Module 1 Compiled

BUILDING UTILITIES 2
Module 1 Lecture 2
PRINCIPLES OF
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
§ Air conditioning is a part of refrigeration where
thermal energy (heat) is taken away from the air in
a large space such as a room or a vehicle.
– Air conditioners are fitted into rooms so that they cool the air
inside them.
– Modern age air conditioners are not only concerned with

maintaining the temperature of the air; they also help to regulate
humidity, filter the air and keep toxic gases out of human
reach.
REFRIGERATION vs AIR CONDITIONING
§ Refrigeration refers to processes that take thermal energy
(heat) away from a place and gives off that energy to a
place with a higher temperature.
– Naturally, heat flows from a place with a higher temperature to a

place with a lower temperature.
– Therefore, refrigeration runs against the natural heat flow and so

it requires an additional work to be done.
AIR CONDITIONING UNITS DON’T CREATE
COOL AIR.
§ What they actually do is remove heat out of a given
space.
§ In summary, refrigeration systems are used to

remove heat from one space and transfer it to
another location.
§ How this happens, however, varies among the four

different types of refrigeration systems.
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION
SYSTEMS
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Mechanical compression is one method for removing heat from where it
is not wanted and releasing it elsewhere.
The vast majority of domestic air conditioners utilize the

mechanical compression refrigeration cycle to produce a cooling effect.
A mechanical compression refrigeration system cools by circulating a fluid

through a sealed circuit of pipes or tubing.
A working fluid, called refrigerant, is used to absorb and expel heat. The
most common include ammonia, Freon (and other chlorofluorocarbon
refrigerants, aka CFCs), and HFC-134a (a non-toxic hydrofluorocarbon).
Cold Low Pressure Vapor
Hot High Pressure Vapor
Hot High Pressure Liquid
COMPRESSOR
Cold Low Pressure Liquid
Compresses refrigerant into
a high-temperature, high-
pressure vapor.
§ The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a

compressor, a combination electric motor and pump.
In the compressor, a low pressure,
gaseous refrigerant is squeezed down to a greatly
reduced volume.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ This compression raises the refrigerant’s temperature and pressure and pushes it into
the next component, the condenser. The condenser is merely a coil of tubing over
which air can flow. In the condenser, the high pressure/high temperature gas
releases its heat and becomes a liquid.
§ The heat being dumped out was originally absorbed by the refrigerant in the air
conditioned space. The now-liquefied refrigerant flows on through the condenser
because the compressor maintains pressure behind it.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ The next stop is a thermal expansion valve or just a tube of a small diameter, which
chokes the refrigerant flow. The liquid refrigerant passes through the valve into
another coil called an evaporator.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ Here, its pressure drops rapidly, and the refrigerant begins boiling at a temperature
approximately -18oCelsius. This low-temperature boiling is actually the absorption of
heat by the refrigerant. The heat-laden, gaseous refrigerant flows back into the
compressor, and the cycle repeats until the thermostat is satisfied.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
CONDENSER
Gives up the heat that the
compressor picked up from
the evaporator.
Low-pressure, low-temperature vapor is drawn

to the compressor where it is compressed into a
high-temperature, high-pressure vapor.
START OF CYCLE Heat is removed from the vapor, and the

EVAPORATOR vapor is condensed back into a liquid, at a
high-pressure and high-temperature.
The expanding refrigerant
evaporates as it goes
through the evaporator,
where it removes the heat
from the space in which the
evaporator is located.
METERING DEVICE EXPANSION VALVE

A device to control the flow of Regulates the flow of the refrigerant.
refrigerant into the evaporator, It decreases the pressure, causing the
or cooling coil, as a low-pressure, refrigerant to change back into liquid
low-temperature refrigerant. and cool down.
§ The mechanical refrigeration cycle breaks down into
four phases: compression, condensation, metering
and evaporation. Heat flows into the evaporator and
out of the condenser, making both coils types of
heat exchangers.
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION
CYCLE
§ The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises all
the processes in the vapor compression refrigeration system
like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation.
§ In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is

ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The compressor is
replaced with a generator and an absorber.
§ Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the generator is heated by the
external source of heat - steam, hot water or any other suitable source.
Due to heating, the temperature of the solution increases. The
refrigerant in the solution gets vaporized and it leaves the solution at
high pressure. The high pressure and the high temperature refrigerant
then enters the condenser again, where it is cooled by the coolant, and
Refrigerant enters the condenser at high repeats the process.
pressure and temperature and gets
condensed. The condenser is of water
cooled type.
When the absorbent absorbs the
When the refrigerant passes through
refrigerant, strong solution of
the expansion valve or restriction, its High pressure
High temp refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-water)
pressure and temperature reduces
refrigerant is formed. The pump sends this
suddenly. This refrigerant (ammonia
solution to the generator at high
in this case) then enters the
High pressure pressure.
evaporator.
Lower temp
refrigerant
Low pressure
Low temp
refrigerant
The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature When the refrigerant entering in the
enters the evaporator and produces the cooling effect. In absorber is absorbed by the absorbent its
the vapor compression cycle this refrigerant is sucked by volume decreases, thus the compression of
the compressor, but in the vapor absorption cycle, this the refrigerant occurs. Thus absorber acts
refrigerant flows to the absorber that acts as the suction as the suction part of the compressor.
part of the refrigeration cycle.
The absorber is a vessel consisting of the weak solution of the refrigerant
(ammonia in this case) and absorbent (water in this case).
When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by

the absorbent due to which the pressure inside the absorber reduces
further, leading to more flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the
absorber.
At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by

the external coolant to increase its ammonia absorption capacity. The initial
flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because
the vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower
than the vapor pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS
§ Evaporative cooling does not use the traditional refrigeration
cycle. Instead, these units cool warmer outdoor air by blowing
it over water-soaked pads as it enters the home.
§ The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The
cooler air is channeled into the home and the warm air out of
it.
– Water has an advantage of high volume heat capacity and much
higher thermal conductivity compared to air.
§ Evaporative cooling systems depend on an internally or
externally powered fan to draw air towards and blow air flow
over the evaporative pad. Air must move into contact with the
liquid to affect the cooling process.
§ Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,

and are best suited for dry climates. They’re also less costly to
install and more energy-efficient at times.
§ The designs vary either through larger containers), multiple
fan orientations, various power and energy consumption
classes of fans, many intake opening, placement and pattern
variations and different materially manufactured
evaporative pads (natural and synthetic).
§ All designs function under the same simple operating principle

of: water drips on vertical pad via pump mounted in
a reservoir; an air circulation system that both draws
air through an evaporative pad medium and redirect it out
the cooler system.
§ Since evaporative coolers add moisture to the air and blow it

around, they are sometimes known as "swamp coolers."
THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION
§ Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the
three other types of refrigeration in that no refrigerant or
water is used. These systems use an electric current and
a thermocouple.
§ A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires
that are united at both ends. Insulation separates the rest
of the wires from each other. When the current is directed
on the thermocouple, one end will become hot and the
other cool.
§ Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of
swapping the cold and hot junctions.
– The hot end will typically be placed outside of the area to be
cooled with a heat sink attached to it to keep it the same
temperature as the surrounding air.
– The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the

area to be cooled, attracting heat out of the air.
§ This type of refrigeration is generally used for small

cooling loads that can be difficult to access, such as
electronic systems.
HEATING, VENTILATION AND
AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC)
SYSTEM LOADS
The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
HVAC—is a science and practice of controlling indoor
climate, thereby providing health and comfortable
interior conditions for occupants in a well-designed,
energy-efficient, and low emissions manner.
§ The term "H" in HVAC stands for heating that comprises
of any number of heating systems.
§ The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating

the facility using ductwork. It can also refer to combustion
air.
§ The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of

3 main methods – mechanical compression, vapor
absorption and evaporative cooling. Air conditioners
(direct expansion – DX systems) and chillers usually
accomplish the job of air conditioning.
§ The objectives of HVAC are:
⎼ To control the temperature of air inside the designated “Air
Conditioned" space
⎼ To control air moisture
⎼ To filter air and contain air borne particles
⎼ To supply outside fresh air for control of oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels in the air conditioned space, and finally
⎼ To control movement of air or draught.
§ All these factors comprise a successful HVAC system.

PROCESSES OF HVAC
§ Heating: To increase the temperature by adding thermal energy to a
space.
§ Cooling: To decrease the temperature by removing thermal energy
from a space.
§ Humidifying: The process of increasing the relative humidity of a
space by addition of water vapor or steam.
§ Dehumidifying: The process of removing the water vapor or
humidity of a space.
§ Cleaning: The process of removing dust, pollens, smoke and
contaminants from air inside the space.
§ Ventilating: The process of adding external air to freshen up the air
and maintaining gas ratio.
§ Air movement: To control the movement of the supplied air so that
the inhabitants of the space do not feel discomfort.
HVAC SYSTEMS
UNITS AND RATINGS
1. Cooling Capacity
– Defined as the heat load in a room that has to be removed in
order to achieve a certain room temperature and humidity. The
typical design is set to 24°C temperature and 55% Relative
Humidity.
– The amount of cooling needed by the space will be used to
determine the capacity of the air conditioner needed.
a. BTUh – “British Thermal Units per Hour”

– It is a rate of heating or cooling expressed in terms of Btu per hour. (1kW =
3412 Btu)
– 1 BTU/hr is the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water by 1oF
b. Ton of cooling
– One ton of cooling is the heat extraction rate of 12,000 Btu per hour.
– Theoretically, it is energy required to melt one ton of ice in 24 hours.
c. Ton of Refrigeration Effect
⎻ The cooling capacity of older Refrigeration units is often indicated in "tons
of Refrigeration”. A ton of Refrigeration represents the heat energy
absorbed when a ton (2000lb.) of ice melts during one 24-hour day.
⎻ The Btu equivalent of one ton of refrigeration is easy to calculate. Multiply
the weight of one ton of ice (2000lb.) by the latent heat of fusion (melting)
of ice (144 Btu/lb). Then divide by 24hours to obtain Btu/hr.
One ton of Refrigeration effect= 2000 (lb) x 144 (Btu/lb) /24 (hours) = 288,000Btu/24 hours =
12,000Btu/hr
§ A refrigerating or air conditioning mechanism capable of absorbing heat can be rated in tons
per 24 hours by its heat-absorbing ability (HA) in Btu divided by (24 hr x 12000 Btu =
288,000).
T = HA / 288,000
Where:
T = tons of refrigeration effect
HA = heat-absorbing ability in Btu
2. COP – “Coefficient of Performance”:
– This coefficient is the ratio of the cooling capacity (W) as the
output power (in form of removed heat load) versus power
consumption (W) as the input power.
COP= Cooling Capacity (W)/Power Consumption (W)
– The higher the COP, the higher the efficiency of the air
conditioner. Usually the value range from 2-4 but in recent years,
the use of inverter compressors have enabled this coefficient to
go higher than 4.
3. EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio)
⎻ This rating was established for manufacturers to rate their
equipment so that consumers or consultants can tell the cooling
efficiency of the air conditioner by just looking at the
specifications provided.
⎻ The rating is obtained by dividing the cooling capacity (Btu/h) with
the input power (Watt).
⎻ The larger the value of EER, the more efficient the air conditioner
is. However, this rating does not give a complete picture of the
efficiency of the unit.
4. SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio)
⎻ This ratio is more accurate as it takes into consideration non
steady state conditions such as the start-up and shutdown cycles
of the air-conditioner.
⎻ In choosing the SEER, the choice is always to go for a higher
SEER as it is more efficient equipment. The trade-off in choosing
a higher SEER is that usually the initial cost of the equipment will
be higher.
5. Energy Star
⎻ This rating for an equipment
shows that the equipment is
designed to save energy
hence reducing your
electricity bills as well as
protecting our environment.
Module 1 Lecture 2
PRINCIPLES OF
§ Air conditioning is a part of refrigeration where
inside them.

reach.
§ Refrigeration refers to processes that take thermal energy


AIR CONDITIONING UNITS DON’T CREATE
COOL AIR.
§ What they actually do is remove heat out of a given
space.
§ In summary, refrigeration systems are used to

another location.
§ How this happens, however, varies among the four

SYSTEMS
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE


COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a

reduced volume.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ This compression raises the refrigerant’s temperature and pressure and pushes it into
§ The heat being dumped out was originally absorbed by the refrigerant in the air
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ The next stop is a thermal expansion valve or just a tube of a small diameter, which
chokes the refrigerant flow. The liquid refrigerant passes through the valve into
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
§ Here, its pressure drops rapidly, and the refrigerant begins boiling at a temperature
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
CONDENSER
the evaporator.



§ The mechanical refrigeration cycle breaks down into
heat exchangers.
CYCLE
§ The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises all
§ In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is

ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The compressor is
replaced with a generator and an absorber.
§ Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

cooled type.
evaporator.
Lower temp
refrigerant
Low pressure
Low temp
refrigerant
The absorber is a vessel consisting of the weak solution of the refrigerant
(ammonia in this case) and absorbent (water in this case).

absorber.

§ Evaporative cooling does not use the traditional refrigeration
cycle. Instead, these units cool warmer outdoor air by blowing
it over water-soaked pads as it enters the home.
§ The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The
it.
higher thermal conductivity compared to air.
§ Evaporative cooling systems depend on an internally or
externally powered fan to draw air towards and blow air flow
over the evaporative pad. Air must move into contact with the
liquid to affect the cooling process.
§ Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,

install and more energy-efficient at times.
§ The designs vary either through larger containers), multiple
fan orientations, various power and energy consumption
classes of fans, many intake opening, placement and pattern
variations and different materially manufactured
§ All designs function under the same simple operating principle

of: water drips on vertical pad via pump mounted in
a reservoir; an air circulation system that both draws
the cooler system.
§ Since evaporative coolers add moisture to the air and blow it

around, they are sometimes known as "swamp coolers."
§ Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the
a thermocouple.
§ A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires
other cool.
§ Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of

§ This type of refrigeration is generally used for small

electronic systems.
SYSTEM LOADS
The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
climate, thereby providing health and comfortable
interior conditions for occupants in a well-designed,
energy-efficient, and low emissions manner.
§ The term "H" in HVAC stands for heating that comprises
of any number of heating systems.
§ The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating

the facility using ductwork. It can also refer to combustion
air.
§ The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of

§ The objectives of HVAC are:
⎼ To control the temperature of air inside the designated “Air
Conditioned" space
⎼ To control air moisture
⎼ To filter air and contain air borne particles
⎼ To supply outside fresh air for control of oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels in the air conditioned space, and finally
⎼ To control movement of air or draught.
§ All these factors comprise a successful HVAC system.

PROCESSES OF HVAC
§ Heating: To increase the temperature by adding thermal energy to a
space.
§ Cooling: To decrease the temperature by removing thermal energy
from a space.
§ Humidifying: The process of increasing the relative humidity of a
§ Dehumidifying: The process of removing the water vapor or
§ Cleaning: The process of removing dust, pollens, smoke and
§ Ventilating: The process of adding external air to freshen up the air
§ Air movement: To control the movement of the supplied air so that
HVAC SYSTEMS
UNITS AND RATINGS
1. Cooling Capacity
Humidity.

3412 Btu)
b. Ton of cooling
of Refrigeration”. A ton of Refrigeration represents the heat energy
12,000Btu/hr
§ A refrigerating or air conditioning mechanism capable of absorbing heat can be rated in tons
288,000).
T = HA / 288,000
Where:
go higher than 4.
be higher.
5. Energy Star
hence reducing your
Module 1 Lecture 3
LOCAL HVAC SYSTEMS
HEAT CONVEYORS/MEDIA
One way to classify HVAC systems is by the media used to
convey heat to and/or from the spaces served by the system.
– Air
– Water
– Refrigerants – gases at normal temperatures and
pressures, and must be compressed and condensed
(liquefied) to be of service later as heat absorbers
(examples, CFC, HCFC, ammonia, lithium bromide, etc.)
BASIC HVAC OPTIONS
Local systems
⎻ Require no central equipment to perform their functions
⎻ Components (air circulating fans/refrigerant
compressor/condenser/cooling and heating coils) are
contained within one box
⎻ Normally appropriate for only very small load and/or
small building/single room conditioning (restaurants,
telephone exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.)
§ Decentralized Systems (Individual Room Systems)
Return air grill
evaporator or cooling
coil and the cooling fan
Supply air grill
Control panel
Outside air
intake
Window Units
compressor, condenser
and expansion valve.
Mini-Split Cooling Units (ductless split units)

The window and split air conditioners are usually used
for the small air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
§ Semi- centralized Systems (packaged systems)
⎻ Unitary packaged (one-piece systems)
Water-Cooled Condenser
Air-Cooled Condenser
⎻ Ducted split-type (two-piece systems)
The packaged air conditioners are available in the

fixed rated capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons.
Central systems
(Central Hydronic
systems)
– Require a full
Return air
complement of Fresh supply air
central equipment
and spaces for
these equipment
– Need a distribution
system to convey
the heating and/or
cooling medium to
remote units
TYPICAL HVAC LAYOUT
Generation
Equipment Distribution Three basic components
System Terminal
common to all HVAC
Equipment equipment systems
GENERATION EQUIPMENT
§ Produces the heat (boilers, furnaces and radiant panels) or cooling
(chillers and cooling towers, and air-cooled compressors in packaged
equipment).
§ Local HVAC systems require no central mechanical equipment.
§ Type of generation equipment can limit the choices available to the

designer.
§ Critical architectural decisions related to HVAC generation equipment

are location, size, and service options of equipment rooms.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Method by which cooling and heating energy is "moved" throughout the
building (hot/chilled water piping systems, or ductwork that distributes
warm or cool air around the building).
§ critical architectural decisions in distribution system design involve

coordination with all other structure and services to eliminate conflicts
and to provide for effective and efficient distribution of air and water
throughout the building.
§ critical junctures in a distribution system must be accessible for

testing and balancing.
TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
Include devices that distribute conditioned air to the space (a diffuser is
considered a terminal unit).
§ A separate or integral device is used to control the local space

temperature (thermostat).
§ In some systems, they are visible (as in the case of window air-
conditioners or fan coil units, which act as both the terminal unit and
thermostat).
§ In other systems, they are concealed above the ceiling (a variable air
volume box acts as the temperature control device, which controls the
amount of air discharged from a number of ceiling diffusers, the
terminal units).
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
§ In this system, the important components of the air
conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window
AC. Thus, the compressor, cooling coil, air handling unit
and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and
assembled at the factory location.
§ Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these
systems, the packaged air conditioners are divided into two
types: ones with water-cooled condenser and the ones
with air-cooled condensers.
§ The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed
rated capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are
used commonly in places like restaurants, telephone
exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH
WATER-COOLED CONDENSER
§ The condenser, of shell and tube type, is cooled by the
water with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the
cooling water flowing along the shell side. The water has to
be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain
functioning of the air conditioning system.
§ The condenser, compact in shape, is enclosed in a single
casing along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the
air handling unit including the cooling coil or the evaporator.
This whole packaged air conditioning unit externally looks
like a box with the control panel located externally.
§ In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the
compressor is located at the bottom along with the
condenser (see next slide). Above these components the
evaporator or the cooling coil is located.
§ The air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower
and the air filter is located above the cooling coil. From the
top of the package air conditioners, the duct comes out that
extends to the various rooms that are to be cooled.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH
AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS
§ The condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled by the
atmospheric air. There is an outdoor unit that comprises of
the important components like the compressor, condenser
and in some cases the expansion valve.
§ The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other
open place where the free flow of the atmospheric air is
available. The fan located inside this unit sucks the outside
air and blows it over the condenser coil cooling it in the
process. The condenser coil is made up of several turns of
the copper tubing and it is finned externally
§ The packaged ACs with the air cooled condensers are used
more commonly than the ones with water cooled
condensers since air is freely available and it is difficult to
maintain continuous flow of the water.
§ The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve,
evaporator, the air handling blower and the filter are located
on the floor or hanged to the ceiling. The ducts coming
from the cooling unit are connected to the various rooms
that are to be cooled.
SPLIT-TYPE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
SPLIT PACKAGED UNITS
A split packaged unit consists of two separate pieces of equipment: an indoor air
handler and an outdoor condensing unit. The indoor air handler is often installed in the
fan room. Small air handlers can be ceiling hung.
The condensing unit is usually located outdoors, on a rooftop or podium or on the
ground.
A split packaged unit has its compressors and condenser in its outdoor condensing unit,
whereas an indoor packaged unit usually has its compressors indoors. The cooling
capacity of split packaged units varies from 3 to 75.
§ The split-type air conditioning system comprises two parts:
the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.
– The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like
the compressor, condenser, condenser cooling fan, and the
expansion valve. The compressor is the maximum noise making
part of the air conditioner, and since it is located outside the
room, the major source of noise is eliminated.
– The indoor unit is the unit that produces the cooling effect inside
the room or the office. It comprises the evaporator or cooling coil,
air filter, the cooling fan or blower, the drain pipe, and the louvers
or fins.
– After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid
enters the cooling coil. The blower sucks the hot, humid and
filtered air from the room and it blows it over the cooling coil.
– As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces
drastically and also loses the excess moisture. The cool and dry
air enters the room and maintains comfortable conditions of
around 18-27o Celsius as per the requirements.
§ For this unit, there is no need for any slot in the wall of the
room. Further, present day split units have aesthetic appeal
and do not take up as much space as a window unit.
§ A split air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.
§ The window and split air conditioners are usually used for
the small air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
Module 1 Lecture 4
CENTRALIZED HVAC SYSTEMS
CENTRALIZED AIR-CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS
§ Central air conditioning systems are used for applications like big hotels,
large buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc., where very high
cooling loads are required. They are completely silent and highly
effective air conditioning systems.
§ In the central air conditioning systems, a plant room houses the

compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the
evaporator. These parts are larger in size and have higher capacities.
§ Chilled air is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other
spaces to be air-conditioned and there are no individual cooling coils,
and other parts of the refrigeration system in the rooms.
§ The amount of chilled air that is needed in the room can be controlled by
the openings depending on the total heat load inside the room.
HVAC SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
Primary equipment includes
§ Heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water

boilers to heat buildings or spaces,
§ Air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver

conditioned ventilation air by using centrifugal fans, axial
fans, and plug or plenum fans, and
§ Refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or

conditioned air into space. It includes cooling coils based
on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a
refrigeration process.
Space requirement is essential in shaping an HVAC system
to be central or local. It requires five facilities as the following:
– Equipment rooms require between 4 and 9% of the gross building
area. It is preferable to centrally locate these rooms for economic
reasons, to simplify shaft layouts, and centralize maintenance and
operation.
– HVAC facilities: The heating equipment requires boiler units,
pumps, heat exchangers, pressure-reducing equipment, control air
compressors, and miscellaneous equipment; the refrigeration
equipment requires water chillers or cooling water towers for large
buildings, condenser water pumps, heat exchangers, air-conditioning
equipment, control air compressors, and miscellaneous equipment.
– Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous
equipment. It is preferable to have easy access to outdoor air.
– Vertical shaft provides space for air distribution and water and steam
pipe distribution. The vertical shaft accommodates other mechanical
and electrical distribution to serve the entire building including
plumbing pipes, fire protection pipes, and electric conduits/closets.
– Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of

large, heavy equipment during the installation, replacement, and
maintenance.
Air distribution considers ductwork that delivers the
conditioned air to the desired area in a direct, quiet, and
economical way. Air distribution includes:
– air terminal units such as grilles and diffusers to deliver supply air into a space at
low velocity;
– fan-powered terminal units, which uses an integral fan to ensure the supply air to
the space;
– variable air volume terminal units, which deliver variable amount of air into the
space;
– all-air induction terminal units, which controls the primary air, induces return air, and
distributes the mixed air into a space
– and air-water induction terminal units, which contains a coil in the induction air
stream.
It is recommended that buildings should have enough ceiling
spaces to host ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor
slab.
The piping system is used to deliver refrigerant, hot water,
cooled water, steam, gas, and condensate to and from HVAC
equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way.
– Piping systems can be divided into two parts: the piping in the
central plant equipment room and the delivery piping.
– HVAC piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code

criteria.
HVAC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT TO GENERATE
HEATING OR COOLING
Heating Systems Main Cooling Systems
Equipment Main Equipment
The main equipment used in The main equipment used in
heating systems include: cooling systems include:
§ Furnace § Chillers & Compressors
§ Hot Water & Steam Boiler § Cooling Towers
§ Heat Pump § Air Handling Units & Fan
§ Local heating Systems Coil Units
Chillers
§ Chillers are the
primary piece of
equipment in a central
cooling system. These
devices remove the
heat gathered by the
re-circulating chilled
water system as it
cools the building.
Selection depends on
the fuel source and the
total cooling load.
§ Two principal types; air-cooled and
water cooled. Compared to water, air
is a poor conductor of heat and
therefore air-cooled chillers are larger
and less efficient.
§ Air cooled chillers are generally located
outside the building and reject heat
directly to the atmosphere, while
§ Water cooled chillers are generally Air cooled chillers
located within the building and use
cooling towers located outside the
building to reject the heat.
§ They are usually classified by the type
of compressor used to drive the
refrigeration cycle.
Water cooled chillers

Air cooled Chillers
Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
§ They use a proven technology and generally have
a lower initial cost than other chiller types.
§ They produce more vibration and for this reason,
care must be exercised in mounting, particularly if
used on a rooftop.
§ Reciprocating compressors are usually used in
smaller systems up to 100 tons and are typically
more efficient than centrifugal units.
Rotating Screw compressors

§ Screw compressors are made up of two threaded
inter-fitting rotors (screws) that are coupled
together to compress the volume occupied by the
gas (refrigerant).
§ The refrigeration capacity of twin-screw
compressors is 50 to 1500 tons but is normally
used in the 200 tons to 800 tons range.
Centrifugal compressors
§ Centrifugal compressors are made up of a
rotor located inside a special chamber.
§ The centrifugal compressor is ideal for air
conditioning applications because it is suitable
for variable loads, has few moving parts, and
is economical to operate.
§ The available refrigeration capacity for
centrifugal compressors ranges from 100 to
2,000 tons, making them applicable for large
central plants.
Scroll compressors § Scroll compressors generally have smaller

capacities than many other types and are
becoming popular in residential equipment.
§ Have fewer parts, thus, less maintenance
concerns, have smoother, quieter operations,
and can operate under dirtier conditions.
§ The refrigeration capacity of currently
manufactured scroll compressors is 60 tons.
Heat Rejection Equipment
§ With chillers, there must be a way to reject the heat that is removed
from the re-circulating chilled water system. Reject heat is handled by
the condensing water system which serves the condensing process
within the refrigeration cycles. For large buildings, this requirement is
satisfied by a cooling tower.
§ The purpose of heat rejection equipment in an air-conditioning system
is to provide a heat transfer means to reject all the heat from the air-
conditioning system. This heat includes the heat absorbed by the
evaporator from the space plus the heat of the energy input into the
compressor.
§ Three common types of heat rejection equipment:
– Air-cooled
– Water-cooled
– evaporative
Cooling Tower
§ A cooling tower is a heat rejection
device, installed outside of the building
envelope, through which condenser
water is circulated.
§ Refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle is
condensed in a refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger. Heat rejected from the
refrigerant increases the temperature of
the condenser water, which must be
cooled to permit the cycle to continue.
§ The condenser water is circulated to the
cooling tower where evaporative cooling
causes heat to be removed from the § Floor space requirement are 0.20% of
water and added to the outside air. the building gross floor area (for towers
§ The cooled condenser water is then up to 2.40m high) and 0.30% of the
piped back to the condenser of the building GFA for towers above 2.40m
chiller. high.
Types of Cooling Towers
Forced Draft Tower In forced draft cooling towers, air is "pushed"
through the tower from an inlet to an exhaust.
A forced draft mechanical draft tower is a
blow-through arrangement, where a blower
type fan at the intake forces air through the
tower.
Induced Draft Tower
A second type of tower, induced draft has a
fan in the wet air stream to draw air
through the fill. The fan located is located
at the discharge end, which pulls air
through tower.
Natural Draft Tower
Natural draft tower has no mechanical means to
create airflow. Natural-draft cooling towers use
the buoyancy of the exhaust air rising in a tall
chimney to provide the draft. Warm, moist air
naturally rises due to the density differential to
the dry, cooler outside air.
Air Handling Units & Fan Coil Units
An air handling system is a means of providing conditioned air to the space in
order to maintain the environmental requirements.
§ There are two types of air-handling equipment: refrigerant type (considered air-
conditioning units) and chilled water type (called air-handling units).
§ An air-conditioning unit is typically factory-assembled with refrigerant-type cooling
and electric, steam or hot water heating.
§ Air-handling units are usually a semi-custom type of air-handling device that can be
factory-assembled, field-assembled, or a combination of both.
§ Air-handling units typically use electric, steam or hot water for heating medium
§ Sufficient space is required around the system to allow for proper maintenance.
§ AHUs can bring in outside air and heat or cool it; they are more common in large
buildings with a centralized HVAC system.
Fan coil unit (FCU)
§ A fan-coil unit is a small-scale air
handling unit with circulation fan,
cooling and/or heating coil, filter, and
appropriate controls. It is essentially a
terminal device because it serves only
one room or a small group of rooms.
§ Fan-coil control is typically achieved
through control of water flow through
the coil using a control signal from the
zone thermostat. Occupants can
usually adjust supply air louvers to
provide some control over air
distribution patterns.
§ A fan-coil system requires filter
changes and maintenance of fans and
coils. Fan noise may be a concern in
some critical occupancies.
§ It is most commonly used in hotels,
condominiums, and apartments.
HVAC Control Systems
HVAC control system, from the simplest room thermostat to the most complicated
computerized control, has four basic elements:
§ Sensors
§ Controllers
§ Controlled devices
§ Source of energy
Aims of HVAC Control Systems
HVAC Control Systems are used for the following benefits:
§ Lower energy cost.
§ Lower operations cost.
§ Increase flexibility.
§ Ensure quality building environment.
§ Eliminate human error
§ Act as safety devices
Air Distribution Outlets
1. Ceiling diffuser – the most common air 2. Linear slot outlets - long narrow air supply
outlet. They have either radial or directional device with an air distribution slot between 12-
discharge which is parallel to the mounted 25mm in length. Various types are linear bar,
surface. Some typical applications are spot T-bar slot, linear slot, and light diffuser. Some
heating or cooling, large capacity, mounting on applications are high sidewall installation with
exposed ductwork, horizontal distribution along flow perpendicular to the mounting surface,
a ceiling, and perimeter air distribution. They high sidewall installation with 15-30 degree
come in various shapes and sizes: round, upward/downward directional adjustability,
rectangular, square, perforated face, louver perimeter ceiling installation, sill installations,
face, modular type. and floor installations.
3. Grille – a supply air outlet that consists of a frame enclosing a set of vanes which
can be mounted vertically, horizontally or in both directions. A grille combined with a
volume control damper is called a register. Grilles mounted on the ceiling and
discharging down are unacceptable. Ceiling installation would require a special grille
with curved vanes to discharge the air parallel to the mounting surface.
Pumps
The 4 most common types of HVAC centrifugal pumps are end-suction, horizontal or
vertical split-case, in-line mounted, and vertical. The configuration of the pump shaft
determines if the pump is a horizontal or vertical pump. Pumps may be arranged in
various configurations to provide the design flow and economical operation at partial
flow or for system backup.
Fans
Fans are available in a variety of impeller or wheel design and housing design. These
variables affect the performance characteristics and applications for each individual
type of fan. The most common fan designs used in HVAC systems are centrifugal and
axial.
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING
TO COOLING SYSTEMS
Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant
§ In this system the huge compressor, and the condenser are housed
in the plant room, while the expansion valve and the evaporator or
the cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in separate
room.
§ The air used for cooling the room is directly chilled by the refrigerant
in the cooling coil of the air handling unit.
§ A blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it
over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various
ducts and into the spaces which are to be cooled.
§ The refrigerant travels only through the small distances and there is
no pump involved so the additional heat absorption is less, which
makes the DX plants even more efficient.
§ This type of system is useful for small buildings.
Direct Expansion Central Air-conditioning
Chilled water central air conditioning plant
§ This type of system is more useful for large buildings comprising of a

number of floors. It has a plant room where the compressor, condenser,
throttling valve and the evaporator are housed.
§ The air handling units comprise the cooling coil - through which the
chilled water flows - and the blower. The blower sucks hot return air
from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling coil. The cool air
is then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts.
§ The chilled water which has absorbed the room heat goes back to the
evaporator, gets re-chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling
unit.
Thermal
Expansion
Valve
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING
TO THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER
MEDIUM
THREE MAJOR TYPES
§ Centralized Ducted “All – Air” Systems
§ Centralized Fluid Based Hydronic (All-Water) Systems
§ Combined (Hybrid) Water and Air Systems

CENTRALIZED DUCTED “ALL–AIR”
SYSTEMS
§ These are systems in which the primary movement of heat around the
building is via heated and cooled air.
§ These systems are the most common in large spaces such as office
buildings, common public areas, retail, shopping, manufacturing areas,
airports, hotel lobbies etc.
§ In an ‘All-Air system’, the refrigerant or chilled water is used to cool and
dehumidify the air in the air handling unit (AHU). The cool air is then
circulated throughout the building thru the ductwork. Heating can also be
accomplished either by hot water or electrical strip heaters.
§ The centralization of these systems require either a mechanical room
adjacent to the controlled space for locating the AHU and large ductwork in
building space.
§ Fresh outside air is drawn into the building through the intake louver, mixed with
return air, heated or cooled to a controlled temperature, circulated around the
building and provided to the occupied space. Exhaust air is extracted from the space
and dumped to the outside. In general, the majority of the return air is recycled via
the return air duct.
§ All-air systems offer excellent control of interior air quality. The central air-handling
equipment can be designed for precise control of fresh air, filtration, humidification,
dehumidification, heating, and cooling.
§ “All-air” systems are usually described by 2 variables: the type of air-handling unit
provided (constant volume/reheat or variable volume/cooling only), and the type of
terminal control device used (constant air volume/variable air temperature or variable
air volume/constant air temperature) to control local zone comfort conditions.
§ Constant-volume systems operate at a constant airflow rate; only temperature varies to
maintain the zone set point.
§ Variable air volume (VAV) systems use variable volume terminal units or boxes to vary
the airflow in each zone or space in accordance to the thermostat signals within the
space.
Basic All-Air System
CENTRALIZED FLUID-BASED
HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
§ An all-water hydronic system typically use terminal units,
such as fan-coil units or unit ventilators, to provide the local
temperature control. When heating, the terminal units draw
heat from the water and when cooling these reject heat to
the water.
§ Hot and chilled water piping systems are the primary
distribution system, so ductwork is eliminated and making
all-water systems the most compact of all.
§ The biggest drawback of all-water hydronic system is the
difficulty in providing adequate indoor air quality. These
systems are fairly common in office rooms, hotel rooms,
schools, building perimeter control etc.
COMBINED (HYBRID) WATER AND AIR
SYSTEMS
§ Hybrid systems use both air and water (cooled or heated in central plant room)
distribution to room terminals to perform cooling or heating function. Unlike all-water
system, this system ensures ventilation air in the spaces so that indoor air quality is
not sacrificed.
§ The most critical performance issue facing an all-water fan-coil system is ventilation
air. Fan coils installed in interior zones can not easily provide such outdoor air
ventilation. An air-water fan-coil system can overcome this constraint.
§ Improved air quality and humidity control is provided, since a central ventilation
system air handler can be used to provide better outside air filtration, better control
of relative humidity, and an opportunity to recover waste heat from building exhaust
airstreams.
§ Found in high-rise buildings where a minimum amount of ductwork is desirable.

HVAC SPACE PLANNING
Space Planning
Space required to house HVAC equipment and associated pipe and duct shafts can
amount to 10% of the building floor area, depending on the building application and
type of HVAC system used. The first step in planning the HVAC system layout is to
identify the location and configuration of the central equipment. In large buildings using
central systems, this often includes 3 types of equipment rooms:
– A central plant equipment space (usually one location in the building housing central
chillers, boilers, and related equipment
– A rooftop location for cooling towers
– Equipment room/s for large central air-handling units
Central plant equipment rooms are often located at the top of a building to:
• Minimize the piping distance to connect the chillers to the rooftop cooling towers
• Minimize the length of expensive boiler flues that typically extend well above rooftop
heights
• May also be located on the lowest floor of the building
• Or the boilers and chillers may be located in two different locations
Central Equipment Room Planning
§ Central equipment rooms should have between 3600-4200mm clear
height available from the finished floor to the soffit of the structure to
allow for adequate clearance above the main equipment for
accessories and large piping crossovers.
§ Long narrow rooms with a ratio of 1:2 (width to length) usually allow
for the most flexible and efficient layout of the equipment.
§ Equipment such as chillers and shell-and-tube heat exchangers
require clear space equal to the length of the equipment in order to
pull the heat exchange tubes for servicing.
§ Provide proper vibration isolation for large equipment, particularly
rotating equipment, such as chillers and pumps
§ Access to equipment rooms is an important consideration. Adequate
doors and routes to freight elevators and/or to the building exterior
should be planned such that the largest piece of equipment can be
easily installed and possibly removed for servicing in the future
Air-handling Equipment Room Planning
§ The number and location of central air-handling unit
equipment rooms (commonly called fan rooms) are critical to
a successful HVAC system.
§ Once the number of AHUs is determined, the next decision
is how or whether they are to be grouped together in
separate rooms. The following summarizes typical AHU
room arrangement approaches:
− Scattered or separated units – often used in low-rise buildings
employing rooftop equipment
− Central core placement – most efficient layout and duct
distribution layout
− Perimeter rooms – minimizes ducting required for outside air and
exhaust air
− Detached rooms – moves the equipment room outside the main
building requiring an adjacent protruding service shaft
Scattered or separated units
− Air handlers are simply located as centrally as possible to the separate zones
they serve (and are thus scattered throughout the building as a function of its
separate zones)
− Results in the most efficient duct sizing and minimal duct sizes
− Because air handlers will be located directly above occupied spaces, noise and
vibration isolation are critical factors
“Perimeter” rooms
− Can reduce the efficiency of the supply/return duct system, unless multiple units
are required for each floor
− Potential lost use of premium perimeter floor areas
− Potential negative aesthetic impact of large intake/exhaust louvers on the
exterior
− Proximity of potentially noisy equipment close to occupied areas of the building
“Detached” rooms
− Sometimes allow for maximum space utilization and flexibility within the main
floor plate of the building they serve
Central core placement
− All air handling unit rooms are located together near the building core, often on
multiple floors in high-rise buildings
− Tends to yield the most efficient layout and duct distribution layout if one air
handler can serve an entire floor
− Horizontal or vertical ducting is required to admit and reject fresh outside air
and to exhaust spent air
− Air handling unit rooms placed in the central core can take advantage of other
service elements such as elevator shafts and restrooms to buffer noise
− No equipment room wall should be located immediately adjacent to an occupied
space, and equipment rooms are best stacked vertically to minimize piping and
airshaft requirements
− At least 2 and preferably 3 sides of the equipment room are free of vertical
obstructions so that supply and return ductwork can pass through them to serve
the occupied areas
Module 1 Lecture 1
THERMAL COMFORT
OBJECTIVES OF A BUILDING
▪ To create shelter from the climate
▪ To facilitate human activities within the building
▪ To enhance thermal comfort.
INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG
▪ Man – adaptive behavior
▪ Building – determined by envelope
▪ Climate – what we expect
During the facility design and development process,
projects must have a comprehensive, integrated
perspective that seeks to:
▪ Facilitate Indoor Environmental Quality through good
design, construction, commissioning, and operating and
maintenance practices
▪ Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views
and the integration of natural and man-made elements
▪ Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of
personal control over temperature and airflow;
▪ Supply adequate levels and quality of ventilation and
outside air for acceptable indoor air quality
▪ Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi, as well as
radon gas, through building envelope design that properly
manages moisture sources from outside and inside the
building, and with heating, ventilating, air-conditioning
(HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling
indoor humidity
▪ Use materials that do not emit pollutants or are low-emitting
▪ Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of
sound absorbing material and equipment isolation
▪ Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and
removal, and by careful selection of cleaning products.
Pursue energy efficient strategies to remove harmful odors
while recovering the energy used in conditioning the interior
environment
▪ Create a high-performance luminous environment through
the careful integration of natural and artificial light sources
▪ Provide quality water.
THE HUMAN BODY
INTRODUCTION
▪ Thermal and atmospheric conditions in an enclosed space
are usually controlled in order to ensure:
1) the health and comfort of the occupants or,
2) the proper functioning of sensitive electronic equipment,
such as computers, or certain manufacturing processes that
have a limited range of temperature and humidity tolerance.
▪ The physiological characteristics of the human body allow
it to withstand great variations in thermal conditions.
▪ Man has a very effective temperature regulatory system - which
ensures that the body’s core temperature is kept at approximately
37°C – but is rather complex and not yet fully understood.
▪ The two most important set of sensors for the control system are
however known.
– The hypothalamus-sensor is a heat sensor which starts the body’s cooling
function when the body’s core temperature exceeds 37°C.
– The skin-sensors are cold sensors which start the body’s defense against
cooling down when the skin temperature falls below 34°C.
▪ Signals from these two sensor systems form the basis for evaluation
of the thermal environment.
▪ It takes some time to change the body’s core temperature; the signal
from the heat sensor, therefore change very slowly compared to the
signals from the cold sensors.
▪ If the hot and cold sensors output signals at the same time, our brain
will inhibit one or both of the body’s defense reactions.
METABOLISM
▪ The human body is a heat generator. The rate at which the human
body produces heat changes frequently, and so does the
environment’s ability to accept heat.
▪ As part of the process of being alive, people metabolize (oxidize) the
food taken into the body, converting it into electrochemical energy.
▪ The rate at which we generate heat (our metabolic rate) depends
mostly upon our level of muscular activity, partly upon what we eat
and drink (and when), and partly on where we are in our normal daily
cycle.
▪ As with all conversions from one form of energy to another, there is a
certain conversion efficiency.
– Only about 20 percent of all the potential energy stored in the food is available
for useful work.
– The other 80 percent takes the form of heat as a by-product of the conversion
▪ This results in the continuous generation of heat within the body,
which must be rejected by means of sensible heat flow (radiation,
convection, or conduction) to the surrounding environment or by
evaporating body fluids.
▪ If more food energy is ingested than is needed, it is stored as fat
tissue for later use.
▪ MET is a unit of measurement of body heat production, in which one
(1) MET is equal to 18.4 Btu/h/ft2 or 58.2 W/m2, the energy produced
by a sedentary person.
▪ Under these conditions, the total heat produced by an average adult -
with a body surface area of 19.6 ft2 or 1.8 m2 - is about 360 Btu/h
(106 W).
▪ To maintain thermal comfort:
– The actual combination of skin temperature and the body’ s core temperature
should provide a sensation of thermal neutrality.
– The fulfilment of the body’ s energy balance: the heat produced by the
metabolism should be equal to the amount of heat lost from the body.
25.5oC
37oC
20oC
METABOLIC RATE AT DIFFERENT TYPICAL ACTIVITIES
HEAT BALANCE EQUATION
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE HEAT
BALANCE EQUATION
HEAT FLOW PROCESS
CONDUCTION
– Heat is transferred directly from molecule to molecule
within or between materials, with proximity of molecules
(material density) playing a critical role in the extent of
heat transfer
– Conductive heat transfer occurs through a solid material
anytime there is a difference in temperature between the
two sides of the material
– The thicker the material, the slower it will conduct heat
since the heat has that much farther to get to the other
side.
CONVECTION
– Heat is exchanged between a fluid (typically air) and a
solid, with the motion of a fluid due to heating or cooling,
playing a critical role in the extent of heat transfer
– In short, convective heat transfer in buildings is caused
by air movement
RADIATION
– Heat flows via electro-magnetic waves from hotter
surfaces to detached colder ones - across empty space
and potentially great distances
– When such a wave strikes a barrier, part of it reflected,
part of it is absorbed, and sometimes part of it is
transmitted
– Occurs between bodies that exist in line-of-sight
– Radiant heat cannot go around corners
EVAPORATION
– A one-way thermal process involving heat loss only, or
exclusively a cooling mechanism.
– Liquid is used to facilitate removal of heat (in the case of
human body, sweat glands)
– A liquid can evaporate only by removing large quantities
of heat from the surface it is leaving; in the process, it
absorbs sensible heat from the surface and changes to
latent heat of water vapor
REMEMBER
▪ As air and surface temperatures approach our own
body temperature, we lose the options of
convection, conduction, and radiation. Evaporation
becomes essential, so access to dry, moving air is
greatly appreciated.
▪ As air and surface temperatures fall, evaporation
decreases while convection, conduction, and
particularly radiation increase.
HEAT
▪ By definition, heat is a form of energy that flows from a point
at one temperature to another point at a lower temperature.
▪ The common measure of quantity of heat energy in the
English system of units is the British thermal unit (Btu).
– It is that heat energy required to raise 1 pound of water
1o Fahrenheit.
– The rate of flow of heat in these units is expressed in
Btu per hour (Btuh).
– In the International system of units (SI units), the
corresponding measure is the joule. The rate of heat
flow in SI units is joules per second, or watts (W).
FORMS OF HEAT
▪ Sensible heat
– Is that which causes a change in temperature when it is
added or removed
▪ Latent heat
– Is that which causes a change of state in the substance,
from solid to liquid to gas or vapor, while the
temperature remains constant when it is added or
removed
Note : The amount of heat that must be added to or removed from a unit
mass of substance in order to change its temperature by one degree is
known as the specific heat of that substance.
▪ Enthalpy
– the sum of the sensible and latent heat of a substance.
For example, the air in our ambient environment is
actually a mixture of air and water vapor. If the total
heat content or enthalpy of air is known, and the
enthalpy of the desired comfort condition is also
known, the difference between them is the enthalpy or
heat that must be added (by heating and
humidification) or removed (by cooling and
dehumidification).
THERMAL COMFORT
DEFINITION of THERMAL COMFORT
▪ A feeling of well-being
▪ Simply a lack of discomfort, thermally being unconscious of how one
is losing heat to the environment or gaining heat from the
environment
▪ That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment that is influenced by physical and physiological factors.
▪ Thermal comfort is calculated as a heat transfer energy balance.
– Heat transfer through radiation, convection, and conduction are balanced
against the occupant’s metabolic rate.
– If the heat leaving the occupant is greater than the heat entering the occupant,
the thermal perception is “cold.”
– If the heat entering the occupant is greater than the heat leaving the occupant,
the thermal perception is “warm” or “hot.”
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
▪ AIR TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the air that a
person is in contact with, measured by the dry bulb
temperature (DBT).
▪ AIR VELOCITY. The velocity of the air that a person is
in contact with (measured in fpm or mps). The faster the
air is moving, the greater the exchange of heat between
the person and the air (for example, draughts generally
make us feel colder).
▪ RADIANT TEMPERATURE. The temperature of a
person’s surroundings (including surfaces, heat
generating equipment, the sun and the sky). This is
generally expressed as Mean Radiant Temperature - a
weighted average of the temperature of the surfaces
surrounding a person, which can be approximated by
globe thermometer - and any strong mono-directional
radiation such as radiation from the sun.
▪ RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH). The ratio between the
actual amount of water vapor in the air and the
maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold at
that air temperature, expressed as a percentage. The
higher the relative humidity, the more difficult it is to lose
heat through the evaporation of sweat. Controlling
humidity is also an important function of active HVAC
systems. There is a lot of latent heat in water, and de-
humidifying the air requires cooling that water – which
can require a lot of cooling energy.
PERSONAL FACTORS
.
▪ CLOTHING INSULATION. Clothes insulate a person
from exchanging heat with the surrounding air and
surfaces as well as affecting the loss of heat through the
evaporation of sweat. Clothing can be directly controlled
by a person - they can take off or put on a jacket -
whereas environmental factors may be beyond their
control.
▪ METABOLIC HEAT. The heat we produce through
physical activity. A stationary person will tend to feel
cooler than a person that is exercising.
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR FOR THERMAL
COMFORT RESPONSE
SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TO AIR MOTION
Air Velocity Occupant Reaction
f/m m/s
0 to 10 0 to 0.05 Complaints about stagnation
Generally favorable (air outlet devices normally

10 to 50 0.05 to 0.25
designed for 50 fpm in the occupied zone)
Awareness of air motion, but may be
50 to 100 0.25 to 0.51 comfortable, depending on moving air
temperature and air conditions
Constant awareness of air motion, but can be
acceptable (e.g., in some factories) if air supply
100 to 200 0.51 to 1.02
is intermittent and if moving air temperature
and room conditions are acceptable
200 (about 2mph) Complaints about blowing of papers and hair,
1.02 and above
and above and other annoyances
PROPOSED NORMS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS PROPOSED NORMS
Air temperature 21 °C
Average radiant temperature ≥ 21 °C
Relative humidity 30–70%
Speed of air flow 0.05–0.1 meter/second
Temperature gradient (from head to foot) ≤ 2.5 °C

Generally, the corrections that should be carried out are the
following:
The air temperature should be increased:
▪ if the speed of the air flow is high
▪ for sedentary work situations
▪ if clothing used is light
▪ when people must be acclimatized to high indoor
temperatures.
The air temperature should be decreased:
▪ if the speed of the air flow is low
▪ if the work involves heavy manual labour
▪ when warm clothing is used.
LOCAL THERMAL DISCOMFORT
▪ Even though a person has a sensation of thermal neutrality, parts of
the body may be exposed to conditions that result in thermal
discomfort.
▪ This local thermal discomfort can not be removed by raising or
lowering the temperature of the enclosure.
▪ It is necessary to remove the cause of the localized over-heating or
cooling.
▪ Generally, local thermal discomfort can be grouped under one of four
headings.
Local convective cooling of the body Cooling or heating of parts of the
caused by draught body by radiation
Cold feet and a warm head at the Hot or cold feet, caused by uncomfortable
same time, caused by large vertical air floor temperature
temperature differences
Remember, only when both the local and
general thermal comfort parameters have
been investigated, can the quality of the
thermal environment be judged.
DRAUGHT
▪ Draughts are the most common complaint when talking about indoor
climate in air-conditioned buildings, vehicles and airplanes. It is about
unwanted local cooling of the body.
▪ People are most sensitive to draught in the unclothed parts of the
body (face, hands and lower legs).
▪ The amount of heat loss from the skin caused by draughts is
dependent on the average air velocity, as well as the turbulence in
the airflow and the temperature of the air.
▪ The degree of discomfort felt is not only dependent on the local heat
loss, but on the fluctuation of the skin temperature as well.
▪ A high turbulent air-flow is more annoying than a low turbulent
airflow, even though they result in the same heat loss.
▪ The many steep drops in the skin temperature caused by the
fluctuation initiate excessive discomfort signals to be sent from the
cold sensors.
ASYMMETRY OF THERMAL RADIATION
▪ If a person stands in front of a blazing bonfire on a cold day, his back
will begin to feel uncomfortably cold after a period of time.
▪ This discomfort can not be remedied by moving closer to the fire,
resulting in an increased body temperature. This is an example of
how non-uniform thermal radiation can result in the body feeling
uncomfortable.
▪ Experiments exposing people to changing degrees of radiant
temperature asymmetry have proved that warm ceilings and cold
windows cause the greatest discomfort, while cold ceilings and warm
walls cause the least discomfort. During these experiments, all the
other surfaces in the room and the air were kept at an equal
temperature.
VERTICAL AIR TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE
▪ Generally, it is unpleasant to be warm around the head while at the
same time being cold around the feet, regardless of this being
caused by radiation or convection.
▪ A 3°C air temperature difference between head and feet is a
dissatisfaction level. The 3°C have been chosen as the acceptance
level for a sitting person at sedentary activity.
▪ The Vertical Air Temperature difference is expressed as the
difference between the Air Temperature at ankle level and the Air
Temperature at neck level.
FLOOR TEMPERATURE
▪ Due to the direct contact between feet and floor, local discomfort of
the feet can often be caused by too high or too low a floor
temperature. To talk about thermal discomfort caused by the floor
temperature is incorrect.
– It is the heat loss from the feet that causes the discomfort. The
heat loss depends on parameters other than the floor
temperature, such as the conductivity and the heat capacity of
the material the floor is made from and the type of covering worn
on the feet.
– It is the difference in conductivity and heat capacity that makes
cork floors feel warm to the touch while marble floors feel cold.
▪ If people wear "normal indoor footwear" the floor material is less
significant.
– This leads to acceptable Floor Temperatures ranging from 19°C
to 29°C.
▪ Different recommendations are valid for floors occupied by people
with bare feet. In a bathroom the optimal temperature is 29°C for a
marble floor and 26°C for hard linoleum on wood.
CLOTHING
▪ Clothing reduces the body’s heat loss. Therefore, clothing is
classified according to its insulation value, and is an
important modifier of body heat loss and comfort..
▪ The unit normally used for measuring clothing’s insulation is
the Clo unit, but the more technical unit m2°C/W is also
seen frequently (1 Clo = 0.155 m2°C/W or 0.88 ft2hr°F/Btu).
▪ The Clo scale is designed so that a naked person has a Clo
value of 0.0 and someone wearing a typical business suit
has a Clo value of 1.0.
▪ The Clo value can be calculated if the person’s dress and
the Clo values for the individual garments are known, by
simply adding the Clo values together and multiplying the
sum by 0.82.
Clo VALUES FOR INDIVIDUAL ITEMS OF CLOTHING
THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
People in urban settings
spend between 80-90% of
their time in indoor spaces
while carrying out
sedentary activities, both
during work and during
leisure time.
▪ This fact led to the creation within these indoor spaces of
environments that were more comfortable and
homogeneous than those found outdoors with their
changing climatic conditions.
▪ To make this possible, the air within these spaces had to be
conditioned, being warmed during the cold season and
cooled during the hot season.
▪ For air conditioning to be efficient and cost-effective it was
necessary to control the air coming into the buildings from
the outside, which could not be expected to have the
desired thermal characteristics.
▪ The result was increasingly airtight buildings and more
stringent control of the amount of ambient air that was used
to renew stagnant indoor air.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING
ENVELOPE COMPONENTS
CONDUCTIVITY
▪ A characteristic rate at which heat will flow through each
material (Btu/hr that flow through 1sf of the material that
is 1-inch thick when the temperature difference across
that material is 1oF)
CONDUCTANCE
▪ For materials that come in various standard thicknesses,
it is useful to know that rate of heat flow for that
standard thickness instead of the rate per inch.
▪ Used to describe heat flow through defined
sizes/thicknesses of modular units of non-homogenous
materials
▪ Refers to thermal heat transfer of specific material of
specific thickness
RESISTANCE
▪ Indicates how effective any material is as an insulator;
reciprocal of conductivity
▪ Measured in hours needed for 1Btu to flow through 1sf
of a given thickness of a material when the temperature
difference across that material is 1oF
EMITTANCE
▪ Ratio of radiation emitted by a
given material to that emitted
by a blackbody at the same
temperature
▪ The lower the emittance, the
lower the radiative heat
exchange; related to
absorptance, a highly
absorptive material usually
have a high emittance as well
▪ Shiny materials are much less
able to radiate than common
rough materials
THERMAL CLASSIFICATION OF
MATERIALS
▪ Insulators – retard the heat flow; useful for thermal
barriers
▪ Conductors – encourage heat flow; dense, durable
and diffuse heat readily; useful for thermal storage
materials
CATEGORIES OF INSULATION
MATERIALS
▪ Inorganic
– Fibrous or cellular products (glass, rock, wool, perlite,
sag wool, vermiculite)
▪ Organic
– Renewable materials (plant/animal derived) Cellulose.
Cork. Woodfibre. Hemp fibre. Flax wool. Sheeps wool.
– Fibrous or cellular products (cotton, synthetic fibers,
cork, foamed rubber, polysterene)
▪ Metallic or metalized organic reflective
membranes
– Must face an air space to be effective
– Available in sheets or rolls of either single or multiple
layers, sometimes pre-formed shapes with integral air
spaces
INFILTRATION ISSUES
▪ Infiltration is when air enters or leaves the building as a
result of unintentional gaps in the building envelope, and/or
between the insulation and the framing of a building.
▪ This allows outside air to bypass the insulation and
convectively cool or heat interior spaces. Infiltration can be
an enormous problem. One reason it impacts energy use
so much is that moisture within humid air causes occupant
discomfort and removing it is very energy intensive (latent
heat).
▪ Buildings in cold climates are more sensitive to infiltration of
outside air.
▪ Buildings in moderate climates and/or with high internal
loads are less sensitive to infiltration, and can even benefit
from reduced cooling energy use due to the natural
ventilation qualities of infiltration.
▪ Buildings in very hot climates are only moderately sensitive
to infiltration due to the lower temperature differential
between outside and inside.
▪ Commercial building air handling systems are generally
designed for positive pressure, meaning infiltration is
reduced when the system is operating.
Module 1 Lecture 2a
PRINCIPLES OF
▪ Refrigeration refers to processes that take thermal energy
▪ Air conditioning is a type of refrigeration where
inside them.
reach.. Air conditioners reduce humidity in rooms, because the
water vapor in the room can condense around the colder parts of
the air conditioner. The condensed water can then be drained off.
▪ AIR CONDITIONING UNITS DON’T CREATE
COOL AIR.
▪ What they actually do is remove heat out of a given
space.
▪ In summary, refrigeration systems are used to
another location, thus cooling that designated
space off and reversing the natural flow of heat
with the application of energy.
▪ How this happens, however, varies among the four
SYSTEMS
VAPOR COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE


through a sealed circuit of pipes or tubing. The fluid absorbs heat in the
space to be cooled, carries it away and dumps it outside of the space.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
▪ The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a

reduced volume.
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
▪ This compression raises the refrigerant’s temperature and pressure and pushes it into
▪ The heat being dumped out was originally absorbed by the refrigerant in the air
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
▪ The next stop is a thermal expansion valve or just a tube of a small diameter, either of
which chokes the refrigerant flow. The liquid refrigerant passes through the valve into
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
▪ Here, its pressure drops rapidly, and the refrigerant begins boiling at a temperature
COMPRESSOR
pressure vapor.
CONDENSER
the evaporator.



▪ The mechanical refrigeration cycle breaks down into
heat exchangers.
CYCLE
▪ The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises all
▪ In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is
ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The refrigerant in the
absorption cycle flows through a condenser, expansion valve,
and an evaporator. The compressor is replaced with a
generator and an absorber.
▪ Simple Absorption System and How it Works?
cooled type.
evaporator.
Lower temp
refrigerant
Low pressure
Low temp
refrigerant
The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of the weak solution of the
refrigerant (ammonia in this case) and absorbent (water in this case).

absorber.

▪ Unlike the mechanical-compression and absorption
refrigeration systems previously discussed, evaporative
cooling does not use the traditional refrigeration cycle.
Instead, these units cool warmer outdoor air by blowing it over
water-soaked pads as it enters the home.
▪ The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The
it.
higher thermal conductivity compared to air. The heat exchange
coefficient for liquid such as water is many times higher than for air,
resulting in the possibility for compact and energy efficient cooling
system configurations.
▪ Evaporative cooling systems depend on an internally or
externally powered air circulation delivery/carrier systems (i.e.
fan) to draw air towards and blow air flow over the cooling
media (i.e. evaporative pad). Air must move into contact with
the liquid to affect the cooling process.
▪ Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,
install and more energy-efficient at times, than a conventional
compressor-type air conditioning units, in more optimal
conditions and environmental scenarios.
▪ The designs vary either through increased interior volume
capacity (i.e. larger containers), numerous intake fan options
(i.e. multiple fan orientations, various power and energy
consumption classes of fans), many intake opening,
placement and pattern variations and different materially
manufactured evaporative pads (natural and synthetic), but
ultimately all function under the same simple operating
principle of: water drips on vertical pad via pump mounted
in a reservoir; an air circulation system that both draws
the cooler system.
▪ Probably because evaporative coolers add moisture to the air
and blow it around, they are sometimes knows as "swamp
coolers."
▪ Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the
a thermocouple.
▪ A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires
other cool.
▪ Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of
▪ This type of refrigeration is generally used for small
electronic systems.
SYSTEM LOADS
INTRODUCTION
▪ The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning—
climate, thereby providing health and comfortable interior
conditions for occupants in a well-designed, energy-
efficient, and low emissions manner.
▪ The objective of HVAC are: to control the temperature of
air inside the designated “Air Conditioned" space along
with control of moisture, filtration of air and containment of
air borne particles, supply of outside fresh air for control
of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the air conditioned
space, and finally control of the movement of air or
draught.
▪ All these factors comprise of a successful HVAC system.
Air conditioning has changed over the years from just
cooling of a space to the effective control of all the above
parameters.
▪ The term "H" in HVAC stands for heating that comprises
of any number of heating systems from gas furnaces,
electric furnaces, oil furnaces, oil and gas boilers, radiant
heating systems, and heat pumps.
▪ The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating
the facility using ductwork or ventilating a kitchen using
ductwork and fans with a hood. It can also refer to
combustion air or the air needed to have combustion for
various heating systems.
▪ The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of
PROCESSES OF HVAC
▪ Heating: To increase the temperature by adding thermal energy to a
space.
▪ Cooling: To decrease the temperature by removing thermal energy
from a space.
▪ Humidifying: The process of increasing the relative humidity of a
▪ Dehumidifying: The process of removing the water vapor or
▪ Cleaning: The process of removing dust, pollens, smoke and
▪ Ventilating: The process of adding external air to freshen up the air
▪ Air movement: To control the movement of the supplied air so that
HVAC SYSTEMS
UNITS AND RATINGS
1. Cooling Capacity
Humidity.
– The cooling capacity can be expressed in many units as follows:
3412 Btu)
b. Ton of cooling
of Refrigeration" A ton of Refrigeration represents the heat energy
12,000Btu/hr
▪ A refrigerating or air conditioning mechanism capable of absorbing heat can be rated in tons
288,000).
T = HA / 288,000
Where:
go higher than 4.
be higher.
5. Energy Star
hence reducing your
BUILDING UTILITIES 2 MODULE 1 LECTURE 1
THERMAL COMFORT
OBJECTIVES OF A BUILDING
- To create shelter from the climate
- To facilitate human activities within the building
- To enhance thermal comfort.
INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG
- Man - adaptive behavior
- Building - determined by envelope
- Climate - what we expect
During the facility design and development process, projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
- Facilitate Indoor Environmental Quality through good

design, construction, commissioning, and operating and
maintenance practices
- Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views
and the integration of natural and man-made elements
- Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of
personal control over temperature and airflow;
- Supply adequate levels and quality of ventilation and
outside air for acceptable indoor air quality
- Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi, as well as
radon gas, through building envelope design that properly
manages moisture sources from outside and inside the
building, and with heating, ventilating, air-conditioning
(HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling
indoor humidity
- Use materials that do not emit pollutants or are low-emitting
- Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing
material and equipment isolation
- Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and removal, and by
careful selection of cleaning products. Pursue energy efficient strategies to
remove harmful odors while recovering the energy used in conditioning the
interior environment
- Create a high-performance luminous environment through the careful
integration of natural and artificial light sources
- Provide quality water.
THE HUMAN BODY
- Thermal and atmospheric conditions in an enclosed space are usually

controlled to ensure:
1) the health and comfort of the occupants or,
2) the proper functioning of sensitive electronic equipment, such as
computers, or certain manufacturing processes that have a limited range
of temperature and humidity tolerance.
- The physiological characteristics of the human body allow it to withstand
great variations in thermal conditions.
- Man has a very effective temperature regulatory system - which ensures
that the body’s core temperature is kept at approximately 37°C
- The two most important set of sensors for the control system are however
known.
- The hypothalamus-sensor is a heat sensor which starts the body’s cooling
function when the body’s core temperature exceeds 37°C.
- The skin-sensors are cold sensors which start the body’s defense against
cooling down when the skin temperature falls below 34°C.
- Signals from these two sensor systems form the basis for evaluation of the
thermal environment.
- It takes some time to change the body’s core temperature
- If the hot and cold sensors output signals at the same time, our brain will
inhibit one or both of the body’s defense reactions.
METABOLISM
- The human body is a heat generator.
- People oxidize the food taken into the body, converting it into
electrochemical energy.
- The rate at which we generate heat (our metabolic rate) depends mostly
upon our level of muscular activity
- As with all conversions from one form of energy to another, there is a
certain conversion efficiency.
- This results in the continuous generation of heat within the body, which
must be rejected by means of sensible heat flow
- If more food energy is ingested than is needed, it is stored as fat tissue for
later use.
- MET is a unit of measurement of body heat production, in which one (1)
MET is equal to 18.4 Btu/h/ft2 or 58.2 W/m2, the energy produced by a
sedentary person
- Under these conditions, the total heat produced by an average adult - with
a body surface area of 19.6 ft2 or 1.8 m2 - is about 360 Btu/h (106 W).
- To maintain thermal comfort:
- The actual combination of skin temperature and the body’ s core
temperature should provide a sensation of thermal neutrality.
- The fulfilment of the body’ s energy balance: the heat produced by the
metabolism should be equal to the amount of heat lost from the body.
METABOLIC RATE AT DIFFERENT TYPICAL ACTIVITIES
HEAT BALANCE EQUATION
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE HEAT BALANCE EQUATION

HEAT FLOW PROCESS
CONDUCTION
- Heat is transferred directly from molecule to molecule within or between
materials
- Conductive heat transfer occurs through a solid material anytime there is a
difference in temperature between the two sides of the material
- – The thicker the material, the slower it will conduct heat
CONVECTION
- Heat is exchanged between a fluid (typically air) and a solid, with the motion of a
fluid playing a critical role in the extent of heat transfer
- In short, convective heat transfer in buildings is caused by air movement
RADIATION
- Heat flows via electromagnetic waves from hotter surfaces to detached colder
ones - across empty space and potentially great distances
- When such a wave strikes a barrier, part of it reflected, part of it is absorbed, and
sometimes part of it is transmitted
- Occurs between bodies that exist in line-of-sight
- Radiant heat cannot go around corners
EVAPORATION
- A one-way thermal process involving heat loss only, or exclusively a cooling
mechanism
- Liquid is used to facilitate removal of heat (in the case of human body, sweat
glands)
- A liquid can evaporate only by removing large quantities of heat from the surface
it is leaving
REMEMBER
- As air and surface temperatures approach our own body temperature, we lose
the options of convection, conduction, and radiation. Evaporation becomes
essential, so access to dry, moving air is greatly appreciated.
- As air and surface temperatures fall, evaporation decreases while convection,
conduction, and particularly radiation increase.
HEAT
- Heat is a form of energy that flows from a point at one temperature to

another point at a lower temperature.
- The common measure of quantity of heat energy in the English system of
units is the British thermal unit (Btu).
- It is that heat energy required to raise 1 pound of water to 1o Fahrenheit.
- The rate of flow of heat in these units is expressed in Btu per hour (Btuh).
FORMS OF HEAT
- Sensible heat
- Is that which causes a change in temperature when it is added or
removed
- Latent heat
- Is that which causes a change of state in the substance, from solid
to liquid to gas or vapor, while the temperature remains constant
when it is added or removed
Note : The amount of heat that must be added to or removed from a unit mass of
substance in order to change its temperature by one degree is known as the specific
heat of that substance.
Enthalpy
- the sum of the sensible and latent heat of a substance.
For example, the air in our ambient environment is actually a mixture of air and water
vapor. If the total heat content or enthalpy of air is known, and the enthalpy of the
desired comfort condition is also known, the difference between them is the enthalpy or
heat that must be added (by heating and humidification) or removed (by cooling and
dehumidification).
THERMAL COMFORT
- A feeling of well-being
- Simply a lack of discomfort, thermally being unconscious of how one is losing
heat to the environment or gaining heat from the environment
- That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment that is influenced by physical and physiological factors.
- Thermal comfort is calculated as a heat transfer energy balance.
- Heat transfer through radiation, convection, and conduction are balanced
against the occupant’s metabolic rate.
- If the heat leaving the occupant is greater than the heat entering the
occupant, the thermal perception is ³cold.´
- If the heat entering the occupant is greater than the heat leaving the
occupant, the thermal perception is “warm” or “hot”.
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS
- AIR TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the air that a person is in contact with,
measured by the dry bulb temperature (DBT).
- AIR VELOCITY. The velocity of the air that a person is in contact with (measured
in fpm or mps). The faster the air is moving, the greater the exchange of heat
between the person and the air (for example, draughts generally make us feel
colder).
- RADIANT TEMPERATURE. The temperature of a person’s surroundings
(including surfaces, heat generating equipment, the sun and the sky). This is
generally expressed as Mean Radiant Temperature - a weighted average of the
temperature of the surfaces surrounding a person, which can be approximated
by globe thermometer - and any strong mono-directional radiation such as
radiation from the sun
- RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH). The ratio between the actual amount of water vapor
in the air and the maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold at that air
temperature, expressed as a percentage. The higher the relative humidity, the
more difficult it is to lose heat through the evaporation of sweat. Controlling
humidity is also an important function of active HVAC systems. There is a lot of
latent heat in water, and dehumidifying the air requires cooling that water - which
can require a lot of cooling energy.
PERSONAL FACTORS
- CLOTHING INSULATION. Clothes insulate a person from exchanging heat with

the surrounding air and surfaces as well as affecting the loss of heat through the
evaporation of sweat. Clothing can be directly controlled by a person - they can
take off or put on a jacket - whereas environmental factors may be beyond their
control.
- METABOLIC HEAT. The heat we produce through physical activity. A stationary
person will tend to feel cooler than a person that is exercising.
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR FOR THERMAL COMFORT RESPONSE
SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TO AIR MOTION
AIR VELOCITY OCCUPANT REACTION

PROPOSED NORMS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS PROPOSED NORMS
Generally, the corrections that should be carried out are the

following:
The air temperature should be increased:
- if the speed of the air flow is high
- for sedentary work situations
- if clothing used is light
- when people must be acclimatized to high indoor Temperatures.
The air temperature should be decreased:
- if the speed of the air flow is low
- if the work involves heavy manual labour
- when warm clothing is used.
GUIDELINE ROOM AIR TEMPERATURE
LOCAL THERMAL DISCOMFORT

● Even though a person has a sensation of thermal neutrality, parts of the body
may be exposed to conditions that result in thermal discomfort.
● This local thermal discomfort can not be removed by raising or lowering the
temperature of the enclosure.
● It is necessary to remove the cause of the localized over-heating or cooling.
● Generally, local thermal discomfort can be grouped under one of four Headings.
Remember, only when both the local and general thermal comfort parameters
have been investigated, can the quality of the thermal environment be judged.
DRAUGHT
● Draughts are the most common complaint when talking about indoor
climate in air-conditioned buildings, vehicles and airplanes. It is
about unwanted local cooling of the body.
● People are most sensitive to draught in the unclothed parts of the body
(face, hands and lower legs).
● The amount of heat loss from the skin caused by draughts is
dependent on the average air velocity, as well as the turbulence in
the airflow and the temperature of the air.
● The degree of discomfort felt is not only dependent on the local heat loss,
but on the fluctuation of the skin temperature as well.
● A high turbulent air-flow is more annoying than a low turbulent
airflow, even though they result in the same heat loss.
● The many steep drops in the skin temperature caused by the fluctuation
initiate excessive discomfort signals to be sent from the cold sensors.
ASYMMETRY OF THERMAL RADIATION
- If a person stands in front of a blazing bonfire on a cold day, his back will
begin to feel uncomfortably cold after a period of time.
- This discomfort can not be remedied by moving closer to the fire, resulting
in an increased body temperature. This is an example of how non-uniform
thermal radiation can result in the body feeling uncomfortable.
- Experiments exposing people to changing degrees of radiant temperature
asymmetry have proved that warm ceilings and cold windows cause the
greatest discomfort, while cold ceilings and warm walls cause the least
discomfort. During these experiments, all the other surfaces in the room and the
air were kept at an equal Temperature.
VERTICAL AIR TEMPERATURE
- Generally, it is unpleasant to be warm around the head while at the same time
being cold around the feet, regardless of this being caused by radiation or
convection.
- A 3°C air temperature difference between head and feet is a dissatisfaction level.
The 3°C have been chosen as the acceptance level for a sitting person at
sedentary activity.
- The Vertical Air Temperature difference is expressed as the difference between
the Air Temperature at ankle level and the Air Temperature at neck level.
FLOOR TEMPERATURE
- Due to the direct contact between feet and floor, local discomfort of the feet
can often be caused by too high or too low a floor temperature. To talk
about thermal discomfort caused by the floor temperature is incorrect.
- It is the heat loss from the feet that causes the discomfort. The heat loss
depends on parameters other than the floor temperature, such as the
conductivity and the heat capacity of the material the floor is made from
and the type of covering worn on the feet.
- It is the difference in conductivity and heat capacity that makes cork floors
feel warm to the touch while marble floors feel cold. If people wear "normal
indoor footwear" the floor material is less significant.
- This leads to acceptable Floor Temperatures ranging from 19°C to 29°C.
- Different recommendations are valid for floors occupied by people with
bare feet. In a bathroom the optimal temperature is 29°C for a marble floor
and 26°C for hard linoleum on wood.
Remember, only when both the local and general thermal comfort parameters
have been investigated, can the quality of the thermal environment be judged.
CLOTHING
- Clothing reduces the body’s heat loss. Therefore, clothing is classified

according to its insulation value, and is an important modifier of body heat
loss and comfort..
- The Unit normally used for measuring clothing’s insulation is the Clo unit,
but the more technical unit m2°C/W is also seen frequently (1 Clo = 0.155
m2°C/W or 0.88 ft2hr°F/Btu).
- The Clo scale is designed so that a naked person has a Clo value of 0.0
and someone wearing a typical business suit has a Clo value of 1.0.
- The Clo value can be calculated if the person’s dress and the Clo values
for the individual garments are known, by simply adding the Clo values
together and multiplying the sum by 0.82
Clo VALUES FOR INDIVIDUAL ITEMS OF CLOTHING
THE BUILDING ENVELOPE

People in urban settings spend between 80-90% of their time in indoor spaces while
carrying out sedentary activities, both during work and during leisure time.
- This fact led to the creation within these indoor spaces of environments that were
more comfortable and homogeneous than those found outdoors with their
changing climatic conditions.
- To make this possible, the air within these spaces had to be conditioned, being
warmed during the cold season and cooled during the hot season.
- For air conditioning to be efficient and cost-effective it was necessary to control
the air coming into the buildings from the outside, which could not be expected to
have the desired thermal characteristics.
- The result was increasingly airtight buildings and more stringent control of the
amount of ambient air that was used to renew stagnant indoor air.
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF BUILDING ENVELOPE COMPONENTS
CONDUCTIVITY
- A characteristic rate at which heat will flow through each material (Btu/hr that flow
through 1sf of the material that is 1-inch thick when the temperature difference
across that material is 1o F)
CONDUCTANCE
- For materials that come in various standard thicknesses, it is useful to know that
rate of heat flow for that standard thickness instead of the rate per inch.
- Used to describe heat flow through defined sizes/thicknesses of modular units of
non-homogenous materials
- Refers to thermal heat transfer of specific material of specific thickness
RESISTANCE
- Indicates how effective any material is as an insulator; reciprocal of conductivity
- Measured in hours needed for 1Btu to flow through 1sf of a given thickness of a
material when the temperature difference across that material is 1o F
EMITTANCE
- Ratio of radiation emitted by a given material to that emitted by a blackbody at
the same temperature
- The lower the emittance, the lower the radiative heat exchange; related to
absorptance, a highly absorptive material usually have a high emittance as well
- Shiny materials are much less able to radiate than common rough materials
THERMAL CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
- Insulators - retard the heat flow; useful for thermal barriers

- Conductors - encourage heat flow; dense, durable and diffuse heat readily;
useful for thermal storage materials
CATEGORIES OF INSULATION MATERIALS

INORGANIC
- Fibrous or cellular products (glass, rock, wool, perlite, sag wool,
vermiculite)
ORGANIC
- Renewable materials (plant/animal derived) Cellulose. Cork. Woodfibre.
Hemp fibre. Flax wool. Sheeps wool.
- Fibrous or cellular products (cotton, synthetic fibers, cork, foamed rubber,
polysterene)
METALLIC OR METALIZED ORGANIC REFLECTIVE MEMBRANES

- Must face an air space to be effective
- Available in sheets or rolls of either single or multiple layers, sometimes
pre-formed shapes with integral air spaces
INFILTRATION ISSUES
- Infiltration is when air enters or leaves the building as a result of
unintentional gaps in the building envelope, and/or between the insulation
and the framing of a building.
- This allows outside air to bypass the insulation and convectively cool or
heat interior spaces. Infiltration can be an enormous problem. One reason it
impacts energy use so much is that moisture within humid air causes occupant
discomfort and removing it is very energy intensive (latent heat)
- Buildings in cold climates are more sensitive to infiltration of outside air
- Buildings in moderate climates and/or with high internal loads are less
sensitive to infiltration, and can even benefit from reduced cooling energy
use due to the natural ventilation qualities of infiltration.
- Buildings in very hot climates are only moderately sensitive to infiltration
due to the lower temperature differential between outside and inside.
- Commercial building air handling systems are generally designed for
positive pressure, meaning infiltration is reduced when the system is
operating.
PRINCIPLES OF AIR-CONDITIONING
- The goal is to keep it more comfortable inside the house than it is outside.
Air conditioning is a part of refrigeration where thermal energy (heat) is taken away
from the air in a large space such as a room or a vehicle.
- Air conditioners are fitted into rooms so that they cool the air inside them
- Modern age air conditioners are not only concerned with maintaining the
temperature of the air; they also help to regulate humidity, filter the air and
keep toxic gases out of human reach.
Refrigeration refers to processes that take thermal energy (heat) away from a place
and gives off that energy to a place with a higher temperature.
- Naturally, heat flows from a place with a higher temperature to a place with a
lower temperature.
- Therefore, refrigeration runs against the natural heat flow and so it requires an
additional work to be done.
AIR CONDITIONING UNITS DON’T CREATE COOL AIR.
- What they actually do is remove heat out of a given space.

- In summary, refrigeration systems are used to remove heat from one space and
transfer it to another location.
- How this happens, however, varies among the four different types of refrigeration
systems.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION
TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Mechanical compression is one method for removing heat from where it is not
wanted and releasing it elsewhere.
The vast majority of domestic air conditioners utilize the mechanical compression
refrigeration cycle to produce a cooling effect.
A working fluid, called refrigerant, is used to absorb and expel heat. The most
common include ammonia, Freon (and other chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants, aka
CFCs), and HFC-134a (a non-toxic hydrofluorocarbon).
COMPRESSOR Compresses refrigerant into a high-temperature,
highpressure vapor.
The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a compressor, a combination

electric motor and pump. In the compressor, a low pressure, gaseous refrigerant is
squeezed down to a greatly reduced volume.
This compression raises the refrigerant’s temperature and pressure and pushes it
into the next component, the condenser. The condenser is merely a coil of tubing over
which air can flow. In the condenser, the high pressure/high temperature gas releases
its heat and becomes a liquid.
The heat being dumped out was originally absorbed by the refrigerant in the air
The next stop is a thermal expansion valve or just a tube of a small diameter,
which chokes the refrigerant flow. The liquid refrigerant passes through the valve into
Here, its pressure drops rapidly, and the refrigerant begins boiling at a
temperature approximately -18oCelsius. This low-temperature boiling is actually the
absorption of heat by the refrigerant. The heat-laden, gaseous refrigerant flows back
into the compressor, and the cycle repeats until the thermostat is satisfied.
COMPRESSOR Compresses refrigerant into a high-temperature, high pressure

vapor.
EVAPORATOR The expanding refrigerant evaporates as it goes through the

evaporator, where it removes the heat from the space in which the evaporator is located
METERING DEVICE A device to control the flow of refrigerant into the

evaporator, or cooling coil, as a low-pressure, low-temperature refrigerant. (START OF
CYCLE)
EXPANSION VALVE Regulates the flow of the refrigerant. It decreases the

pressure, causing the refrigerant to change back into liquid and cool down.
CONDENSER Gives up the heat that the compressor picked up from the
evaporator.
The mechanical refrigeration cycle breaks down into four phases: compression,
condensation, metering and evaporation. Heat flows into the evaporator and out of the
condenser, making both coils types of heat exchangers.
VAPOR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
- The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises all the processes in the
vapor compression refrigeration system like compression, condensation,
expansion and evaporation.
- In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or lithium
bromide. The compressor is replaced with a generator and an absorber.
- Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

The absorber is a vessel consisting of the weak solution of the refrigerant (ammonia in
this case) and absorbent (water in this case).
When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by the
absorbent due to which the pressure inside the absorber reduces further, leading to
more flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber
At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by the external
coolant to increase its ammonia absorption capacity. The initial flow of the refrigerant
from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because the vapor pressure of the
refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower than the vapor pressure of the refrigerant
in the evaporator.

- Evaporative cooling does not use the traditional refrigeration cycle. Instead,
these units cool warmer outdoor air by blowing it over water-soaked pads as it
enters the home.
- The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The cooler air is
channeled into the home and the warm air out of it.
- Water has an advantage of high volume heat capacity and much higher
thermal conductivity compared to air.
- Evaporative cooling systems depend on an internally or externally powered fan to

draw air towards and blow air flow over the evaporative pad. Air must move into
contact with the liquid to affect the cooling process.
- Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C, and are best suited
for dry climates. They’re also less costly to install and more energy-efficient at
times.
- The designs vary either through larger containers), multiple fan orientations,
various power and energy consumption classes of fans, many intake opening,
placement and pattern variations and different materially manufactured
- All designs function under the same simple operating principle of: water drips on
vertical pad via pump mounted in a reservoir; an air circulation system that both
draws air through an evaporative pad medium and redirect it out the cooler
system.
- Since evaporative coolers add moisture to the air and blow it around, they are
sometimes known as "swamp coolers."
- Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the three other types of
refrigeration in that no refrigerant or water is used. These systems use an electric
current and a thermocouple.
- A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires that are united at both
ends. Insulation separates the rest of the wires from each other. When the
current is directed on the thermocouple, one end will become hot and the other
cool.
- Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of swapping the cold and hot
junctions.
- The hot end will typically be placed outside of the area to be cooled with a
heat sink attached to it to keep it the same temperature as the surrounding
air
- The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the area to
be cooled, attracting heat out of the air.
- This type of refrigeration is generally used for small cooling loads that can be
difficult to access, such as electronic systems.
HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING (HVAC) SYSTEM LOADS
- The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning— HVAC—is a science and
practice of controlling indoor climate, thereby providing health and comfortable
interior conditions for occupants in a well-designed, energy-efficient, and low
emissions manner.
- The term "H" in HVAC stands for heating that comprises of any number of
heating systems.
- The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating the facility using
ductwork. It can also refer to combustion air.
- The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of 3 main methods –
mechanical compression, vapor absorption and evaporative cooling. Air
conditioners (direct expansion – DX systems) and chillers usually accomplish the
job of air conditioning.
- The objectives of HVAC are:
- To control the temperature of air inside the designated “Air Conditioned"
space
- To control air moisture
- To filter air and contain air borne particles
- To supply outside fresh air for control of oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels in the air conditioned space, and finally
- To control movement of air or draught.
- All these factors comprise a successful HVAC system.
PROCESSES OF HVAC
- Heating: To increase the temperature by adding thermal energy to a space.

- Cooling: To decrease the temperature by removing thermal energy from a
space.
- Humidifying: The process of increasing the relative humidity of a space by
addition of water vapor or steam.
- Dehumidifying: The process of removing the water vapor or humidity of a
space.
- Cleaning: The process of removing dust, pollens, smoke and contaminants from
air inside the space.
- Ventilating: The process of adding external air to freshen up the air and
maintaining gas ratio.
- Air movement: To control the movement of the supplied air so that the
inhabitants of the space do not feel discomfort.
HVAC SYSTEMS UNITS AND RATINGS

1. Cooling Capacity
- Defined as the heat load in a room that has to be removed in order to
achieve a certain room temperature and humidity. The typical design is set
to 24°C temperature and 55% Relative Humidity.
- The amount of cooling needed by the space will be used to determine the
capacity of the air conditioner needed.
- It is a rate of heating or cooling expressed in terms of Btu
per hour. (1kW = 3412 Btu)
- 1 BTU/hr is the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of
water by 1o F
b. Ton of cooling
- One ton of cooling is the heat extraction rate of 12,000 Btu
per hour.
- Theoretically, it is energy required to melt one ton of ice in 24
hours.
- The cooling capacity of older Refrigeration units is often
indicated in "tons of Refrigeration”. A ton of Refrigeration
represents the heat energy absorbed when a ton (2000lb.) of
ice melts during one 24-hour day.
- The Btu equivalent of one ton of refrigeration is easy to
calculate. Multiply the weight of one ton of ice (2000lb.) by
the latent heat of fusion (melting) of ice (144 Btu/lb). Then
divide by 24hours to obtain Btu/hr.
One ton of Refrigeration effect= 2000 (lb) x 144 (Btu/lb) /24 (hours) = 288,000Btu/24
hours = 12,000Btu/hr
A refrigerating or air conditioning mechanism capable of absorbing heat can be rated in

tons per 24 hours by its heat-absorbing ability (HA) in Btu divided by (24 hr x 12000 Btu
= 288,000).
T = HA / 288,000
Where:

- This coefficient is the ratio of the cooling capacity (W) as the output power (in
form of removed heat load) versus power consumption (W) as the input power.
- The higher the COP, the higher the efficiency of the air conditioner. Usually the
value range from 2-4 but in recent years, the use of inverter compressors have
enabled this coefficient to go higher than 4.

- This rating was established for manufacturers to rate their equipment so that
consumers or consultants can tell the cooling efficiency of the air conditioner by
just looking at the specifications provided
- The rating is obtained by dividing the cooling capacity (Btu/h) with the input
power (Watt).
- The larger the value of EER, the more efficient the air conditioner is. However,
this rating does not give a complete picture of the efficiency of the unit.

- This ratio is more accurate as it takes into consideration non steady state
conditions such as the start-up and shutdown cycles of the air-conditioner
- In choosing the SEER, the choice is always to go for a higher SEER as it is more
efficient equipment. The trade-off in choosing a higher SEER is that usually the
initial cost of the equipment will be higher.
5. Energy Star
- This rating for an equipment shows that the equipment is designed to save
energy hence reducing your electricity bills as well as protecting our environment.
LOCAL HVAC SYSTEMS
HEAT CONVEYORS/MEDIA
- One way to classify HVAC systems is by the media used to convey heat to and/or
from the spaces served by the system.
- Air
- Water
- Refrigerants - gases at normal temperatures and pressures, and must be
compressed and condensed (liquefied) to be of service later as heat
absorbers (examples, CFC, HCFC, ammonia, lithium bromide, etc.)
BASIC HVAC OPTIONS
Local systems
- Require no central equipment to perform their functions
- Components (air circulating fans/refrigerant
compressor/condenser/cooling and heating coils) are contained within one
box
- Normally appropriate for only very small load and/or small building/single
room conditioning (restaurants, telephone exchanges, homes, small halls,
etc.
Decentralized Systems (Individual Room Systems)
The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air
conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
Mini-Split Cooling Units (ductless split units)
Semi- centralized Systems (packaged systems)

- Unitary packaged (one-piece systems)
Water-Cooled Condenser
Air-Cooled Condenser
⎻ Ducted split-type (two-piece systems)
The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities of 3, 5,
7, 10 and 15 tons.
Central systems (Central Hydronic systems)
- Require a full complement of central equipment and spaces for these equipment
- Need a distribution system to convey the heating and/or cooling medium to
remote units
TYPICAL HVAC LAYOUT

GENERATION EQUIPMENT
- Produces the heat (boilers, furnaces and radiant panels) or cooling (chillers and
cooling towers, and air-cooled compressors in packaged equipment).
- Local HVAC systems require no central mechanical equipment.
- Type of generation equipment can limit the choices available to the designer.
- Critical architectural decisions related to HVAC generation equipment are
location, size, and service options of equipment rooms.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
- Method by which cooling and heating energy is "moved" throughout the building
(hot/chilled water piping systems, or ductwork that distributes warm or cool air
around the building).
- critical architectural decisions in distribution system design involve coordination
with all other structure and services to eliminate conflicts and to provide for
effective and efficient distribution of air and water throughout the building.
- critical junctures in a distribution system must be accessible for testing and
balancing.
TERMINAL EQUIPMENT
Include devices that distribute conditioned air to the space (a diffuser is considered a
terminal unit).
- A separate or integral device is used to control the local space temperature
(thermostat).
- In some systems, they are visible (as in the case of window airconditioners or fan
coil units, which act as both the terminal unit and thermostat).
- In other systems, they are concealed above the ceiling (a variable air volume box
acts as the temperature control device, which controls the amount of air
discharged from a number of ceiling diffusers, the terminal units).
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

- In this system, the important components of the air conditioners are enclosed in a
single casing like window AC. Thus, the compressor, cooling coil, air handling
unit and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and assembled at the
factory location.
- Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems, the
packaged air conditioners are divided into two types: ones with water-cooled
condenser and the ones with air-cooled condensers.
- The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities of 3, 5,
7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are used commonly in places like restaurants,
telephone exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH WATER-COOLED CONDENSER

- The condenser, of shell and tube type, is cooled by the water with refrigerant
flowing along the tube side and the cooling water flowing along the shell side.
The water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain
functioning of the air conditioning system.
- The condenser, compact in shape, is enclosed in a single casing along with the
compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit including the cooling coil
or the evaporator. This whole packaged air conditioning unit externally looks like
a box with the control panel located externally.
- In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the compressor is
located at the bottom along with the condenser (see next slide). Above these
components the evaporator or the cooling coil is located.
- The air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower and the air filter is
located above the cooling coil. From the top of the package air conditioners, the
duct comes out that extends to the various rooms that are to be cooled.
Water-cooled air conditioning - schematic system
PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS WITH AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS
- The condenser of the refrigeration system is cooled by the atmospheric air. There
is an outdoor unit that comprises of the important components like the
compressor, condenser and in some cases the expansion valve.
- The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or any other open place where the
free flow of the atmospheric air is available. The fan located inside this unit sucks
the outside air and blows it over the condenser coil cooling it in the process. The
condenser coil is made up of several turns of the copper tubing and it is finned
externally
- The packaged ACs with the air cooled condensers are used more commonly
than the ones with water cooled condensers since air is freely available and it is
difficult to maintain continuous flow of the water.
- The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve, evaporator, the air handling
blower and the filter are located on the floor or hanged to the ceiling. The ducts
coming from the cooling unit are connected to the various rooms that are to be
cooled.
SPLIT-TYPE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
SPLIT PACKAGED UNITS
A split packaged unit consists of two separate pieces of equipment: an indoor air
handler and an outdoor condensing unit. The indoor air handler is often installed in the
fan room. Small air handlers can be ceiling hung. The condensing unit is usually located
outdoors, on a rooftop or podium or on the ground. A split packaged unit has its
compressors and condenser in its outdoor condensing unit, whereas an indoor
packaged unit usually has its compressors indoors. The cooling capacity of split
packaged units varies from 3 to 75.
- The split-type air conditioning system comprises two parts: the outdoor unit and
the indoor unit.
- The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the
compressor, condenser, condenser cooling fan, and the expansion valve.
The compressor is the maximum noise making part of the air conditioner,
and since it is located outside the room, the major source of noise is
eliminated.
- The indoor unit is the unit that produces the cooling effect inside the room
or the office. It comprises the evaporator or cooling coil, air filter, the
cooling fan or blower, the drain pipe, and the louvers or fins.
- After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid enters the
cooling coil. The blower sucks the hot, humid and filtered air from the
room and it blows it over the cooling coil.
- As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces drastically and
also loses the excess moisture. The cool and dry air enters the room and
maintains comfortable conditions of around 18-27o Celsius as per the
requirements.
- For this unit, there is no need for any slot in the wall of the room. Further, present
day split units have aesthetic appeal and do not take up as much space as a
window unit.
- A split air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.
- The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air
conditioning capacities up to 5 tons.
CENTRALIZED HVAC SYSTEMS
CENTRALIZED AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

- Central air conditioning systems are used for applications like big hotels, large
buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc., where very high cooling loads are
required. They are completely silent and highly effective air conditioning systems.
- In the central air conditioning systems, a plant room houses the compressor,
condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the evaporator. These parts are
larger in size and have higher capacities.
- Chilled air is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other spaces to be
air-conditioned and there are no individual cooling coils, and other parts of the
refrigeration system in the rooms.
- The amount of chilled air that is needed in the room can be controlled by the
openings depending on the total heat load inside the room.
HVAC SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
Primary equipment includes

- Heating equipment such as steam boilers and hot water boilers to heat buildings
or spaces,
- Air delivery equipment as packaged equipment to deliver conditioned ventilation
air by using centrifugal fans, axial fans, and plug or plenum fans, and
- Refrigeration equipment that delivers cooled or conditioned air into space. It
includes cooling coils based on water from water chillers or refrigerants from a
refrigeration process.
Space requirement
- is essential in shaping an HVAC system to be central or local. It requires five
facilities as the following:
- Equipment rooms require between 4 and 9% of the gross building area. It

is preferable to centrally locate these rooms for economic reasons, to
simplify shaft layouts, and centralize maintenance and operation.
- HVAC facilities: The heating equipment requires boiler units, pumps, heat
exchangers, pressure-reducing equipment, control air compressors, and
miscellaneous equipment; the refrigeration equipment requires water
chillers or cooling water towers for large buildings, condenser water
pumps, heat exchangers, air-conditioning equipment, control air
compressors, and miscellaneous equipment.
- Fan rooms contain the HVAC fan equipment and other miscellaneous
equipment. It is preferable to have easy access to outdoor air.
- Vertical shaft provides space for air distribution and water and steam pipe
distribution. The vertical shaft accommodates other mechanical and
electrical distribution to serve the entire building including plumbing pipes,
fire protection pipes, and electric conduits/closets.
- Equipment access: the equipment room must allow the movement of
large, heavy equipment during the installation, replacement, and
maintenance
Air distribution
- considers ductwork that delivers the conditioned air to the desired area in a
direct, quiet, and economical way. Air distribution includes:
- air terminal units such as grilles and diffusers to deliver supply air into a
space at low velocity;
- fan-powered terminal units, which uses an integral fan to ensure the
supply air to the space;
- variable air volume terminal units, which deliver variable amount of air into
the space;
- all-air induction terminal units, which controls the primary air, induces
return air, and distributes the mixed air into a space
- and air-water induction terminal units, which contains a coil in the
induction air stream.
It is recommended that buildings should have enough ceiling spaces to host

ductwork in the suspended ceiling and floor slab.
The piping system

- is used to deliver refrigerant, hot water, cooled water, steam, gas, and
condensate to and from HVAC equipment in a direct, quiet and affordable way.
- Piping systems can be divided into two parts: the piping in the central
plant equipment room and the delivery piping.
- HVAC piping may or may not be insulated based on existing code criteria.
HVAC EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT TO GENERATE HEATING OR COOLING
Heating Systems Main Equipment

The main equipment used in heating systems include:
- Furnace
- Hot Water & Steam Boiler
- Heat Pump
- Local heating Systems
Cooling Systems Main Equipment

The main equipment used in cooling systems include:
- Chillers & Compressors
- Cooling Towers
- Air Handling Units & Fan Coil Units
Chillers
- Chillers are the primary piece of equipment in a central cooling system. These
devices remove the heat gathered by the re-circulating chilled water system as it
cools the building. Selection depends on the fuel source and the total cooling
load.
- Two principal types; air-cooled and water cooled. Compared to water, air is a
poor conductor of heat and therefore air-cooled chillers are larger and less
efficient.
- Air cooled chillers are generally located outside the building and
reject heat directly to the atmosphere, while
- Water cooled chillers are generally located within the building and
use cooling towers located outside the building to reject the heat.
- They are usually classified by the type of compressor used to drive the
refrigeration cycle.
-
Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
- They use a proven technology and generally have a lower initial cost than other
chiller types.
- They produce more vibration and for this reason, care must be exercised in
mounting, particularly if used on a rooftop.
- Reciprocating compressors are usually used in smaller systems up to 100 tons
and are typically more efficient than centrifugal units.
Rotating Screw compressors

- Screw compressors are made up of two threaded inter-fitting rotors (screws) that
are coupled together to compress the volume occupied by the gas (refrigerant).
- The refrigeration capacity of twin-screw compressors is 50 to 1500 tons but is
normally used in the 200 tons to 800 tons range.
Centrifugal compressors
- Centrifugal compressors are made up of a rotor located inside a special
chamber.
- The centrifugal compressor is ideal for air conditioning applications because it is
suitable for variable loads, has few moving parts, and is economical to operate.
- The available refrigeration capacity for centrifugal compressors ranges from 100
to 2,000 tons, making them applicable for large central plants.
Scroll compressors
- Scroll compressors generally have smaller capacities than many other types and
are becoming popular in residential equipment.
- Have fewer parts, thus, less maintenance concerns, have smoother, quieter
operations, and can operate under dirtier conditions.
- The refrigeration capacity of currently manufactured scroll compressors is 60
tons.
Heat Rejection Equipment

- With chillers, there must be a way to reject the heat that is removed from the
re-circulating chilled water system. Reject heat is handled by the condensing
water system which serves the condensing process within the refrigeration
cycles. For large buildings, this requirement is satisfied by a cooling tower.
- The purpose of heat rejection equipment in an air-conditioning system is to
provide a heat transfer means to reject all the heat from the airconditioning
system. This heat includes the heat absorbed by the evaporator from the space
plus the heat of the energy input into the compressor.
- Three common types of heat rejection equipment:
1. Air-cooled
2. Water-cooled
3. Evaporative
Cooling Tower
- A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, installed outside of the building
envelope, through which condenser water is circulated.
- Refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle is condensed in a refrigerant-to-water heat
exchanger. Heat rejected from the refrigerant increases the temperature of the
condenser water, which must be cooled to permit the cycle to continue.
- The condenser water is circulated to the cooling tower where evaporative cooling
causes heat to be removed from the water and added to the outside air.
- The cooled condenser water is then piped back to the condenser of the chiller.
- Floor space requirement are 0.20% of the building gross floor area (for towers up
to 2.40m high) and 0.30% of the building GFA for towers above 2.40m high.
Types of Cooling Towers

Forced Draft Tower
- In forced draft cooling towers, air is "pushed" through the tower from an
inlet to an exhaust. A forced draft mechanical draft tower is a blow-through
arrangement, where a blower type fan at the intake forces air through the
tower.
Induced Draft Tower
- A second type of tower, induced draft has a fan in the wet air stream to
draw air through the fill. The fan located is located at the discharge end,
which pulls air through tower.
Natural Draft Tower

- Natural draft tower has no mechanical means to create airflow.
Natural-draft cooling towers use the buoyancy of the exhaust air rising in a
tall chimney to provide the draft. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the
density differential to the dry, cooler outside air.
Air Handling Units & Fan Coil Units

- An air handling system is a means of providing conditioned air to the space in
order to maintain the environmental requirements.
- There are two types of air-handling equipment: refrigerant type
(considered airconditioning units) and chilled water type (called
air-handling units).
- An air-conditioning unit is typically factory-assembled with refrigerant-type
cooling and electric, steam or hot water heating.
- Air-handling units are usually a semi-custom type of air-handling device
that can be factory-assembled, field-assembled, or a combination of both.
- Air-handling units typically use electric, steam or hot water for heating
medium
- Sufficient space is required around the system to allow for proper
maintenance.
- AHUs can bring in outside air and heat or cool it; they are more common
in large buildings with a centralized HVAC system.
Fan coil unit (FCU)
- A fan-coil unit is a small-scale air handling unit with circulation fan, cooling and/or
heating coil, filter, and appropriate controls. It is essentially a terminal device
because it serves only one room or a small group of rooms.
- Fan-coil control is typically achieved through control of water flow through the coil
using a control signal from the zone thermostat. Occupants can usually adjust
supply air louvers to provide some control over air distribution patterns.
- A fan-coil system requires filter changes and maintenance of fans and coils. Fan
noise may be a concern in some critical occupancies.
- It is most commonly used in hotels, condominiums, and apartments.
HVAC Control Systems
HVAC control system, from the simplest room thermostat to the most complicated
computerized control, has four basic elements:
- Sensors
- Controllers
- Controlled devices
- Source of energy
Aims of HVAC Control Systems
HVAC Control Systems are used for the following benefits:

- Lower energy cost.
- Lower operations cost.
- Increase flexibility.
- Ensure quality building environment.
- Eliminate human error
- Act as safety devices
Air Distribution Outlets
1. Ceiling diffuser – the most common air outlet. They have either radial or
directional discharge which is parallel to the mounted surface. Some typical
applications are spot heating or cooling, large capacity, mounting on exposed
ductwork, horizontal distribution along a ceiling, and perimeter air distribution.
They come in various shapes and sizes: round, rectangular, square, perforated
face, louver face, modular type.
2. Linear slot outlets - long narrow air supply device with an air distribution slot
between 12- 25mm in length. Various types are linear bar, T-bar slot, linear slot,
and light diffuser. Some applications are high sidewall installation with flow
perpendicular to the mounting surface, high sidewall installation with 15-30
degree upward/downward directional adjustability, perimeter ceiling installation,
sill installations, and floor installations.
3. Grille – a supply air outlet that consists of a frame enclosing a set of vanes which
can be mounted vertically, horizontally or in both directions. A grille combined
with a volume control damper is called a register. Grilles mounted on the ceiling
and discharging down are unacceptable. Ceiling installation would require a
special grille with curved vanes to discharge the air parallel to the mounting
surface.
Pumps
- The 4 most common types of HVAC centrifugal pumps are end-suction,
horizontal or vertical split-case, in-line mounted, and vertical. The configuration of
the pump shaft determines if the pump is a horizontal or vertical pump. Pumps
may be arranged in various configurations to provide the design flow and
economical operation at partial flow or for system backup.
Fans
- Fans are available in a variety of impeller or wheel design and housing design.
These variables affect the performance characteristics and applications for each
individual type of fan. The most common fan designs used in HVAC systems are
centrifugal and axial.
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO COOLING

SYSTEMS
Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant

- In this system the huge compressor, and the condenser are housed in the plant
room, while the expansion valve and the evaporator or the cooling coil and the air
handling unit are housed in separate room.
- The air used for cooling the room is directly chilled by the refrigerant in the
cooling coil of the air handling unit.
- A blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the
cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various ducts and into the
spaces which are to be cooled.
- The refrigerant travels only through the small distances and there is no pump
involved so the additional heat absorption is less, which makes the DX plants
even more efficient.
- This type of system is useful for small buildings.
Direct Expansion Central Air-conditioning
Chilled water central air conditioning plant

- This type of system is more useful for large buildings comprising of a number of
floors. It has a plant room where the compressor, condenser, throttling valve and
the evaporator are housed.
- The air handling units comprise the cooling coil - through which the chilled water
flows - and the blower. The blower sucks hot return air from the room via ducts
and blows it over the cooling coil. The cool air is then supplied to the space to be
cooled through the ducts.
- The chilled water which has absorbed the room heat goes back to the
evaporator, gets re-chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling unit.
TYPES OF CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO THERMAL
ENERGY TRANSFER MEDIUM
THREE MAJOR TYPES

1. Centralized Ducted “All – Air” Systems
2. Centralized Fluid Based Hydronic (All-Water) Systems
3. Combined (Hybrid) Water and Air Systems
CENTRALIZED DUCTED “ALL–AIR” SYSTEMS

- These are systems in which the primary movement of heat around the building is
via heated and cooled air.
- These systems are the most common in large spaces such as office buildings,
common public areas, retail, shopping, manufacturing areas, airports, hotel
lobbies etc.
- In an ‘All-Air system’, the refrigerant or chilled water is used to cool and
dehumidify the air in the air handling unit (AHU). The cool air is then circulated
throughout the building thru the ductwork. Heating can also be accomplished
either by hot water or electrical strip heaters.
- The centralization of these systems require either a mechanical room adjacent to
the controlled space for locating the AHU and large ductwork in building space.
- Fresh outside air is drawn into the building through the intake louver, mixed with
return air, heated or cooled to a controlled temperature, circulated around the
building and provided to the occupied space. Exhaust air is extracted from the
space and dumped to the outside. In general, the majority of the return air is
recycled via the return air duct.
- All-air systems offer excellent control of interior air quality. The central
air-handling equipment can be designed for precise control of fresh air, filtration,
humidification, dehumidification, heating, and cooling.
- “All-air” systems are usually described by 2 variables: the type of air-handling unit
provided (constant volume/reheat or variable volume/cooling only), and the type
of terminal control device used (constant air volume/variable air temperature or
variable air volume/constant air temperature) to control local zone comfort
conditions.
- Constant-volume systems operate at a constant airflow rate; only
temperature varies to maintain the zone set point.
- Variable air volume (VAV) systems use variable volume terminal
units or boxes to vary the airflow in each zone or space in
accordance to the thermostat signals within the space.
Basic All-Air System

CENTRALIZED FLUID-BASED HYDRONIC SYSTEMS
- An all-water hydronic system typically use terminal units, such as fan-coil units or
unit ventilators, to provide the local temperature control. When heating, the
terminal units draw heat from the water and when cooling these reject heat to the
water.
- Hot and chilled water piping systems are the primary distribution system, so
ductwork is eliminated and making all-water systems the most compact of all.
- The biggest drawback of all-water hydronic system is the difficulty in providing
adequate indoor air quality. These systems are fairly common in office rooms,
hotel rooms, schools, building perimeter control etc.
COMBINED (HYBRID) WATER AND AIR SYSTEMS

- Hybrid systems use both air and water (cooled or heated in central plant room)
distribution to room terminals to perform cooling or heating function. Unlike
all-water system, this system ensures ventilation air in the spaces so that indoor
air quality is not sacrificed.
- The most critical performance issue facing an all-water fan-coil system is
ventilation air. Fan coils installed in interior zones can not easily provide such
outdoor air ventilation. An air-water fan-coil system can overcome this constraint.
- Improved air quality and humidity control is provided, since a central ventilation
system air handler can be used to provide better outside air filtration, better
control of relative humidity, and an opportunity to recover waste heat from
building exhaust airstreams.
- Found in high-rise buildings where a minimum amount of ductwork is desirable.
HVAC SPACE PLANNING
Space Planning
Space required to house HVAC equipment and associated pipe and duct shafts can
amount to 10% of the building floor area, depending on the building application and type
of HVAC system used. The first step in planning the HVAC system layout is to identify
the location and configuration of the central equipment. In large buildings using central
systems, this often includes 3 types of equipment rooms:
1. A central plant equipment space (usually one location in
the building housing central chillers, boilers, and related
equipment
2. A rooftop location for cooling towers
3. Equipment room/s for large central air-handling units
- Central plant equipment rooms are often located at the top of a
building to:
- Minimize the piping distance to connect the chillers to the rooftop
cooling towers
- Minimize the length of expensive boiler flues that typically extend
well above rooftop heights
- May also be located on the lowest floor of the building
- Or the boilers and chillers may be located in two different locations
Central Equipment Room Planning

- Central equipment rooms should have between 3600-4200mm clear height
available from the finished floor to the soffit of the structure to allow for adequate
clearance above the main equipment for accessories and large piping
crossovers.
- Long narrow rooms with a ratio of 1:2 (width to length) usually allow for the most
flexible and efficient layout of the equipment.
- Equipment such as chillers and shell-and-tube heat exchangers require clear
space equal to the length of the equipment in order to pull the heat exchange
tubes for servicing.
- Provide proper vibration isolation for large equipment, particularly rotating
equipment, such as chillers and pumps
- Access to equipment rooms is an important consideration. Adequate doors and
routes to freight elevators and/or to the building exterior should be planned such
that the largest piece of equipment can be easily installed and possibly removed
for servicing in the future
Air-handling Equipment Room Planning

- The number and location of central air-handling unit equipment rooms
(commonly called fan rooms) are critical to a successful HVAC system.
- Once the number of AHUs is determined, the next decision is how or whether
they are to be grouped together in separate rooms. The following summarizes
typical AHU room arrangement approaches:
- Scattered or separated units – often used in low-rise
buildings employing rooftop equipment
- Central core placement – most efficient layout and duct
distribution layout
- Perimeter rooms – minimizes ducting required for outside
air and exhaust air
- Detached rooms – moves the equipment room outside the
main building requiring an adjacent protruding service shaft
Scattered or separated units
- Air handlers are simply located as centrally as possible to the separate zones
they serve (and are thus scattered throughout the building as a function of its
separate zones)
- Results in the most efficient duct sizing and minimal duct sizes
- Because air handlers will be located directly above occupied spaces, noise and
vibration isolation are critical factors
“Perimeter” rooms
- Can reduce the efficiency of the supply/return duct system, unless multiple units
are required for each floor
- Potential lost use of premium perimeter floor areas
- Potential negative aesthetic impact of large intake/exhaust louvers on the exterior
- Proximity of potentially noisy equipment close to occupied areas of the building
“Detached” rooms
- Sometimes allow for maximum space utilization and flexibility within the main
floor plate of the building they serve
Central core placement

- All air handling unit rooms are located together near the building core, often on
multiple floors in high-rise buildings
- Tends to yield the most efficient layout and duct distribution layout if one air
handler can serve an entire floor
- Horizontal or vertical ducting is required to admit and reject fresh outside air and
to exhaust spent air
- Air handling unit rooms placed in the central core can take advantage of other
service elements such as elevator shafts and restrooms to buffer noise
- No equipment room wall should be located immediately adjacent to an occupied
space, and equipment rooms are best stacked vertically to minimize piping and
airshaft requirements
- At least 2 and preferably 3 sides of the equipment room are free of vertical
obstructions so that supply and return ductwork can pass through them to serve
the occupied areas

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BUILDING UTILITIES 2

– Modern age air conditioners are not only concerned with

– Naturally, heat flows from a place with a higher temperature to a

– Therefore, refrigeration runs against the natural heat flow and so

§ In summary, refrigeration systems are used to

§ How this happens, however, varies among the four

The vast majority of domestic air conditioners utilize the

A mechanical compression refrigeration system cools by circulating a fluid

§ The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a

Low-pressure, low-temperature vapor is drawn

START OF CYCLE Heat is removed from the vapor, and the

METERING DEVICE EXPANSION VALVE

§ In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is

§ Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by

At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by

§ Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,

§ All designs function under the same simple operating principle

§ Since evaporative coolers add moisture to the air and blow it

– The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the

§ This type of refrigeration is generally used for small

§ The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating

§ The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of

§ All these factors comprise a successful HVAC system.

a. BTUh – “British Thermal Units per Hour”

COP= Cooling Capacity (W)/Power Consumption (W)

– Modern age air conditioners are not only concerned with

– Naturally, heat flows from a place with a higher temperature to a

– Therefore, refrigeration runs against the natural heat flow and so

§ In summary, refrigeration systems are used to

§ How this happens, however, varies among the four

The vast majority of domestic air conditioners utilize the

A mechanical compression refrigeration system cools by circulating a fluid

§ The mechanical aspect of the cycle starts with a

Low-pressure, low-temperature vapor is drawn

START OF CYCLE Heat is removed from the vapor, and the

METERING DEVICE EXPANSION VALVE

§ In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is

§ Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by

At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by

§ Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 5 to 9°C,

§ All designs function under the same simple operating principle

§ Since evaporative coolers add moisture to the air and blow it

– The cold side, which is below room temperature, is placed in the

§ This type of refrigeration is generally used for small

§ The Term “V” describes ventilation. This can be ventilating

§ The Term "AC" refers to air conditioning that comprises of

§ All these factors comprise a successful HVAC system.

a. BTUh – “British Thermal Units per Hour”

COP= Cooling Capacity (W)/Power Consumption (W)

Supply air grill

Mini-Split Cooling Units (ductless split units)

The packaged air conditioners are available in the

complement of Fresh supply air

§ Local HVAC systems require no central mechanical equipment.

§ Type of generation equipment can limit the choices available to the

§ Critical architectural decisions related to HVAC generation equipment