MATHS 𝟏 𝒌 𝑨𝟏𝝂𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐𝝂𝟐 Charles Law (at constant P): 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑇 where a is a constant (independent of ℎeD]P depends on fluid velocity

𝑨𝟏𝝂𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐𝝂𝟐 Charles Law (at constant P): 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑇 where a is a constant (independent of ℎeD]P depends on fluid velocity and many other factors; the units are (Wm-
Frequency of SHM: 𝒇 = 𝟐𝝅 T𝒎 ∆𝑽 2 -1
Length (m), Time (s), Mass (kg), Current (A), Temp (K) P) K )
𝑭(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) = = 𝑨𝒗 "
log MN = log M + log N 𝑳 ∆𝒕 Boyles Law (at constant T): 𝑃 = Q where b is a constant (independent of T) Radiation: all objects radiate and absorb energy in the form of
Simple Pendulum: 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅T𝒈 L: Length of string, g: gravity, does not Mass flowing in = mass flowing out
log M/N = log M – log N electromagnetic waves. This is radiative heat transfer. No medium is
Volume flow rate is constant at any point Combining the laws: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑇 where c depends on number (not type) of
log MN = n log M depend on mass or amplitude gas particles required
log ! 𝑥= log " 𝑥/log " 𝑎 Velocity for any wave: 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 Bernoulli’s Equation: For any non-viscous fluid ∆k
= 𝐴𝜎𝜀𝑇 r, heat radiated from one surface
𝟏 Ideal Gas Law: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ∆R
Scalar only has magnitude Transverse waves: Oscillation is transverse to propagation of energy 𝑷 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Normally for gas of low density and high temperature ℎV!l ≈ 4𝜎𝜖𝑇 _
Vector have magnitude and direction Longitudinal Waves: Oscillation is in direction of propagation 𝟐 ∆𝑄
𝟏 For a mixture of N = N1 + N2 for gas 1 and 2
Vectors are subtracted added head to tail Constructive Interference: In phase, = 𝒎𝝀 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟐 𝝆(𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟏) when pipe narrows but h doesn’t change ( )V!l = ℎs 𝐴∆𝑇s
Dalton’s Law: P = P1 + P2 ∆𝑡
Vector à Find x component and y component and then use Pythagoras Destructive Interference: out of phase = (𝒎 + 𝟎. 𝟓)𝝀 P is absolute pressure The partial pressures P1 + P2 is the pressure they would have if they
∆k
≈ ℎV!l 𝐴∆𝑇, heat radiated from 2 surfaces
Nodes: Places where string is not moving, no displacement H is measured from bottom to middle of pipe ∆R
separately occupied volume V 𝜎 is Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.7x10^-8 Wm-2K-4)
KINEMATICS Antinodes: Places where string is moving, max displacement Speed of efflux: 𝑣D = }2𝑔(ℎM − ℎD ) , ℎM : 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℎD : 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 \ ]
Vector: Displacement, velocity, acceleration 𝑃N𝑉N = 𝑛N𝑅𝑇 𝑃N𝑉N = 𝑛N𝑅𝑇 \, = ], 𝜀 is the emissivity of the surface. 0.9-1 for black, about 0.1 for shiny objects
- -
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 ]./0 hrad is radiative surface heat transfer coefficient
Speed: v = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 Average speed: vav = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 ELASTICITY ppm = ] = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 10F^
𝑭

Average speed at constant acceleration: vav =

𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗 1 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗
𝜸=
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝑨
∆𝑳 = 𝑳 − 𝑳𝒐 Average kinetic energy per molecule of gas: METABOLISM AND WORD EFFICIENCY
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑳 N _ `
𝟐
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑳𝒐 𝑚𝑣̅ S = S 𝑘𝑇 for a monatomic gas, S is for a diatomic gas ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 + 𝐸
Acceleration: 𝒂 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 S
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
Nm-2 or Pa
units: 𝑣WS
= ššš
𝑣 S = 𝑣aS + 𝑣bS + 𝑣cS Q is heat input to the system. It is positive when heat is transferred to a
𝟏 𝟐
∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒊 ∆𝒕 + 𝒂∆𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 N 𝑣W , 𝑣̅ is average velocity system
𝟐 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛: v inversely proportional to A: 𝑣 ∝ O
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂∆𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 Total thermal (kinetic) energy of all molecules: W is work done by the system. It is positive when work is done on
N
Vertical and horizontal motions are independent à Horizontal velocity is 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 P inversely proportional to v: 𝑃 ∝ P _ _ something else
Young modulus: 𝜸𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 or 𝜸𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑈 = S 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = S 𝑛𝑅𝑇 for a monatomic gas
always constant Pressure decreases with height (height is measured upwards) N
E is energy input to the body through metabolism of food
Young modulus is independent of shape and shape à dependant on
Larger pressure when there is a large area with a slow velocity U is thermal energy which is = 𝐸d = S 𝑚𝑣 S ∆𝑼 is change in (internal) energy of system
Scalars: Time, distance, mass, area, density, work, temp, speed, energy,
material 𝑣W = }3𝑘𝑡/𝑚 𝑊 𝑊
power, pressure 𝑭 𝜂= =
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸 − ∆𝑈
Vectors: Displacement, weight, drag, force, momentum, acceleration, 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑨
∆𝒙 , ∆𝑥: change in displacement VISCOUS FLUIDS
velocity, 𝑳𝒐 Viscous: Has an internal friction in fluid 𝜂 is work efficiency
𝐿D : Separation of forces 𝑭 ‚ REAL GASES 1
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑄 = (𝐸 − ∆𝑈) ∗ (𝑛 − 1) = 𝑊 ∗ (1 − )
NEWTONS LAWS ∆𝑽 𝜼= =𝒗𝑨 Ideal gas relationship fails when temp is low and volume is small enough. 𝜂
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ‚𝑳
st
Newtons 1 Law: Any object continues at rest or at constant velocity, 𝑽𝟎 Attractive forces cause the atoms to stick together. A phase change occurs.
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 F∆𝑷 𝜂 = 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ELECTRIC FIELDS
unless an external force acts on it 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = ∆𝒗 increase in pressure decreases volume When phase changes, temperature doesn’t change
H𝒗𝟎 𝜂 is low for water, 𝜂 is high for treacle Charge is conserved
Newtons 2nd Law: An external force gives the object an acceleration which Isotherms are lines of constant temperature. Constant T and P during
∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉D 𝑣 is velocity of fluid |𝑞N𝑞S|
is proportional to the force F = ma, W = mg phase change 𝐹 = 𝑘 S 𝑘 = 9 ∗ 10 𝑁𝑚S/𝐶 S
t
L is depth of fluid layer
Newtons 3rd Law: Forces come in symmetric pairs – equal in magnitude but Above critical point, liquid can no longer exist 𝑟
Units: 1 N s m-2 º 10 poise 𝐹RDR!u = 𝐹N + 𝐹S
opposite in direction On schematic phase diagram, lines are boundaries when more than one
𝝆𝒗𝑳 𝐹 |𝑄|
𝑹𝒆 = phase coexists – saturated vapour pressure = atm pressure 𝐸 = = 𝑘 S
𝜼 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿, no temperature change – phase is changing 𝑞 𝑟
MOTION IN A CIRCLE
𝟐𝝅𝐫 r = density L is Latent heat of phase change – thermal energy to melt/vaporise 1kg of 1
Motion in a circle: 𝒗 = Ductile à metal, large young modulus v = velocity 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = 0, 𝑚𝑣 S = −𝑞∆𝑉
𝑻 substance (Jkg-1) 2
𝒗𝟐 J-shaped à soft tissue, small young modulus L = characteristic dimension (diameter in a pipe) For a positive test charge, electric field and force are in the same
Centripetal Acceleration: 𝒂 = Latent heat in thermal energy required to overcome inter-atomic forces
𝒓 Large young modulus à Apply large stress, small change in length (not h = viscosity direction, opposite for negative test charge. Electric field is the measure
𝟒𝝅𝟐𝒓
stretchy) during phase change
Centripetal acceleration motion around a circle: 𝒂 = 𝑻𝟐 Re < 2000 implies laminar flow of force on a charge. Electric field lines show direction of field, close
If Q is positive, solid à liquid à gas
𝒗𝟐 Small young modulus à Apply small stress, big change in length (stretchy) Re > 3000 implies turbulent flow together means strong, lines leave +ve charges and enter -ve charges
Centripetal Force: 𝑭 = 𝒎 If Q is negative, gas à liquid à solid
𝒓 Poiseuille’s Law: Flow of a viscous fluid needs higher pressure at inlet than
PRESSURE ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇, temperature changing – no phase change
outlet to overcome internal friction of fluid ∆𝑄N + ∆𝑄S + ∆𝑄_ … = 0 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
TYPES OF FORCES 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Density = 𝝆 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔: 𝒌𝒈𝒎F𝟑) (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )𝝅𝒓𝟒 c is Specific heat capacity – heat supplied to 1kg of substance to increase T ∆𝑈𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄 = −𝑊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄 = −𝑄𝐸∆𝑥 = 𝑄∆𝑉
Max friction force: 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝑵 (𝜇 = coefficient of friction, N= weight force) 𝓕= ∆v ∆Q
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝟖𝜼𝒍 by 1K (J kg-1 K-1) 𝐹 = − ∆a 𝐸 = ∆a electric field is -ve gradient of potential V against x
Terminal velocity is when atmospheric friction = mg 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = ∆Q
Law of the level = fulcrum is the pivot point 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 ℱ = volume flow rate ( ∆R ) Total energy is always conserved graph
𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 = −𝝆𝒈(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏), y = fluid height, p = pressure W e f 1W e f
Principle of moments: 𝑭𝟏𝒅𝟏 = 𝑭𝟐𝒅𝟐 (𝑃S − 𝑃N ) is pressure drop along tube 𝑇K = ,e,W,11e -W- -1, T2 is final equilibrium temperature of two objects U is electric potential energy, x is distance, V is electrical potential energy
Reference point must be below y1 and y2 , , - - v x
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 and 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 r = radius per unit charge w (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠: y)
Energy h = viscosity of the fluid WATER VAPOUR Work done by a field is negative if a negative charge moves in direction of
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013x105
Work: 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒙𝒓𝒎𝒔 = }𝟐𝑫𝑨𝑩𝒕 Dew point temperature is when partial pressure of water = saturated an electric field, because ∆𝑼 is positive (and vice versa). For perpendicular
1 atm = 1.013x103 mbar
Work done on an angle: 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 × 𝒅 𝑥VWM = Displacement between molecules of type A in substance B in time t vapour pressure (100%RH for a given moisture content); is simply read displacement, no change in potential (equipotential). x is +ve when
𝟏 1 atm = 760 mmHg
Kinetic Energy: 𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚𝟐 1 atm = 29.5 inches Hg 𝐷OX = diffusion constant for molecules A in substance B across to left from dry bulb temperature towards, -ve when away
Gravitational Potential Energy: 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 1 bar = 105 Pa Osmotic pressure: Back pressure that stops osmosis if one solution is pure Dry bulb temperature is normal air temperature
Conservation of Energy: Absolute pressure: Measured relative to a vacuum water. Relative osmotic pressure is back pressure that stops osmosis if Wet bulb temperature is the temperature a wet sleeve covering a CAPACITANCE
neither solution is pure water thermometer bulb will reach when air is blown over it. |k| { { O
𝑲𝑬𝒇 + 𝑷𝑬𝒇 = 𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 + 𝑾𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 Gauge pressure: Measured relative to atmospheric pressure 𝐶 = |Q| = 4 l5 𝜀D = 8.85 × 10FNS 𝐹𝑚FN
Dissipative forces are not conserved: Friction 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 Saturated vapour pressure is max amount of water vapour pressure that
1 1
Total Energy is always conserved à Never created or destroyed 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆 TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL ENERGY can be sustained at given volume and temperature 𝑈 = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 S
For a constant volume gas thermometer: [ \ Q W \2 2 2
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌
Power: 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 or 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑚g = 2hf2 W2 = 0.621 (\ F\ ) 1 1 1
𝑻 𝑷
= 𝑷 , tp stands for triple point
3 3 2 𝐶𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝐶N + 𝐶S + ⋯ = + +⋯
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 BUOYANCY 𝑻
W2
is the moisture content for air à grams of water/kg of dry air 𝐶RDR!u 𝐶N 𝐶S
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒚 = = 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒑 𝒕𝒑
W3
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝑭 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽𝒈 à Weight of displaced fluid/weight of object 𝑃 Parallel Series
𝑇RY = 273.16𝐾 𝑇 = 273.16 𝑃g : partial pressure of water
𝑝K : Density of fluid 𝑃RY Capacitors in series have lower total capacitance but withstand higher
MOMENTUM 𝑃R : total pressure
V: Volume of the submerged portion of the body Conversions: 𝑻(℃) = 𝑻(𝑲) − 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 voltages. Voltage changes as capacitor discharges
𝒗 ∆𝒑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Momentum: 𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 or 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 = 𝒎 𝒕 = ∆𝒕 Buoyant force can act when ball is on the bottom of beaker Anything can be used as a (secondary) thermometer if it has properties 𝑅𝐻(𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦) =
𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 DC CIRCUITS
Elastic collisions only: 𝒗𝟏𝒊 − 𝒗𝟐𝒊 = −(𝒗𝟏𝒇 − 𝒗𝟐𝒇 ) Mass of displaced fluid: 𝒎 = 𝝆𝒇 𝑽 that change with heat, must be calibrated against a constant volume The psychometric chart shows lines of different relative humidity using the ∆𝑄
Inelastic collision: Momentum is conserved, KE not conserved Equilibrium is reached when weight = buoyant force thermometer. Thermal energy describes energy due to constant motion of 𝐼=
air temperature and the moisture content of the air as coordinates
Elastic collision: Momentum is conserved, KE is conserved 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌K 𝑉𝑔 à Equilibrium atoms/molecules. Higher temperatures means higher thermal energy. ∆𝑡
At 100%RH, DB=WB=DP, generally DP<WB<DB “Conventional current” is flow of positive charge (opposite to electron
A collision is inelastic if the objects stick together after they have collided 𝑚𝑔 > 𝜌K 𝑉𝑔 à Body sinks Also depends on size of system. Movement of thermal energy is heat
2D momentum à Find x and y components and use Pythagoras. Use 𝑚𝑔 < 𝜌K 𝑉𝑔 à Body floats movement)
transfer, continues until objects are in thermal equilibrium at the same HEAT TRANSFER u
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 to find angle Buoyant force is constant at any depth – independent of depth temperature. Equal quantities of thermal energy flow in each direction at 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅 = 𝜌 O 𝜌 is resistivity
Conduction: Occurs due to molecules with higher energy bumping into
(incompressible) thermal equilibrium neighbouring molecules and transferring energy 𝐼N = 𝐼S + 𝐼_
WAVES AND OSSILATIONS Buoyant force decreases as object moves down (compressible object) Thermal Expansion: The rate of heat transfer by conduction through successive layers is the 𝜀 is EMF (electromotive force), potential difference of battery
Hooke’s Law: 𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 , F = Force, k = spring constant, x = displacement ∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝒐𝒂∆𝑻 same through each layer Kirchhoff’s Laws: 1. Sum of potential charges in a loop is 0V (conservation
𝟏 of energy) 2. Current in = Current out (conservation of charge)
Work done on the spring by the force: 𝑾 = 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐 SURFACE TENSION/CAPILLARITY ∆𝑨 = 𝑨𝒐𝟐𝒂∆𝑻, Surface expansion coefficient is 2a ∆k dO∆f ∆k
= l = ℎeD]l 𝐴∆𝑇, ∆R is rate of heat transfer
𝟏
𝟒𝜸
Pressure in a sphere 𝑷 = 𝒓 , r is radius, y find in formula sheet ∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐𝟑𝒂∆𝑻, Volume expansion coefficient is 3a ∆R In series, current is constant, in parallel, voltage is constant
Work stored as potential energy in the spring 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐 k is the thermal conductivity of the slab (Wm-1K-1) 1 1 1
𝟏 Cohesion – Attraction between like substances A is the area 𝑅f = 𝑅N + 𝑅S + ⋯ = + +⋯
Frequency: 𝒇 = 𝑻 IDEAL GASES 𝑅f 𝑅 N 𝑅 S
Adhesion – Attraction between unlike substances ∆𝑇 is difference in temperature between two surfaces ∆𝑇 = 𝑇mno − 𝑇hno
Period: 𝑻 = 𝒇
𝟏 Ideal gases have the same volume expansion coefficient at atmospheric Series Parallel
Fluids have cohesive forces between molecules d is the thickness
pressure because volume of atoms/molecules is small compared with
𝟏 𝟏 Surface tension creates net force downwards on surface on liquid to try to ℎeD]l is the conduction heat transfer coefficient; units (Wm-2K-1)
Total Energy: 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 volume available and atoms/molecules don’t stick POWER
force the surface to be as small 𝑘
𝟏 𝟏
Energy Conservation: 𝟐 𝒌𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1 ℎeD]l = 𝐸 𝑉S
Capillary action: Raising/lowering of fluid due to adhesive/cohesive force 𝑑 𝑃= = 𝑉𝐼 = = 𝐼S𝑅
N is the total number of atoms or molecules in volume V 𝑡 𝑅
𝒌 between fluid and tube Convention: like conduction but at least 1 of the media is a moving fluid.
Velocity of SMH: 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨T𝒎 where A is the displacement NA is Avogadro’s number = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
Z W Heat transfer can be maintained indefinitely by continually having new ELECTRICITY IN THE BODY
𝒎 NON-VISCOUS FLUIDS Number of moles, 𝑛 = Z = [ fluid on one side
Period of SMH: 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅T 𝒌 + Major factors determining how dangerous an electric shock is 1. Amount
𝑅 = 𝑁O 𝑘 = 8.314𝐽𝐾 FN𝑚𝑜𝑙FN ∆k
= ℎeD]P 𝐴∆𝑇 for a fluid moving past a stationary surface of current 2. Path taken by current 3. Duration of shock 4. Frequency (DC
∆R
Equation of continuity: For any incompressible fluid (including viscous)
ℎeD]P = 3.1 or 8.3𝑣 p.^ is more dangerous than AC) Max harmless current is 5mA, 1 mA threshold
sensation, 10-20mA onset muscle contraction, 50mA onset pain, 100-
300mA potentially fatal, 0.06mA lethal if skin resistance bypassed and
current passes through heart

RC CIRCUITS
∆w w {
𝑖 = ∆R = hy 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑖=h
q is instantaneous charge on capacitor, i is instantaneous charge in circuit.
Time constant (𝜏) is time taken to fall to 37%. 2𝜏 is time taken to fall to
14%. 5𝜏 is time taken to 0. When charging, 𝜏 is time taken to reach 63% of
the final value. Capacitance is a measure of the amount of charge
separation able to be maintained for a potential difference and a measure
of ability to store energy
Discharging a Capacitor
3 3 3
𝑞 = 𝑞p𝑒 F6 𝑉 = 𝑉p𝑒 F6 𝑖 = 𝑖p𝑒 F6
Charging a Capacitor
3 3 3
𝑞 = 𝑞K (1 − 𝑒 F6) 𝑉 = 𝑉K (1 − 𝑒 F6) 𝑖 = 𝑖p𝑒 F6
Note that for both charging and discharging, the current decays

LIGHT
e ]
| 𝑛 = P | 𝑛N sin 𝜃N = 𝑛S sin 𝜃S | 𝜃eVsRse!u = sinFN(],) | 𝑛!sV = 1 |
,
If max angle, then sin-1 90o of refracted ray. Snell’s law (2nd formula) says
ray bends towards normal when slowing down. Increase in refractive
index, direction and speed change more. Blue light refracts more due to
shorter wavelength. Total internal reflection occurs when angle of
incidence > critical angle, from higher to lower refractive index only (n1>n2)
leads to optical manhole when looking up at water. When n1<n2 refracted
ray bends towards the normal. Dispersion is spreading of white light, blue
bends more out of prism than read. Radio, MW, IR, Visible, UV, X ray,
Gamma

LENSES AND MIRRORS

N N N N | l h
𝑃=K | l7
+ l = K = 𝑃 | 𝑚 = | 1 = − l 1 | 𝑓 = S (𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠)
5 5 5
R is radius of curvature
Distance from object to mirror or lens (do) is positive
Distance from lens or mirror to real image (di) is positive
Distance from lens or mirror to virtual image (di) is negative
Image is inverted when m is negative. When |m|>1, image is larger than
object. Conv=convex, div=concave for lens
Converging lens, f is positive (P is negative), diverging lens, f is negative (P
is negative)
Concave mirror, f and C are positive, convex mirror, f and C are negative.
Image is behind object for convex lens do<f and concave mirror where do>f.
image is on same side of object for concave lens, convex lens where do<f
and concave mirrors where do>f

Lens Image Type di m

Convex do>f Real +ve -ve (inverted)
Convex do<f Virtual -ve (left) +ve m>1 upright
Concave (do>f) or Virtual -ve +ve m<1 upright
do<f)

Mirror Image Type di m

Convex, object in Virtual -ve (right) +ve m<1
front of mirror (upright)
Concave do>f Real +ve (left) -ve inverted
Concave do<f Virtual -ve (right) +ve m<1 upright

The far point of the normal adult eye is at infinity

The near point of the normal adult eye is 0.25m
The accommodation of the normal adult eye is 4 dioptres
The myopic eye can be corrected with a diverging lens
Real images can be projected onto a screen, but a virtual image cannot

Wave Optics:

𝜆
𝜆! =
𝑛
When light changes medium, f doesn’t change. Diffraction is where
waves spread around the edge of a hole or obstacle. Fewer sources
of light, more spreading. A horizontal pattern is a vertical slit. D» l
gives diffraction, D>>l gives geometric shadow.
Constructive: ∆𝐷 = 𝐷" − 𝐷# = 𝑚𝜆 (𝑚 = 0,1,2)
Destructive: ∆𝐷 = 𝐷" − 𝐷# = (𝑚 + 0.5)𝜆
For a minima: 𝑚𝜆 = 𝐷 sin 𝜃 (m is integer, m+0.5 for max)
$%
For 1st minima, 𝑦 =
&
D is slit width, y is distance from central maxima to first minima, L is
distance of slit to screen, small angles only
Width of central maxima = 2y