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2slides-Anis EQ Lecture 4 Seismic Waves 1
2slides-Anis EQ Lecture 4 Seismic Waves 1
2slides-Anis EQ Lecture 4 Seismic Waves 1
Resistant Structures
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1
Seismic Waves
(Earthquake’s energy is transmitted through the earth as
seismic waves)
Two main types of seismic waves:
Body waves: transmit energy through earth’s
interior.
Primary (P) wave- rocks vibrate parallel to direction of
wave.
Compression and expansion (slinky example).
Secondary or Shear (S) wave- rocks move perpendicular to
wave direction.
Rock shearing (rope-like or ‘wave’ in a stadium)
Seismic Waves
Surface Waves:
Love Waves (L-waves)
Arrives after S waves.
Composed of transverse
S only.
Rayleigh Waves
Arrives after Love
waves.
Composed of both P
and longitudinal S
waves.
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Body Waves
Propagates through a body.
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P-wave
S-wave
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Primary waves
They are body wave type.
P-waves, compressional or longitudinal.
Typical crustal velocity: 6 km/s ( ~13,500 mph)
Travel through solids, liquids, or gases
Material movement is in the same direction Even for P waves (which
as wave movement (parallel to the wave can travel all the way
direction). through) we see some
changes in the path at
Behavior: Cause dilation and contraction
certain points within
(compression) of the earth material through
which they pass.
Earth. This is due to the
discontinuities present at
Arrival: They arrive first on a seismogram different boundaries in
(fastest waves). earth structure .
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Secondary (Shear) Waves
They are body wave type.
S waves (Secondary)
Typical crustal velocity: 3 to 4 km/s
( ~6,750 mph).
Behavior: Cause shearing and
stretching of the earth material
through which they pass. Generally
cause the most severe shaking;
very damaging to structures. S-wave velocity drops to
zero at the core-mantle
Travel through solids only.
boundary or Gutenberg
shear waves – material moves Discontinuity
perpendicular to wave
movement.
Arrival: Second on a seismogram.
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Summary Seismic Body Waves
P waves
The faster wave ( approx. 5 to 6 km/sec)
The direction of vibration is parallel to the
direction of propagation.
Involves volume change.
Can propagate both in solid and in liquid.
S waves
The direction of vibration is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
Involves shape change and is polarized.
Transverse and longitudinal components
Can propagate only in solid with speed
approximately 3 to 4 km/sec.
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Primary Waves
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Secondary Waves
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Oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation
Polarized in a direction determined by the source
No S in liquid; bombs does not generate S waves
Earthquakes (faulting) makes large S waves
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Two most common types of surface waves
Love Waves
Rayleigh Waves 21
Love Waves
They are surface wave type.
Typical velocity:
Depends on earth
structure, but less than
velocity of S- waves.
Behavior: Causes
shearing motion
(horizontal) similar to
SH-waves.
Arrival: They usually
arrive after the S-wave
and before the Rayleigh
wave.
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Rayleigh Waves
They are surface wave type.
Typical velocity: ~ 0.9
that of the S-wave
Behavior: Causes vertical
together with back-and-
forth horizontal motion.
Motion is similar to that
of being in a boat in the
ocean when a swell
moves past.
Arrival: They usually
arrive last on a
seismogram.
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Surface Waves
Huge close to the Earth’s surface
Decrease in amplitude at greater depth
amplitude
depth
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- Surface wave
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Surface wave
Rayleigh Wave Motion
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Rayleigh Wave Motion
Direction of
Ground movement
Direction of
Propagation
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- Surface wave
Composed of SH waves
Oscillate in the transverse direction
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Movement of Earth
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Location and Intensity of
Earthquake
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Aleutians
Hawaii
Mariana
Guram
Solomon Is.
Tonga
NWAO
Kermadec
New Zealand
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Vertical
Component
Horiz. (N-S)
Component
Horiz. (E-W)
Component
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Vertical Component
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P wave from S. America
Ground
Surface UP
E
W E
Direction of wave
propagation
Direction of
P
Ground movement
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E
W E
Direction of wave
propagation
Direction of
SV
Ground movement
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For a south American
earthquake
Seismic waves comes in almost due
South.
P waves on U-D and N-S.
S waves on all three directions.
Love waves in ??? Direction.
Rayleigh waves in ??? Directions.
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N
S N
Direction of wave
propagation
Direction of
P
Ground movement
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SV waves from S. California
UP
S
S N
SV
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More on S Waves
The transverse component of S (SH) has
only horizontal motion (i.e., L wave).
The SV component will have longitudinal
(i.e. R-wave) and vertical motions.
The S wave polarization is determined
mainly by the source of the wave motion.
Cause destruction during strong shaking.
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Continental Seismicity
The long belt from Mediterranean to the
Himalaya.
Spain/Italy/Greece/Turkey/Iran/Afghanistan
Pamirs/Himalaya/Tibetan Plateau.
Kunlun/Tianshan/Mongolia/China.
Basin and Range Province
Nevada/Utah/Idaho
East African Rift.
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A Brief History of Seismology
Ancient legends.
Japanese Namazu.
Chinese seismo-scope (Chang Heng,
132 AD)
Invention of seismometers in Japan by
Gray/Milne/Ewing, 1890’s
Modern Seismology (1920- current)
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Seismometer
= Seismogram + Seismograph:
Mass – inertia.
Restoring force.
Resonance.
Damping.
Force-balanced system.
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Seismogram
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Seismograph
Seismometer
Amplifier.
Filter – pick and choose signal freq. Range.
Clock – from pendulum to GPS.
Digitization.
Recording system:
Old: optical – messy.
New: digital; need computer .
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Modern
Seismograph
(Horizontal)
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Modern
Seismograph
(Vertical)
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Measurement of Ground Motions
Strong ground motions vs. weak motions.
Acceleration (up to 2000 cm/sec2= 2 g).
Velocity (up to 300 cm/sec).
Displacement (up to 10 meters – 1000cm).
For distant earthquakes:
Displacement of few microns (0.0001 cm).
On the moon: 0.000001 cm!
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Seismic Networks
A collection of seismic stations
with data collected and used
together.
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Early Network
British Network: 1890’s-1920, Milne
seismographs.
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Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)
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Different Instrument for
Different Purposes:
Accelerometers – Earthquakes engineering
(and close-to-the-fault measurements).
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Earthquake Location
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What to Locate?
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What do we need?
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Travel Time Curves
Simple earth
xo x - xo
station
zo
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Travel Time Curves
Ways to derive travel times:
Using artificial shots – hammer, gun-shells, air-gun,
explosives in drill holes, quarry blasts, nuclear tests.
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Locating an Earthquake’s Epicenter
Seismic wave behavior
P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
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Location with a few stations
(at least three)
Use time of arrival of P waves, Tp, and time
of arrival of S waves, TS
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,
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3-Circle Method: 3-Circle Steps:
1) Read S-P time from 3
North seismograms.
2) Compute distance for
D1 each event/recording
D2
station pair (D1, D2, D3)
using S-P time formula.
3) Draw each circle of
radius Di on map.
4) Overlapping point is
the event location.
D3
Assumption: Source is
relatively shallow;
epicenter is relatively
close to hypocenter.
,
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Location with an Array
Array can be used to determine the slope of the
travel time curve very accurately.
The travel time curve is also a function of slope
and therefore the slope tells us how far away
the event is.
The array is also very good for finding direction
of the event (like a radar!).
Use distance and direction – BINGO.
Bingo is a game of probability in which players mark off numbers
on cards as the numbers are drawn randomly by a caller.
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1. Measure time
between P and S
wave on
seismogram
2. Use travel-time
curves for the
specified region to
get distance to
epicenter.
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Global Travel Time Curve
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Earthquake Processes
Frictional Stress.
Statics and Dynamics.
Water and Earthquakes.
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Friction and Faulting
Friction prevents faults from moving while
strain accumulates:
N
Friction stress = friction coeff. x Normal stress
( N PW )
By jacking up the water pressure the effect
of the normal stress can be neutralized.
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Importance of water on Faulting
From laboratory experiments we know
that the friction will be very high at depth
because of the high normal stress.
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Effect of injected
water on EQ’s
occurrence.
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Reservoir and Earthquakes
1936 Lake Mead (Hoover Dam) earthquakes
followed by M5.
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Reservoir
and
Earthquakes
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India
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Dynamic Friction
Once the fault gets moving then the
friction drops a bit, i.e., once the fault
gets moving it is easier to move more –
an instability.
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Earthquake Sequence
Ambient earthquakes.
Foreshock - Main shock - Aftershock
Main shock - aftershocks.
Swarms
Volcanic
Non-volcanic
Foreshocks
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Fore-, Main- and Aftershocks: Chaos
(Disorder) in the Fault Zone?
Normally when a small earthquake occurs the
fault zone overall remains “stable”.
But a small event in an unstable
environment – when the fault zone is all
stressed up, then
a “foreshock” may lead to a cascade (flow) of
events in the fault zone, resulting in the Main
Shock.
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Predicting Earthquakes
Strange Animal Behavior
Stress in the rocks causes tiny hairline fractures to form, the
cracking of the rocks evidently emits high pitched sounds
and minute vibrations imperceptible to humans but
noticeable by many animals.
Foreshocks
Unusual increase in the frequency of small earthquakes
before the main shock
Changes in water level
Porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain
Seismic Gaps
Based of the chronological distribution of major earthquakes
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