INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Important Points:
1. General Functions of The Skin
2. Layers of the Skin
a. Epidermis
b. Dermis
3. Epidermis
a. Strata
b. Thin and Thick Skin
c. Skin Color
4. Dermis
a. Layers

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

1. Protection.
• The skin is the covering of the body.
• The skin’s structure reduces the negative and harmful effects of ultraviolet light.
• Acts as a barrier - keeps microorganisms from entering the body
• prevents dehydration by reducing water loss.
2. Sensation.
• has sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Temperature regulation.
• The skin plays a major role in regulating body temperature through the
modulation of blood flow through the skin and the activity of sweat glands.
4. Vitamin D production.
• When exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule that can be
transformed into the hormonal form of vitamin D, an important regulator of
calcium homeostasis.
5. Excretion.
• Small amounts of waste products are excreted through the skin and glands.

TWO MAJOR LAYERS OF THE SKIN

SKIN LAYER STRUCTURE FUNCTION

EPIDERMIS • the superficial layer of the • multiple cell layers of the
skin, consisting of stratified epidermis protects against
squamous epithelial tissue the potential damage from
 • The epidermis rests on the
dermis.
DERMIS • layer of connective tissue
abrasion on the skin’s
surface.
• the epidermis reduces water
loss through the skin.
• structure of the dermis is
responsible for most of the
strength of the skin.

Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)

• a layer of loose connective tissue
• not part of the skin or the integumentary system, but it does connect the skin to
underlying muscle or bone.

Layers of the skin:

EPIDERMIS
• The epidermis is stratified squamous epithelium.
• It is separated from the underlying dermis by a basement membrane.
 • The epidermis contains no blood vessels.
• The living cells of the epidermis receive nutrients and excrete waste products by the
diffusion of substances between the epidermis and the capillaries of the dermis.
• It is not as thick as the dermis.

The epidermis is composed of several types of cells.

1. keratinocytes
• produce a protein mixture called keratin, making the cells more durable. It is the
durability of the keratinocytes that gives the epidermis its ability to resist
abrasion and reduce water loss
2. Melanocytes
• produce the pigment melanin, which contributes to skin color
3. Langerhans cells
• part of the immune system
4. Merkel cells
• specialized epidermal cells associated with the nerve endings responsible for
detecting light touch and superficial pressure

FIVE STRATA OF EPIDERMIS (From the deepest to the most superficial)

(1) stratum basale
(2) stratum spinosum
(3) stratum granulosum
(4) stratum lucidum
(5) stratum corneum
 Notes: These are the five strata of the epidermis. Please take note of the order of the
layers (from deep to superficial and vice versa). Characteristics of each strata are the
text in the left side. Please memorize then & their distinguishing features. To visualize
the strata, use the image on the right to correlate the features.

THIN & THICK SKIN

Thick skin
• has all five epithelial strata
• the stratum corneum has many layers of cells
• found in areas subject to pressure or friction, such as the palms of the hands,
the soles of the feet, and the fingertips.

Thin skin
• covers the rest of the body
• more flexible than thick skin
• stratum lucidum is generally absent in thin skin
• each strata in thin skin contains fewer layers of cells than in thick skin
• hair is found only in thin skin

SKIN COLOR
The factors that determine skin color include
(1) pigments in the skin
(2) blood circulating through the skin
(3) the thickness of the stratum corneum

1. Melanin
• group of pigments primarily responsible for skin, hair, and eye color
• Melanin also provides protection against ultraviolet light from the sun.
• Large amounts of melanin are found in certain regions of the skin, such as
freckles, moles, the nipples, the areolae of the breasts, the axillae, and the
genitalia.
• Other areas of the body, such as the lips, palms of the hands, and soles of the
feet, contain less melanin.
• Melanin is produced by melanocytes.

2. Carotene

• causes the skin to develop a yellowish tint when large amounts of carotene are
consumed, the excess accumulates in the stratum corneum and in adipocytes of
the dermis and subcutaneous tissue

• Humans normally ingest carotene and use it as a source of vitamin A

3. Erythema
• is a condition in which the skin turns a reddish hue when the amount of blood
flowing through the skin increases

4. Cyanosis
• a bluish skin color following a decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can
make the skin appear pale, and a decrease in the blood oxygen content

DERMIS
• The dermis is connective tissue.
• Collagen is the main type of protein fiber of the extracellular matrix, but elastic
and reticular fibers are also present.
• The dermis contains blood vessels that allow for nutrient and waste exchange to
the cells of the dermis and the living cells of the epidermis.
 • The dermis also contains nerve endings, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands,
and lymphatic vessels. The nerve endings are varied in structure and function.
• They include (1) free nerve endings for pain, itch, tickle, and temperature
sensations; (2) hair follicle receptors for light touch; (3) Pacinian corpuscles for
deep pressure; (4) Meissner corpuscles for detecting simultaneous stimulation at
two points on the skin; and (5) Ruffini end organs for sensing continuous touch
or pressure.

Two tissue layers of the dermis:

1. The papillary layer
• derives its name from projections, called dermal papillae that extend toward the
epidermis
• loose connective tissue with thin fibers that are somewhat loosely arranged
• papillary layer also contains blood vessels that supply the overlying epidermis
with O2 and nutrients, remove waste products, and aid in regulating body
temperature

2. The reticular layer

• composed of dense irregular connective tissue

• is the main layer of the dermis
• It is continuous with the subcutaneous tissue and forms a mat of irregularly
arranged fibers that are resistant to stretching in many directions.
• The elastic and collagen fibers are oriented more in some directions than in
others and produce cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the skin.
• If the skin is overstretched, the dermis may rupture and leave lines that are
visible through the epidermis. These lines of scar tis- sue, called stretch
marks, can develop in the skin of individuals who have experienced rapid
growth.
 Hair
• In humans, hair is found everywhere on the skin except the palms, the soles, the
lips, the nipples, parts of the external genitalia, and the distal segments of the
fingers and toes.
• Hair structure and coloration change as a person ages.

Lanugo - delicate, unpigmented hair has developed and covered the fetus by the fifth or sixth
month of fetal development
Terminal Hair - long, coarse, and pigmented hairs replace the lanugo of the scalp, eyelids, and
eyebrows near the time of birth
Vellus hairs - are short, fine, and usually unpigmented, replace the lanugo on the rest of the
body.

At puberty: terminal hair, especially in the pubic and axillary regions, replaces much of the
vellus hair. The hair of the chest, legs, and arms is approximately 90% terminal hair in males
and approximately 35% in females. In males, terminal hairs replace the vellus hairs of the face
to form the beard. These changes in hair type at puberty are universal and have biological
significance.

Hair Structure
Shaft - protrudes above the surface of the skin
Root - located below the surface
Hair bulb - the base of the root is expanded

Most of the root and the shaft are composed of columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells
arranged in three concentric layers:
(1) medulla - central axis of the hair, and it consists of two or three layers of cells containing
soft keratin
(2) cortex - surrounds the medulla and forms the bulk of the hair. The cells the cortex contain
hard keratin
(3) cuticle - a single layer of cells also containing hard keratin

Hair follicle
• tubelike invagination of the epidermis that extends into the dermis
• A hair develops and grows within each hair follicle
• A hair follicle consists of:
o a dermal root sheath - portion of the dermis that surrounds the epithelial root
sheath
o epithelial root sheath - divided into external and internal parts
Hair Color
Hair color is the result of melanin production by melanocytes and the distribution of melanin to
the cells of the hair.

Muscles
• Associated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells called the arrector pili.
• The arrector pili extend from the dermal root sheath of the hair follicle to the papillary
layer of the dermis.
• Normally, the hair follicle and the hair inside it are at an oblique angle to the surface of
the skin.
• When the arrector pili muscles contract, however, they pull the follicle into a more
perpendicular position, causing the hair to “stand on end.” Movement of the hair
follicles produces raised areas called “goose bumps.”
• This is a common response to cold temperatures as well as strong emotional responses.
In other mammals, arrector pili muscle contractions are important for warmth as well as
communication of aggression or fear.
GLANDS
Sebaceous Glands

Sebaceous glands, located in the dermis, are simple or compound alveolar glands that produce
sebum, an oily, white substance rich in lipids. Because sebum is released by the lysis and death
of secretory cells, sebaceous glands are classified as holocrine glands.

Sweat Glands

There are two types of sweat, or sudoriferous glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands.

Eccrine sweat glands (sometimes called merocrine sweat glands) are the most common type of
sweat gland. Eccrine sweat glands are distributed over the majority of the areas of the body but
are most numerous in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.

Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular glands that usually open into hair follicles
superficial to the opening of the sebaceous glands. Apocrine sweat glands are found in the
axillae and genitalia (scrotum and labia majora) and around the anus.

Nails
A nail is a thin plate consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very hard
type of keratin. Nails are located on the distal ends of the digits (fingers and toes).

A nail consists of:

• proximal nail root and the distal nail body
• nail root is covered by skin
• nail body is the visible portion of the nail

The lateral and proximal edges of the nail are covered by skin called the nail fold, and the edges
of the nail are held in place by the nail groove. The stratum corneum of the nail fold grows onto
the nail body as the cuticle, or eponychium. Beneath the free edge of the nail body is the
hyponychium, a thickened region of the stratum corneum.
The nail root extends distally from the nail matrix. The nail also attaches to the underlying nail
bed, which is located between the nail matrix and the hyponychium.

The nail matrix and bed are composed of epithelial tissue, with a stratum basale that gives rise
to the cells that form the nail. Though both contribute to the growth of the nail, the nail matrix
is thicker than the nail bed and produces nearly all of the nail. The nail bed is visible through the
clear nail and appears pink because of blood vessels in the underlying dermis. A small part of
the nail matrix, the lunula, is seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-shaped area at
the base of the nail. The lunula, seen best on the thumb, appears white because the blood
vessels do not show through the thicker nail matrix. As the nail forms in the nail matrix and bed,
it slides over the nail bed toward the distal end of the digit. Nails grow at an average rate of
0.5–1.2 mm per day, and fingernails grow more rapidly than toenails.

BURNS

A burn is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
Burns are classified according to the extent of surface area involved and the depth of the burn.

PARTIAL THICKNESS BURNS

Subdivided into:
First degree burns
• involve only the epidermis
• may result in redness, pain, and slight edema (swelling
• can be caused by sunburn or brief exposure to hot or cold objects
• they heal in a week or so without scarring.

Second-degree burns
• damage the epidermis and dermis
• minimal dermal damage causes redness, pain, edema, and blisters
• Healing takes approximately 2 weeks, and no scarring results.
• if the burn goes deep into the dermis, the wound appears red, tan, or white
• may take several months to heal and might scar.
• In all second-degree burns, the epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue in hair
follicles and sweat glands, as well as from the edges of the wound.

FULL THICKNESS BURNS

• are also called third-degree burns
• The epidermis and dermis are completely destroyed and tissue just below the skin may
be involved.
• Third-degree burns are often surrounded by first- and second-degree burns.
• Although the areas that have first- and second-degree burns are painful, the region of
third-degree burn is usually painless because the sensory receptors have been
destroyed.
• Third-degree burns appear white, tan, brown, black, or deep cherry-red. Skin can
regenerate only from the edges, and skin grafts are often necessary
Fourth-degree burns
• extremely severe burns that affect tissues deeper than the subcutaneous tissue, often
damaging tendons, fascia, muscle, and bone.
• Like third-degree burns, fourth-degree burns are painless due to the destruction of
sensory receptors.
• Because of the severity of tissue damage, fourth-degree burns often require
amputation or removal of damaged tissue.
• Death may occur due to the increased likelihood of infection.