higher than the pay of laborers. This classification will raise the
pay of all five classes higher than they could ever obtain in the classes that they
would ordinarily work in under the present system, yet the resulting cost of the labor
on brickwork would be much less, and each class would be raised in its standing and
educated for better work and higher wages.

In the case of brickwork this new classification is a crying necessity, as the cost of
brickwork must be reduced to a point where it can compete with concrete.
Improvements in making, methods of mixing, transporting, and densifying concrete
in the metal molds of to-day have put the entire brickwork proposition where it can
be used for looks only, because for strength, imperviousness, quickness of
construction, lack of union labor troubles, and low cost, brickwork cannot compete
with concrete
under present conditions.

Having sub-classified the trades, the second step is to standardize them.

And both classification and standardization demand motion study.

The United States government has already spent millions and used many of the best
of minds on the subject of motion study as applied to war; the motions of the sword,
gun, and bayonet drill are wonderfully perfect from the standpoint of the
requirements of their use. This same study should be applied to the arts of peace.

It is obvious that this work must and will be done in time. But there is inestimable
loss in every hour of delay. The waste of energy of the workers in the industries
to-day is pitiful. But it is far more important that the coming generation of workers
should be scientifically trained.

The science of management of the future will demand that the trades be taught in
accordance with the motion standards of a United States Bureau of Standardization
of Mechanical Trades. The present method of teaching an apprentice is the most
unbusinesslike event that takes place in any of our industrial institutions.

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We have never heard of a trades school, manual training school, or technical school
that makes any attempt to solve questions of motion study. The usual process is to
teach a student or apprentice to do his work well first, and after he has finally
accomplished the art of making or doing the thing in question, then to expect him to
learn to do it quickly. This process is a relic of the dark ages. A novice should be
taught to do what he is trying to do with certain definite motions, and to repeat the
operation until he is able automatically to use the standard motions and do good
work.

If an apprentice bricklayer, blacksmith, or tool sharpener, for example, is not

instructed to count his motions when doing a certain piece of work, he will surely get
into the habit of making extra motions that cannot be omitted later without almost
as much effort as that spent in learning the trade. There is little incentive for an old
mechanic to teach a boy so that he will excel his teacher, and perhaps run him out of
a job about the time that he, the apprentice, becomes expert.

One of the most common causes for neglecting the important subject of motion
study is that the boss of the establishment is not himself really a master of the trade
that is being taught, or, if he was master once, has forgotten it because there are no
books or systems that have so described, charted, and illustrated his trade as to
refresh his memory.

Again the teacher is often a mechanic who is not trained to impart what knowledge
he has, has never studied pedagogy, and is expected to do a full day's work at the
same time that he is teaching his apprentice.

The arts and trades of human beings should be studied, charted, photographed, and
motion-pictured, and every employer, apprentice, and student should be able to
receive bulletins of his trade for a sum equal to the cost to a farmer of a bulletin
from the Department of Agriculture instructing how to increase the outputs of cows,
hens, and bees.

One great aid toward cutting down the work of every one out of the trades as well as
in, would be the standardizing of our written alphabet to conform to the laws of
motion study. The most offhand analysis of our written alphabet shows that it is full
of absolutely useless strokes, all of which require what are really wasted motions.

Consider the single example of the first stroke on the first letter of each word. Here
is a motion that can be eliminated wholly. While its existence is necessary in type
that represents handwriting or imitates engraved plate work, and in enameled
separate letters of window signs, its adoption and use in handwriting is of no
purpose and is wrong from the standpoint of motion economy.

Each letter of our written alphabet is a natural deviation from our printed alphabet
that is the result of leaving the pencil on the paper.

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Now the time has arrived for revising our written language by means of a new
scientifically invented alphabet specially devised for the purpose of securing clearer
writing, made of connected letters, each designed of itself and in connection with all
the other letters, so that it conforms to the laws of motion economy. This is not a
suggestion that we should adopt stenographic signs for words or sounds,
although a general knowledge of one standard stenographic system would also be a
great benefit to a nation.

The suggestion is, that in as much as it is the aim of our nation that all citizens should
be able to read and write, a new written alphabet should be devised for us that shall
conform to the laws of motion study, that we all can increase either our outputs in
writing or else that we all may be able to do such writing as we are obliged to do in
less time.

It is to be hoped that an international society of highly trained educators, similar to

those composing the Simplified Spelling Board, may be called together, as was the
Simplified Spelling Board, to give this matter immediate attention. A written
alphabet for all languages of the world should be determined and used not only by
the users of each language, but also by the societies advocating and promulgating
such world's second or international languages as Volapiik and Esperanto.

One great drawback to the more rapid progress of any artificial or second language
has been the difficulty of reading the correspondence between enthusiasts who
were proficient in speaking their thoroughly agreed upon international language.

It would not be desirable to abandon our present written alphabet. There are now
literally hundreds of different styles of lettering that all can read, yet how few of
them can any of us make with pen or pencil.

To add one more style of lettering to the now existing hundreds could scarcely be
considered as confusing by even those who are constitutionally opposed to changes
in anything.

Therefore, there should be devised one more style of lettering, specially adapted to
cutting down the time of writing and adding to the general legibility when written
quickly.

Let this be our second written language. Let us use the present system and the new
one. Let the generations to come have the benefit of the application of science to
their future writing, and let the present style be also used, provided it does not die
the natural death in the combat of the survival of the fittest.

We may have to wait for international coinage, international postage stamps,

international courts, international arbitration, and international weights and
measures; but there can be no reason for not having an international system of
written alphabetical characters, and while having it let us decide in favor of that

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system that fulfills the requirements of motion study, both of the hand in making,
and of the eye in reading.

THE FIRST STEPS

In the meantime, while we are waiting for the politicians and educators to realize the
importance of this subject and to create the bureaus and societies to undertake and
complete the work, we need not be idle. There is work in abundance to be done.

Motion study must be applied to all the industries. Our trade schools and colleges
can:

1. Observe the best work of the best workers.

2. Photograph the methods used.

3. Record the methods used.

4. Record outputs.

5. Record costs.

6. Deduce laws.

7. Establish laboratories "for trying out laws."

8. Embody laws in instructions.

9. Publish bulletins.

10. Cooperate to spread results and to train the rising

generation.

This is the era now. We have a scientific method of attack, and we have also
scientific methods of teaching.

The stereoscopic camera and stereoscope, the motion picture machines, and the
stereopticon enable us to observe, record, and teach as one never could in the past.

PICK-AND-DIP METHOD WORKING and STRINGING-MORTAR METHOD

The " pack-on-the-wall "method is the latest development and is an actual direct
result of motion study. It has again changed the entire method of laying brick by
reducing the kind, number, sequence and length of motions. It reduces the fatigue of
the bricklayer and he is therefore able to make more rapid motions.

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The economic value of motion study has been proved by the fact that by means of it
workmen's outputs have been more than tripled, production costs lowered, and
wages increased simultaneously.

This book is written for the express purpose of calling to the attention of the nation
that what has been done in a few trades can be done in each and every trade.

The most important matter before the public to-day is the creation and operation of
a department at Washington for discovering, collecting, conserving and
disseminating data relating to Taylor's method of Intensive Management commonly
called Scientific Management.

Source:
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2015/08/motion-study-variables-frank-b-gilbreth_20.
html

People Productivity Factors - Model by R.A. Sutermeister

1. Productivity

2. Technological Development
Raw Materials
Job Layout
Methods

3. Employees' Job Performance

4. Ability

5. Knowledge
Education
Experience
Training
Interest
6. Skill

7. Motivation
8. Physical Conditions
Lighting
Temperature
Ventilation
Rest Periods
Safety
Music
9. Individual Needs - Physiological, Social, Egoistic

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 10. On the Job - Off Job Activities
Perception of the situation
Level of Aspiration
Reference Group
Male - Female
Cultural Background
Education
Experience
11. Situation at a Point in Time
General Economic Conditions
Individual's Personal Situation
12. Social Conditions
13. Formal Organization
14. Organization Structure
15. Leadership Climate
16. Organization Efficiency
17, Personnel Policies
18. Communication
19. Specific Environment of Company or Plant

20. Informal Organization (Groups)

21. Size
22. Cohesiveness
23. Groups

24. Leaders
33. Union

From R.A. Sutermeister, People and Productivity, McGraw Hill, New York, 1969

Source:
https://nraoiekc.blogspot.com/2018/04/people-productivity-factors-model-by-ra.ht
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