UNI

TONE

ELEMENTSANDTHEPERI
ODI
CTABLE

Ment
iont
hef
ourbl
ocksoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.

 Met
als

 Met
all
oids

 Non-
met
alsandt
ransi
ti
onmet
als.

Whi
char
ethegener
alt
rendsi
ntheper
iodi
ctabl
e?

 At
omi
cradi
i

 I
ncr
easeasyougodownt
hegr
oup

 Doesnotchangef
rom l
eftt
ori
ght
.

 Incr
easeinatomicr
adi
iincr
easest
heshi
eldi
ngef
fectoft
heef
fect
ive
nuclearchar
ge.

 Shi
eldi
ngef
fecti
sal
socal
ledscr
eeni
ngef
fect
.

 Thi
srefer
stot
her
educedat
tr
act
ionbynucl
eusf
ort
heout
ermost
el
ect
rons.

 I
tiscausedbyel
ect
ronswi
thi
nthei
nnerener
gyl
evel
.

 I
oni
sat
ionener
gy

 Istheener
gythati
srequi
redi
nor
dert
oremovet
heout
ermost
elect
ronfr
om anat
om.

 I
sameasureofhowdi
ff
icul
titi
stor
emoveanel
ect
ronf
rom atat
om
i
ngaseousst
ate.

 Thehi
ghertheioni
zat
ionener
gyt
hemor
edi
ff
icul
titi
stor
emovean
el
ect
ronfr
om theatom.

 Li
thi
um hasar
adi
usof0.
15um andi
oni
zat
ionener
gyof520.

 Sodi
um hasar
adi
usof0.
19um andi
oni
zat
ionener
gyof496

 Pot
assi
um hasar
adi
usof0.
23andi
oni
zat
ionener
gyof479

 I
ncr
easei
nat
omi
cradi
usr
educesi
oni
zat
ionener
gy.

 El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
y

1
  I
sabi
li
tyofanat
om t
oat
tr
actel
ect
rons.

 Electr
onaffi
nit
ydecr
easesdownt
hegr
oupandi
ncr
easeacr
osst
he
periodi.
e.l
eftt
ori
ght.

 Incr
easeinat
omi
cradi
usi
ncr
easest
hedi
stancef
oref
fect
ivenucl
ear
charge.

 Asyougofr
om l
eftt
orightacr
osstheperiod,
theeffect
ivenucl
ear
char
gei
sincr
easedhenceincr
easeelect
ronaffi
nit
y.

 El
ect
ronegat
ivi
ty

 I
satendencyofanatom t
oat t
ractel
ect
ronsf
rom anot
herat
om mor
e
t
hanwhattheatom canat
tract
.

 Thismakesoneat
om posi
ti
vel
ychar
gedwhi
let
heot
heri
snegat
ivel
y
charged.

 El
ect
ronegat
ivi
tyr
esul
tsi
nfor
mat
ionofpol
armol
ecul
es.

Theper
iodi
ctabl
e

1 4
H
1 2He
7 9 11 12 19 20
3Li 4Be B
5 6C 14
N
7
16
O
8 9F 10Ne
23 24 27 28 31 32 36 40
11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si P
15 16S 17Cl 18 Ar
39 40
19 K Ca
20

Discussthetr
endsi
nthephysi
calandchemi
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
hevar
iousf
ami
li
es
ofelements.

 Gr
oupIel
ement
s

 Al
socal
ledal
kal
imet
als.

 Ar
eint
hemostr
eact
ivegr
oupofmet
als.

 Foundi
ntheext
remel
efthandsi
deoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.

2
  Li
thi
um (
Li)

 Sodi
um (
Na)

 Pot
assi
um (
K)

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngphysi
calpr
oper
ti
esdownt
hegr
oup.

 Mel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
ntsdecr
easedownt
hegr
oup.

 At
omsbecomebi
ggerduet
oincr
easei
nnumberofener
gy
l
evel
s.

 Densi
tyi
ncr
easeduet
oincr
easei
nmass.

 Ioni
zati
onenergydecr
easesduet oincreaseinatomi
csize
whichweakensf or
ceofatt
racti
onbet weenthepossi
ble
nucleusandoutermostenergylevelel
ectrons.

 El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
yreducesast
heat
om becomesbi
gger
.

 El
ect
ronegat
ivi
tydecr
easesduet
oincr
easei
nat
omi
csi
ze.

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngchemi
cal
proper
ti
es.

 Reactwi
thai
roroxygen.

 Reactwi
thwat
er.

 Reactwi
thchl
ori
ne

 Usesofal
kal
imet
alsi
ncl
ude

 Li
thi
um

 Usedi
npr
oduct
ionofl
ubr
icat
inggr
ease

 Usedi
ndeoxi
dizi
ngcopperandcopperal
loys.

 Li
thium -
6isamai
nsour
cef
ort
hepr
oduct
ionof
tr
it
anium.

 Usedinbatt
eri
eswhichcontai
nmor eenergycompar
ed
toot
hermetals.(
bat
ter
iesusedincellphonesand
computer
s)

 Sodi
um

 Usedi
npr
epar
ati
onoft
etr
aet
hyll
eadwhi
chi
susedas

3
 anti
knockr
eagenti
npetr
ol.(
Tetraet
hyll
eadi
sbei
ng
phasedoutt
oreducel
eadpollut
ionprobl
em)
.

 Usedinext
ract
ionoft
it
ani
um met
alf
rom t
it
ani
um
chl
ori
de.

 Sodi
um vapouri
susedi
nlampsf
orst
reetl
ight
ing.

 Sodi
um chl
ori
de(
NaCl
)isusedt
oaddt
ast
etof
ood.

 Sodi
um carbonatei
susedinmanuf
actur
ingofgl
ass,
det
ergent
sandf orsof
teni
nghar
dwater.

 Sodi
um hydroxi
deandsodi
um chlori
dear
eusedi
n
manufact
ureofsoapanddeter
gents.

 Pot
assi
um

 Potassi
um chl
ori
dei
susedinmaki
ngf
ert
il
izer
s(I
s
essenti
alf
orpl
antgr
owth)
.

 Pot
assium chr
omat eisusedi
ntanni
ngleat
her
,in
manufact
ureofinks,gunpowderanddyes.

 Pot
assi
um ni
tr
atei
susedasf
oodpr
eser
vat
ive.

 Gr
oupI
Iel
ement
s

 Al
socal
ledal
kal
ine–ear
thmet
als.

 Foundatt
hel
efthandsi
deoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
ejustaf
terGr
oupI
el
ements.

 Exampl
esi
ncl
ude

 Ber
yll
ium (
Be)

 Magnesi
um (
Mg)

 Cal
cium (
Ca)

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngphysi
calpr
oper
ti
esdownt
hegr
oup

 Mel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
ntsdecr
easedownt
hegr
oup.

 At
omsbecomebi
ggerduet
oincr
easei
nnumberofener
gy
l
evel
s.

 Densi
tyi
ncr
easeduet
oincr
easei
nmass.

 I
oni
zat
ionener
gydecr
easesduet
oincr
easei
nat
omi
csi
ze

4
 whichweakensfor
ceofatt
racti
onbet weenthepossi
ble
nucleusandout
ermostenergylevelel
ectr
ons.

 El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
yreducesast
heat
om becomesbi
gger
.

 El
ect
ronegat
ivi
tydecr
easesduet
oincr
easei
nat
omi
csi
ze.

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngchemi
cal
proper
ti
es

 Reactwi
thai
roroxygen.

 Reactwi
thwat
er.

 Reactwi
thchl
ori
ne

 Al
kal
ine-
ear
thmet
alshavet
hef
oll
owi
nguses

 Ber
yll
ium

 Usedi
ntr
ansmi
ssi
onofX-
rays.

 Alloyofber
yll
ium andcopperi
shar
d,st
rongwi
thhi
gh
resist
ancet
owearhenceusedt omakecomput
erpart
s.

 Alloyofberyl
li
um ar
eusedasstr
ucturalmat
eri
alsf
or
highperfor
manceaircr
aft
s,mi
ssil
es,spacecr
aft
sand
satell
it
es.

 Ber
yll
ium oxi
dei
susedi
nnucl
eari
ndust
ry.

 Magnesi
um

 Usedi
nmaki ngal
loysusedformanufactur
ingai
rcr
aft,
par
tsofcarengi
necasingandformissil
econstr
ucti
on.

 Usedasareducingagentinthepr
oduct
ionofur
ani
um
andot
hermetalsfrom sal
ts.

 Usedinphar
maceut
icali
ndust
ryt
omanuf
act
ure
medici
nesuchas

o Mi
lkofmagnesi
um (
Magnesi
um hydr
oxi
de)

o Magnesi
um chl
ori
de.

o Epsom sal
t(magnesi
um sul
phat
e.

 Magnesi
um oxi
dei
susedi
nbr
ick-
li
ner
sinf
urnaces.

 Usedi
ncomput
erf
orr
adi
o-f
requencyshi
eldi
ng.

5
  Cal
cium

 Usedasreduci
ngagenti
nthepr
epar
ati
onofmet
als
suchas

o Thor
ium

o Ur
ani
um

o zi
rconi
um

 Calci
um f
orm cal
cium car
bonat
ewhi
chi
sacomponent
ofcement.

 Cal
cium car
bonat
eisusedi
nant
aci
dtabl
ets.

 Gr
oupVI
Iel
ement
s

 Al
socal
ledhal
ogens.

 Thenamewasder
ivef
rom t
woGr
eeknames

 ‘
hal
’meani
ngsal
t.

 ‘
gen’
meani
ngpr
oduce.

 Foundatt
her
ighthandsi
debef
orenobl
egases.

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngphysi
calpr
oper
ti
es

 Br
ightanddar
kendownt
hegr
oup

 Ar
egas,
li
qui
dthr
oughsol
idsatr
oom t
emper
atur
e

 Ar
eal
ldi
atomi
c.

 Havel
owmel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
nts.

 Donotconductel
ect
ri
cit
yandheat
.

 At
omi
cradi
iincr
easedownt
hegr
oup.

 I
oni
csi
zei
ncr
easedownt
hegr
oup.

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngchemi
cal
proper
ti
es

 Ar
ehi
ghl
yreact
ive.

 Reactwi
thmet
alst
ofor
m met
alhal
ides.

 Reactwi
thot
hernon-
met
als.

6
 Havet
hef
oll
owi
nguses

 Fl
uor
ine

 Usedi
nmanuf
act
ureofpl
ast
ics.

 Hydrof
luor
icaci
disusedi
nai
rcondi
ti
oni
ngand
r
efri
gerat
ors.

 Smallamounti
nwat
erpr
event
stoot
hdecay(
formaki
ng
toot
hpaste)

 Chl
ori
ne

 Usedi
nwat
ert
reat
ment
.

 Forpr
oduct
ionof

o paperpr
oduct
s

o dyest
uff
s

o t
ext
il
e

o pet
rol
eum

o medi
cine

 Br
omi
ne

 Usedi
nmaki
ngpet
rolengi
neant
i-
knockcompounds.

 Usedi
nthemanuf
act
ureof

o Fumi
gant
s

o Fl
amepr
oofagent
s

o Wat
erpur
if
icat
ioncompounds

o Dyes

o Medi
cine

o pest
ici
des

 i
odi
ne

 usedi
nmedi
cinesuchas

o disi
nfect
antforext
ernalwoundsi
smadefr
om a
solut
ionofpotassi
um iodi
deandi
odi
neinal
cohol
.

7
  si
lveri
odi
dei
susedi
nphot
ogr
aphy.

 I
saddedt
ost
abl
esal
ttopr
eventgoi
tr
e

 Usedi
ntest
ingf
orst
archi
nbi
ologi
calsci
ence

o Tur
nsr
eact
edst
archbl
uebl
acki
ncol
our
.

 Gr
oupVI
IIel
ement
s

 Al
socal
lednobl
egases.

 Wereini
ti
all
ycal
ledi
ner
tgasesbef
oret
hedi
scover
yofkr
ypt
onand
xenon.

 Foundi
nther
ightoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.

 Al
lshel
lsar
efi
ll
edup.

 Theyar
enon-
react
ive.

 Ar
emonoat
omi
c

 Ar
ebr
ightcol
our
edgases

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
ngphysi
calpr
oper
ti
es

 Donotconductheatandel
ect
ri
cit
y.

 Havet
hef
oll
owi
nguses

 Hel
ium

 Usedi
nfi
ll
ingmet
eor
ologi
calbal
loons

 Usedasacool
ingmedi
um f
ornucl
earr
eact
ion.

 Amixtureof80%heli
um and20%oxygenisusedasan
ar
ti
fi
cialat
mospherefordi
ver
sandother
swor ki
ngunder
pr
essure.

 Usedasapr
otect
ivegasf
orsemi
conduct
ormat
eri
al.

 Usedi
npr
essur
ingr
ocketf
uel
stol
iqui
d.

 Neon

 Usedi
nmaki
ngneonadver
ti
singcol
our
edsi
gns.

 Usedt
omakehi
gh-
vol
tagei
ndi
cat
ors.

 Neonandhel
ium ar
eusedi
nmaki
nggasl
aser
s.

8
  Li
qui
dneoni
saneconomi
calr
efr
iger
ant
.

 Ar
gon

 Usedi
nel
ect
ri
call
ightbul
bsandf
luor
escentt
ubes.

 Usedasani
ner
tgasshi
eldf
orar
cwel
dingandcut
ti
ng.

UNI
TTWO

CHEMI
CALBONDI
NG

Whati
sbondi
ng?

9
  Ist
heuni onoft
woormor
epar
ti
clest
ofor
m anewoneorl
argepar
ti
clet
han
ori
ginal
.

 I
tisdonebecauset
her
eisaf
orceofat
tr
act
ionbet
weent
hosepar
ti
cles.

Whatachemi
calbond?

 I
sanat
tr
act
ionbet
weent
wopar
ti
cles.

 Par
ti
clescoul
dbeat
omsori
ons.

Ment
iont
het
hreet
ypesofbond.

 I
oni
cbond(
elect
roval
entbond)

 Coval
entbond

 Met
all
icbond

Whati
sioni
cbondi
ng?

 I
sthebondi
ngt
hatoccur
sbet
weenmet
alsandnon-
met
als.

 Met
alsl
oseel
ect
ron(
s)andbecomeposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged.

 Non-
met
alsgai
nel
ect
ron(
s)andbecomenegat
ivel
ychar
ged.

Whati
scoval
entbondi
ng?

 I
sthebondi
ngbet
weennon-
met
als.

 Al
lat
omsshar
eel
ect
rons.

 Ther
eisshar
ingoft
heel
ect
ronsi
nthebondedat
oms.

 Hydr
ogenbondi
ng

 Wher
ehydr
ogeni
sbondedt
oanot
herat
om.

Whati
smet
all
icbondi
ng?

 I
sthebondi
ngamongmet
alpar
ti
cles.

 Met
alshavef
reeel
ect
ronst
omove.

 Themovementofelect
roncl
eat
saposit
ivechar
gef
rom wher
eiti
scomi
ng
fr
om andnegat
ivechar
geiti
sgoing.

 Theseopposi
techar
gesf
orm af
orceofat
tr
act
ionbet
weenpar
ti
cles.

 Hence,ar
ti
clesat
tr
actandbond.

10
 UNI
TTHREE

ACI
DSANDBASES

Whatar
eaci
ds?

 Ar
epr
otondonor
s.

 Ar
eal
sodef
ineassubst
anceswi
thsourt
ast
e.

 Thesecanf
oundi
n

 Ci
tr
usf
rui
tssuchasor
anges,
lemons,
mal
ambe

 Ci
tr
icaci
d

 Gr
apes,
heal
thsal
t,baki
ngpowder
,bwemba

 Tar
tar
icaci
d

 Sourmi
lk

 Lact
icaci
d

 Vi
negar

 Et
hanoi
caci
d

 I
nant
ssuchasbeeandnet
tl
est
ings

 Met
hanoi
caci
d

 Coke,
lemonade,
otherf
izzydr
inks

 Car
boni
caci
d

 Cheese

 But
anoi
caci
d

 Tea

 Tanni
caci
d

 Foundasdi
lut
eaci
dinst
omach

 Hydr
ochl
ori
caci
d

 Carbat
ter
ies,
fer
ti
li
zer
s,det
ergent

11
  Sul
phur
icaci
d

 Fer
ti
li
zer
sandexpl
osi
ves

 Ni
tr
icaci
d.

Whatar
etheusesofaci
dinever
ydayl
if
e?

 Or
gani
caci
ds

 Vi
negar

 has6%acet
icaci
d.

 Usedi
nfoodpr
epar
ati
onandpr
eser
vat
ion.

 Ci
tr
icaci
d

 Usedi
npr
epar
ati
onofef
fer
vescentsal
ts

 Usedf
orf
oodpr
eser
vat
ion

 Tanni
caci
d

 Formanuf
act
uri
ngofi
nk

 I
npr
ocessi
ngofl
eat
her

 Acet
ylsal
icyl
icaci
d

 Al
soknownasaspi
ri
n

 Usedt
orel
iefpai
n,f
ever

 Reducesi
nfl
ammat
ion

 Ascor
bicaci
d

 Al
soknownasvi
tami
nC

 Usedasanant
ioxi
dant
.

 Car
boni
caci
d

 Usedt
omakecar
boni
cdr
inksl
ikesoda

 Mi
ner
alaci
ds

 Sul
phur
icaci
d

 Usedi
nmanuf
act
ureoff
ert
il
izer
s

12
  Ammoni
asul
phat
e

 Usedi
ncarbat
ter
ies.

 Bot
heni
tr
icandsul
phur
icaci
ds

 Formanuf
act
ureof

 Dyes

 Pai
nts

 Dr
ugs

 Expl
osi
ves

 Hydr
ochl
ori
caci
d

 Usedi
ncl
eani
ngst
eel(
pickl
ing.

 Phosphor
icaci
d

 Usedt
omake

 Det
ergent
s

 Fer
ti
li
zer
s

 Sof
tdr
inks.

Ment
ionsomepr
oper
ti
esofaci
ds.

 Hassourt
ast
e.

 Tur
nredl
it
muspaperbl
ue.

 Cont
ainshydr
ogenwhi
chmaybedi
spl
acedbysomemet
als

 Li
ber
atescar
bondi
oxi
def
rom car
bonat
eandhydr
ogencar
bonat
es.

 React
swi
thabaset
ogi
veasal
tandwat
eronl
y.

Whatar
ebases?

 Ar
epr
otonaccept
er.

 Al
sodef
inedassubst
anceswi
thbi
tt
ert
ast
e.

Ment
ionexampl
esofcommonbases.

 Sodi
um hydr
oxi
de

13
  Cal
cium hydr
oxi
de

 Magnesi
um hydr
oxi
de

 Ammoni
um hydr
oxi
de

 Pot
assi
um hydr
oxi
de

Whatar
ethecommonusesofbasesi
never
ydayl
if
e?

 Sodi
um hydr
oxi
de.

 Manuf
act
uri
ngofsoap.

 Usedi
npet
rol
eum r
efi
ning.

 Manuf
act
uri
ngofmedi
cine,
paperandpul
p.

 Maki
ngr
ayoni
nthet
ext
il
eindust
ry.

 Cal
cium hydr
oxi
de(
alsocal
ledsl
akedl
ime)
.

 Manuf
act
uri
ngofbl
eachi
ngpowder
.

 Neut
ral
iseaci
dinwat
ersuppl
y.

 Mixedwit
hsandandwat ert
omakemor
tarwhi
chi
susedi
nthe
const
ruct
ionofbui
ldi
ngs’

 Neut
ral
iseaci
dicsoi
lsi
nor
dert
oimpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

 Usedasanant
idot
eforf
oodpoi
soni
ng.

 Usedpr
epar
ati
onoff
ungi
cides.

 Ammoni
um hydr
oxi
de.

 Tor
emovei
nkspot
sfr
om cl
othes.

 Tor
emovegr
easef
rom wi
ndow-
panes.

 Forwat
erpur
if
icat
ion.

 Pot
assi
um hydr
oxi
de.

 Usedi
nmanuf
act
uri
ngofal
kal
inebat
ter
ies.

 Magnesi
um hydr
oxi
de.

 Usedi
nlaxat
ive(
i.
e.st
imul
ati
onofbowelmovement
).

 Usedasant
aci
dint
reat
mentofhear
tbur
n.

14
Whatar
ethepr
oper
ti
esofbases?

 I
sasubst
ancewi
thbi
tt
ert
ast
e.

 Tur
nsbl
uel
it
muspaperr
ed.

 Reactwi
thaci
dst
opr
oducesal
tandwat
er.

Whatar
eaci
d/basei
ndi
cat
ors?

 Areal
lsubst
ancest
hatcanbeusedt
oshowt
hatt
hesubst
anceyouhavei
s
anaci
dorbase.

 I
ndi
cat
orst
urnaci
dcol
ourorbasecol
ourwhenaddedt
oit
.

 Ther
ear
elocalorcommer
ciali
ndi
cat
ors.

 Locali
ndi
cat
ors.

 Canbepr
epar
edf
rom l
ocalmat
eri
alssuchaspl
antext
ract
.

Howcanyoupr
epar
elocali
ndi
cat
or?

 Mat
eri
alscani
ncl
ude

 Testt
ubes

 Leavese.
g.acaci
aandt
omat
oes

 Pest
leandmor
tar

 Et
hanol

 Hi
biscusf
lower

 Wat
er

 Pr
ocedur
e

 Cr
ushsomehi
biscusf
lower
sinamor
tarusi
ngapest
le.

 Addl
it
tl
eamountofet
hanol
.

 Gr
indt
hepet
alsunt
ilyougetenoughext
ractoft
hef
lowerused.

 Fi
lt
ert
hel
i
qui
dint
oacl
eanbeaker
.

 Addaf
ewdr
opsofi
ndi
cat
ort
othel
iqui
dtobet
est
ed

 Recor
dthecol
ourchange

15
Gi
veexampl
esofcommer
ciali
ndi
cat
ors.

 Li
tmuspaper
.

 Bl
uel
it
muspapert
urnsr
edonpr
esenceofbases.

 Redl
it
muspapert
urnsbl
ueonpr
esenceofaci
ds.

 Met
hyl
-or
ange.

 Tur
nsyel
lowonpr
esenceofbases.

 Tur
nspi
nkonpr
esenceofaci
ds.

 Phenol
pht
hal
ein.

 Tur
nsbasesor
ange.

 Noef
fectonaci
ds.

 Scr
eenedmet
hylor
ange.

 Tur
nsor
angei
npr
esenceofbases.

 Tur
nspur
plei
npr
esenceofaci
ds.

Whatar
euni
ver
sali
ndi
cat
ors?

 Thesearemi
xtur
esofdyeswhi
chgi
vesar
angeofcol
our
sdependi
ngon
st
rengt
hofaci
dandbase.

 Aci
dshavecol
our
srangesof

 Redst
rongestaci
d

 Or
angemedi
um aci
d

 Yel
lowweakaci
d

 Basehavecol
our
srangesof

 Vi
oletst
rongestbase.

 Bl
ueweakbase

 Gr
eencol
ouri
snotaci
disnotbase.(
isneut
ral
).

Whati
sthepHscal
e?

 I
tisascal
eofnumber
sthatshowsst
rengt
hofanaci
dorabase.

 Number
srangef
rom 1t
hrough14.

16
  1i
sthest
rongestaci
d.

 14i
sthest
rongestbase.

 7i
sneut
ral
.

Def
ineneut
ral
isat
ion.

 I
tist
heactofmaki
ngaci
dorbasel
oosei
tsaci
dit
yorbasi
cit
y.

 I
tdonebyr
eact
ingbaseandaci
d.

 Thepr
oducti
swat
erandsal
t.

Whati
stheappl
icat
ionofneut
ral
isat
ioni
never
ydayl
if
e?

 Alumini
um hydroxi
de,
hydrogencar
bonate,
magnesium hydr
oxi
dei
susedt
o
neutr
ali
seexcesshydrochl
ori
caci
dinthestomach.

 Calci
um oxi
de(qui
ckli
me)orcalci
um hydr
oxi
de(
slakedl
ime)i
susedt
o
neutr
ali
seexcessaci
dsinaci
dicsoil
s.

 Toothpasteformout
hcl
eani
nghasabasewhi
chneut
ral
isest
heaci
dwhi
ch
causesteet
hdecay.

17
 UNI
TFOUR

HYDROCARBONS

Whati
sor
gani
cchemi
str
y?

 I
sthest
udyofcar
bon,
oxi
desandcar
bonat
es.

 Theabil
it
yofcar
bontobebondedt
oot
herel
ement
ssuchashydr
ogenand
oxygeni
scall
edcat
enat
ion.
.

 Thepr
oduct
sfor
medar
eor
gani
ccompounds.

 Or
gani
ccompoundshavehomol
ogousser
ies.

 Thesearecompoundswi
thsi
mil
arpr
oper
ti
esandbehavei
ncer
tai
n
si
milarways.

 Theyhavecer
tai
ngener
alf
ormul
a.

 Compoundsdi
ff
erf
rom oneanot
herwi
thaconst
antat
om orgr
oupof
at
oms.

 Canbepr
epar
edusi
ngsi
mil
armet
hod.

 Showgr
adualchangei
nphysi
calpr
oper
ti
es.

 Havesi
mil
archemi
cal
proper
ti
es.

 Exampl
esofhomol
ogousser
iesofor
gani
cchemi
str
yincl
ude

 Al
kanes

 Al
kenes

 Al
kanol
s

 Al
kanoi
caci
ds

 al
kynes

Whatar
ehydr
ocar
bons?

 Ar
eal
lor
gani
ccompoundswhi
chcont
aincar
bonandhydr
ogenonl
y.

 Exampl
esofhydr
ocar
bonsi
ncl
ude

 Al
kanes

18
  Al
kenes

ALKANES

 Exampl
es;pet
rol
eum,
gasf
uel
s.

FUNCTI
ONALGROUP:

 Hasnof
unct
ionalgr
oup.

GENERALFORMULA:

 CnH2+2n (wher
eni
snumberofcar
bonsi
ntheel
ement
)

COMMONNOMENCLATURE

Numbe For
mul Pref
i Sur
fi Name St
ruct
ure
r a x x

Of
car
bon
s

1 CH4 Met
h -
ane Met
han H
- e H C H
H

2 C2H6 Et
h- -
ane Et
hane H H
H C C H
H H

3 C3H8 Pr
op- -
ane Propan H H H
e H C C C H
H H H

4 C4H10 But
- -
ane But
ane H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H

5 C5H12 Pent
- -
ane Pent
an H H H H H
e H C C C C C H
H H H H H

6 C6H14 Hex- -
ane Hexane H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H H H H H H

19
7 C7H16 Hept
- -
ane Hept
an H H H H H H H
e H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H

8 C8H18 Oct
- -
ane Oct
ane H H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H

9 C9H20 Non- -
ane Nonane H H H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C C
H
H H H H H H H H H

H H H H H H H H H
H
10 C10H22 Dec- -
ane Decane H C C C C C C C C C
C H
H H H H H H H H H
H

TESTFORALKANES

 Sol
ubi
li
tyt
est

 To15dr
opsofwat
eri
nat
estt
ube,
addatl
east6dr
opsoft
het
est
l
iqui
di.
e.al
kane.

 Resul
t:

 Twol
ayer
sar
eseen.

 Deduct
ion:

 I
nsol
ubl
einwat
er.

 Concl
usi
on:

 Canbeahydr
ocar
bon.

 Br
omi
net
est
:

 To15dr
opsofbr
omi
nesol
uti
onadd2dr
opsoft
het
estl
iqui
di.
e.
al
kane.

 Resul
ts:

20
  Nocol
ourchangeobser
ved.

 Deduct
ion:

 Onl
ysi
ngl
ebond.

 Concl
usi
on

 Al
kane.

SOURCESOFALKANES

 Fr
act
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
onofcr
udeoi
l.

Gas (
bot
tl
ed
gas)

Pet
rol
(
gasol
ine)

Napht
ha

Ker
osene

Di
esel

Cr
udeoi
l Fuel
oil

Lubr
icat
ing
oi
l

21
PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFALKANES

 Mel
ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoi
ntsi
ncr
easedownt
hegr
oup.

 Ar
egases,
li
qui
dst
hroughsol
idsatr
oom t
emper
atur
e.

 Ar
einsol
ubl
einwat
er.

 Ar
esol
ubl
einor
gani
csol
vent
s.

 Donotconductel
ect
ri
cit
y.

 Vi
scosi
tyi
ncr
easesdownt
hegr
oup.

CHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFALKANES

 Ar
elessr
eact
ive.

 Bur
ninai
roroxygen.

 Undergoessubst
it
uti
onr
eact
ion.

USESOFALKANES

 Met
hanei
susedasasour
cef
orcooki
ngandf
ueli
nvehi
cles.

 Propaneandbutanear
eusedi
nschooll
abor
ator
iesandi
ndust
ri
esf
or
heati
ngpur
poses.

 But
anemi xedwi
thsmallpr
oport
ionsofpropanearecompressedingas
cyl
inder
susedinhousehol
dli
ghti
ng,waterheat
ingandcooking.

 Pet
roli
susedi
naut
omobi
le.

 Al
kaneswithhi
ghernumber sofcar
bonsar
eusedassol
venti
nthe
manufact
urei
ndustr
ialchemical
s.

 Sol
idal
kaneshaveot
her
susessuchas

 Bi
tumen

22
  Vasel
inePet
rol
eum j
ell
y.

 Candl
ebur
nst
ogi
vel
ight
.(candl
ewaxi
shydr
ocar
bon)
.

ALKENES

 Exampl
es:

 Pl
ast
ics

 Funct
ionalgr
oup:

 C=C i
.ecar
bont
ocar
bondoubl
ebond.

 Gener
alf
ormul
a

 CnH2n

COMMONNOMENCLATURE

Numbe For
mul Pr
if
ix Sur
fi Name St
ruct
ure
r a x
of
car
bon

2 C2H4 Et
h- -
ene Et
hene H H

C=C

H H

3 C3H6 Pr
o- -
ene Pr
open H H H
e
C=C -C-H

H H

4 C4H8 But
- -
ene But
ene H H H H

C=C-C - C H

H H H

23
5 C5H10 Pent
--ene Pent
en H H H H H
e C=C -C -C - C -H
H H H H

6 C6H12 Hex- -
ene Hexen H H H H H H
e
C=C -C -C -C -C -H
H H H H H

7 C7H14 Hept
--ene Hept
en H H H H H H H
e
C =C -C - C - C - C -C -H

H H H H H H

8 C8H16 Oct
- -
ene Oct
ene H H H H H H H H

C =C -C -C -C - C -C -C-H

H H H H H H H

9 C9H18 Non- -
ene Nonen H H H H H H H H H
e
C = C -C - C -C -C -C -C -C-H

H H H H H H H H

10 C10H20 Dec- -
ene Decen H H H H H H H H H H
e
C=C -C -C -C -C -C -C -C -C
H

H H H H H H H H H H

TESTFORALKENES

 Sol
ubi
li
tyt
est
:

 To15dropsofwat
eri
nthet
estt
ubeaddatl
east6dr
opsoft
estl
iqui
d.
i
.eal
kene.

 Resul
t:

 Twol
ayer
sar
eseen.

 Deduct
ion:

 I
nsol
ubl
einwat
er.

24
  Concl
usi
on:

 Canbeahydr
ocar
bon.

 Br
omi
net
est
:

 To15dr
opsofbr
omi
nesol
uti
onadd2dr
opsoft
het
estl
iqui
d.

 Resul
ts:

 Becomescl
earorcol
our
less.

 Deduct
ion:

 Hasdoubl
ebondt
hathasmadei
tpossi
blef
ort
her
eact
ion.

 Concl
usi
on:

 Al
kene.

SOURCESOFALKENES

 Dehydr
ati
onofal
cohol

 Dehydr
ati
oni
sthepr
ocessofr
emovi
ngwat
erf
rom acompound.

 Whenwat
erhasbeenr
emovedf
rom al
cohol
,ther
esul
tisal
kene

C4H9OH concent
rat
edaci
d C4H8 +
heat

 Thef
inalpr
oducti
sal
kenecal
ledbut
ane.

 Cr
acki
ngofhydr
ocar
bons.

 Thisi
nvolvest
hebr
eakingofl
ongchainal
kanemol
ecul
eint
oa
short
eroneandanalkenemol
ecul
e..

 Thi
sisdoneunderahi
ght
emper
atur
e.

700degr
eesCel
sius
C6H14 C4H10 + C2H4

PHYSI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFALKENES

 Boi
li
ngandmel
ti
ngpoi
ntsi
ncr
easesdownt
hegr
oup.

25
  Densi
tyi
ncr
easesdownt
hegr
oup.

 Ar
esol
idorl
iqui
datr
oom t
emper
atur
e.

 Ar
einsol
ubl
einwat
er.

 Ar
esol
ubl
einor
gani
csol
vent
s.

CHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ES

 Canbur
ninai
roroxygen.

 Undergoaddi
ti
onr
eact
ions

 Addi
ti
onofhydr
ogen

 al
socal
ledhydr
ogenat
ion.

 Et
hanereact
swi
thhydr
ogeni
nthepr
esenceofcat
alystt
ofor
m
et
hane.

 Hydr
ati
on

 Whenet
hanei
sreact
edwithconcent
rat
edsulphuri
caci
dit
f
ormsacompoundcall
edethyl
hydr
ogesul
phate.

 Whenaddedt
owat
erandwar
med,
anal
coholi
sfor
medcal
led
et
hanol
.

 Addi
ti
onofhal
ogenst
oet
hane.

 Al
socal
ledhal
ogenat
ion

 Thi
spr
oduceshal
ogenal
-al
kane.

 Br
omo-
alkane

 Chl
oro-
alkane

 I
odo-
alkane

 Hal
ogenbr
eakst
hedoubl
ebondofal
kene.

USESOFALKENES

 Et
haneandpr
openear
eusedi
nthemanuf
act
ureofpl
ast
ics.

 Et
hanei
susedi
nar
ti
fi
cialr
ipeni
ngoff
rui
ts

26
 UNI
TFI
VE

AI
R

Whati
sai
r?

 I
sthemi
xtur
eofgases.

 Ai
rcont
ainst
hef
oll
owi
ng

 78%ni
tr
ogen.

 21%oxygen.

 0.
03%car
bondi
oxi
de.

27
  About1nobl
egas

 Var
iabl
esmoke/
dustpar
ti
cles

 Var
iabl
epol
lut
inggases

Howcanyousepar
atecomponent
sofai
r?

 Byusi
ngf
ract
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
onofl
iqui
dai
r.

Ai
r

pum
p

Fi
lt
ersand
pur
ifi
ers
Dustpar
ti
clesr
emoved

Coolt
o-25oC

Car
bondi
oxi
der
emoved

Aircompressedand
expanded
Furt
hercool
ingt
ofor
m
l
iqui
dair
Fr
act
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
onofl
iqui
d
ai
r

Fract
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
on
column
Nit
r 196oC,
ogenat- Ar 186oC,
gonat- Oxygenat-
o
183C

28
Whatar
etheusesofgasesf
oundi
ntheai
r?

 Ni
tr
ogen

 Di
lut
etheoxygeni
ntheai
r

 Weakenst
hepr
ocessofbur
ningandr
ust
ingi
nai
r.

 Legumi nouspl
ant
shavebact
eri
awhi
chconver
tsai
rni
tr
ogeni
nto
usefulcompoundri
chinni
tr
ogen.

 Oxygen

 I
sact
ivef
ract
ionofai
r.

 Necessar
yforbr
eat
hing.

 Usedf
orbur
ning.

 Usedi
nrust
inganddecay.

 Wi
thoutoxygen,
ther
ewoul
dbenol
if
e.

 Car
bondi
oxi
de

 Ai
rcont
ainsonl
y0.
03%.

 Exhal
edai
risabout3%

 Somecomesf r
om bur
ningwood,
coal
,pet
rol
,oi
landot
her
compounds.

 Usedi
npl
ant
sforphot
osynt
hesi
s.

 Nobl
egases

 Exampl
esi
ncl
udear
gon,
neon,
hel
ium,
krypt
onandxenon.

 Donotr
eactwi
thanyot
hersubst
ance

 Ar
goni
susedi
nel
ect
ri
cbul
bs.

 Hel
ium i
susedi
nweat
herbal
loons.

 Neoni
susedi
ncol
our
edadver
ti
sementsi
gns.

29
QUANTI
TATI
VEDETERMI
NATI
ONOFTHEFRACTI
ONOFOXYGENI
NAI
R

 Ai
m

 Todet
ermi
net
heper
cent
ageofai
rusedwhenacandl
ebur
ns.

 Appar
atus

 Tr
ough

 Beehi
veshel
f

 Candl
e

 Gasj
ar

 30cm r
uler

 Sodi
um hydr
oxi
desol
uti
on

 Pr
ocedur
e

 I
nver
tanempt
ygasj
arovert
hecandl
ebef
orel
ight
ingi
t.

 Measur
ethel
engt
hofAi
ncm asshowni
nthef
igur
ebel
ow.

 Removet
hegasj
ar.

 Li
ghtt
hecandl
eandi
mmedi
atel
ycoveri
twi
tht
heempt
ygasj
ar.

 Whent
hecandl
efl
amegoesof
f,measur
ehei
ghtBi
ncm.
Gasj
ars

Sodi
um hydr
oxi
de

A B

 Whent
hecandl
eisl
i
t,i
tbur
nsf
orsomet
imet
hengoesof
f.

 Thewat
erl
evelr
isesi
nsi
det
hegasj
arandgoesdowni
nthet
rough.

 Amountofai
rint
hegasj
arwasA.

 Amountofai
ruseddur
ingbur
ningi
sA-
Bi.
e.t
her
isei
nthel
evelof

30
 wat
er.

 Per
cent r=(
ageofai hei
ghtA-
heightB)x100=C%.
hei
ghtA

 Oxygencanalsobeprepar
edi
nthel
abor
ator
ybyr
eact
ingmanganeseoxi
de
andhydrogenper
oxi
de.

 Hydr
ogenper
oxi
debr
eaksi
ntowat
erandoxygen.

 Manganesedi
oxi
dei
susedasacat
alyst
s.

 Oxygencanal
sor
eactwi
thmet
alst
opr
oducer
ustundert
hepr
esenceof
water

 Oxygencanal
socausebur
ningofmet
alsandot
hersubst
ances.

PHYSI
CALANDCHEMI
CALPROPERTI
ESOFOXYGEN

 Physi
calpr
oper
ti
esi
ncl
ude

 I
scol
our
lessgas

 Hasnosmel
l

 I
ssl
ight
lysol
ubl
einwat
er

 I
ssl
ight
lydensert
hanai
r

 I
sneut
ralt
oli
tmuspaper
.

 Chemi
cal
proper
ti
esi
ncl
ude

 I
sver
yreact
ive.

 Suppor
tsbur
ning.

USESOFOXYGEN

 I
nwel
dingandcut
ti
ngofmet
als.

 Usedasai
dtobr
eat
hingwher
ethenat
uralsuppl
yisi
nsuf
fi
cient
.

 Usedt
oremovei
mpur
it
iesi
nthepr
ocessofmaki
ngst
eel
.

 Li
qui
doxygeni
susedt
obur
nfueli
nsomespacer
ocket
s.

 Ami
xtur
eofchar
coal
,pet
rolandl
iqui
doxygeni
susedasanexpl
osi
ve.

ATMOSPHERI
CPOLLUTANTSANDNTHEI
RSOURCES

31
  At
mospheri
cpol
luti
onisthei
ntr
oduct
ionofsubst
ancet
otheenvi
ronment
whi
chhavehar
mf ulef
fect
sontheabi
li
tyoft
heenvir
onmentt
osupportl
if
e.

 Canal
sobedef
ineasmaki
ngenvi
ronmentdi
rt
y.

 At
mospher
icpol
lut
ioncanbe

 Poi
sonousgases

 Sol
idpar
ti
cles

POI
SONOUSGASESANDTHEI
REFFECTSONHEALTHANDENVI
RONMENT

 Sul
phurdi
oxi
de(
SO2)

 Fr
om mostf
uel
s.

 Ar
etoxi
candcauser
espi
rat
orydi
seases.

 Al
sof
orm aci
dicr
ain.

 Ni
tr
ogendi
oxi
de(
NO2)

 Whenni
tr
ogeni
ntheai
rcombi
neswi
thoxygen.

 Toxi
cgas.

 Pr
omot
esr
espi
rat
orydi
seases.

 Al
sof
ormsaci
drai
n

 Car
bondi
oxi
de(
CO2)

 Pr
event
swar
m ai
rfr
om escapi
ngi
ntot
heat
mospher
e.

 Causesgr
eenhouseef
fect
s.

 Gr
eenhouseef
fect
sleadst
ogl
obalwar
ming.

 Causesthemel
ti
ngofpol
ari
cecapswhi
chcanr
iset
hel
eveloft
he
oceans.

 Hencel
eadt
ofl
oodi
ng.

 Car
bonmonoxi
de(
CO)

 Fr
om t
hebur
ningf
uel
s.

 Poi
sonousgas.

 Cancombi
newi
thhaemogl
obi
nint
her
edbl
oodcel
lst
ofor
m st
abl
e

32
 compoundcal
ledcar
boxyhaemogl
obi
n.

 Causessuf
focat
ionanddeat
h

 Hasnoor
derorcol
ourwhi
chmakesi
tdi
ff
icul
ttober
ecogni
sed

 Unbur
nthydr
ocar
bons

 Canbecar
cinogeni
c.

 Chl
ori
ne

 Fr
om decayedi
nsect
ici
desandper
fumespr
ays.

 Dest
roysozonegas.

 Ozone(
O3)

 Gener
all
yli
ghtbl
uegas.

 Causesheadachesamongpeopl
e.

SOLI
DPARTI
CLES

 Lar
gepar
ti
clesdumpedbypeopl
eint
heenvi
ronment
.

 Thesemayi
nwat
eroronl
and.

 Exampl
esi
ncl
ude

 Cement

 Fl
our

 Sugar

 Pl
ast
icbags

 Mi
ning

 Quar
ry

SOURCESOFPOLLUTANTS

 Smokef
rom i
ndust
ri
es.

 Smokef
rom vehi
cles

 Char
coalbur
ning

 Fl
oods

33
EFFECTMADETOREDUCEATMOSPHERI
CPOLLUTI
ON

 I
mpr
ovementofcombust
ionoff
uel
s.

 I
ntr
oduct
ionofbet
terpr
ocessi
ngoff
uel
stomaket
hem f
reef
rom sul
phur
.

 I
ntr
oduci
ngmor
ebet
terf
il
tersyst
emsi
nindust
ri
es.

 I
ntr
oduci
ngofsmokel
esssol
idf
uel
sorf
uel
sli
kehydr
ogen.

UNI
TSI
X

SOI
L

Whati
ssoi
l?

 I
sat
opmat
eri
alont
heear
th’
scr
ustt
hatsuppor
tsl
ivi
ng.

 Soi
liscomposedof

34
  I
nor
gani
cmat
ter
.

 Or
gani
cmat
ter
.

 Wat
er.

 Ai
r.

 I
nor
gani
cmat
ter

 50%oft
hesoi
l.

 I
ncl
uder
ockpar
ti
clesf
rom weat
her
ing,
andmi
ner
als.

 Thesef
orm soi
lpar
ti
clessuchas

 Sand

 Si
lt

 Cl
ay

 Al
sof
orm mi
ner
alel
ement
ssuchas

 I
ron

 Al
umi
nium

 Copper

 Si
li
cat
es

 Or
gani
cmat
ter

 5%oft
hesoi
l.

 Fr
om

 ani
malwast
esandhuman

 decayedpar
tsofpl
ant
sandani
mal
s.

 Al
socal
ledhumus.

 Wat
er(
moi
stur
e)

 25%oft
hesoi
l.

 I
sasol
ventf
ormi
ner
als.

 Toomuchwat
ercauseswat
erl
oggedsoi
l.

35
  Ai
r

 25%oft
hesoi
l.

 Foundi
nsoi
lpor
es.

 Al
socal
ledat
mospher
eorsoi
lai
r.

CHEMI
CALCOMPOSI
TIONOFSOI
L.

 Cat
ionsexchangeabl
ecapaci
ty

 I
samountofexchangeabl
eionsi
n100gofsoi
l.

 Thesei
ncl
ude

 Cal
cium

 Pot
assi
um

 Sodi
um

 Fer
ti
lesoi
lhavever
yhi
ghamountofexchangeabl
ecapaci
ty(
CEC)
.

 Soi
lwi
thver
yhi
ghexchangeabl
esodi
um i
stoxi
ctomostcr
ops.

 Soi
lsal
ini
ty

 Amountofsal
tsi
nthesoi
lperuni
tmassi
scal
ledsal
ini
ty.

 Sal
inesoi
lshaveexcesssal
tsespeci
all
ysodi
um chl
ori
dewhi
chcan
bet
oxic.

 Soi
lpH

 Mosti
mpor
tantchemi
cal
proper
tyoft
hesoi
l.

 Det
ermi
nest
hesoi
lfer
ti
li
tyi
nter
msofmi
ner
alnut
ri
ent
s.

 Canbeaci
dit
yoral
kal
ini
ty.

 Thedegr
eeofaci
dit
yisdet
ermi
nedbyt
heconcent
rat
ionoft
he
hydr
ogenint
hesoil
.

 St
rongaci
dici
s1whi
leweakaci
dici
s6.

 St
rongal
kal
inei
s14andweakal
kal
inei
s8

 7i
snotaci
dicnoral
kal
ine.i
sneut
ral
.

SOI
LPOLLUTI
ON

36
 Canbepol
lut
edby

 Oxi
desofsul
phur

 Causeaci
dicr
ains.

 Alsocauseleachi
ngofmi
ner
alnut
ri
ent
sleadi
ngt
odecr
easei
n
fert
il
it
yofthesoil
.

 Aer
osol
s

 Ar
eusedt
ocont
rolpest
sanddi
seasesi
npl
ant
sandani
mal
s.

 Usual
lycont
ainheavymet
alssuchas

 Copper

 Mer
cur
y

 Thesear
eabsor
bedbypl
ant
s.

 Thesepl
ant
sar
etoxi
cwheneat
enbyani
mal
s.

 Cancausedeat
h.

 Theycanal
soki
llsoi
lmi
croor
gani
sm.

 Pet
rol
eum pr
oduct
s

 oi
lspi
ll
ski
l
lsoi
lmi
croor
gani
sms.

 Agr
o-chemi
cal
s

 I
ncl
udechemi
cal
ssuchas

 Fer
ti
li
zer
s

 I
nsect
ici
des

 Pest
ici
des

 Fungi
cides

 Sol
idwast
es

 Fr
om househol
dsandi
ndust
ri
es.

 Somear
ebi
odegr
adabl
ewhi
leot
herar
enon-
biodegr
adabl
e..

 Cancausei
njur
ies.

 Exampl
esi
ncl
ude

37
  Gl
assbot
tl
es

 Scr
apmet
als.

PREVENTI
ONOFSOI
LPOLLUTI
ON

 Recycl
eal
lsol
idwast
es

 Bur
nbi
odegr
adabl
eswast
eswhi
chcanbebur
nt.

 Useor
gani
cfar
mingt
odi
scour
ageexcessuseofchemi
calf
ert
il
izer
s.

 Encour
ageusi
ngbi
ologi
calcont
rolofpest
sanddi
seases.

 Pipel
inet
ranspor
tofpet
rolandpet
rol
eum pr
oduct
stomi
nimi
set
her
iskof
spil
li
ng.

38