The structure of the Earth

The inner structure of the Earth:

the study of the inaccessible Earth

The composition and the structure of the inner Earth cannot be known
through direct observations. We have some direct information from:

Boreholes
Oil wells: generally about 6-7 km
Scientific boreholes: about 13 km max

Particular geological structures

tectonic windows, peneplains (max 60-100 km)

Magmas
Erupted lavas may contain rock fragments (xenoliths) belonging to
the upper mantle (source region of these melts) (max 100-200 km)

If we think about the terrestrial radius (6370 km) we immediately

realize that this piece of information is not so fantastic.
Therefore, it is necessary to resort to indirect methods:
1) terrestrial average density is 5.517 gr/cm3 (astronomic
determinations, e.g. period of the moon’s orbit, distance,
gravitational constant, calculated from a pendulus knowing
g, and Earth radius) whereas the average crustal density is 2.75
gr/cm3;
2) terrestrial average composition (meteorite findings, and their
composition);
3) precession of the equinoxes constant: this parameter allow
calculating the moment of inertia, an important information on the
distribution of the densities within the Earth;
4) seismic data: most of our knowledge on the Earth’s interior
comes from seismic data; they indicate the presence of
discontinuities within the Earth and give important information
on the elastic properties of rocks.
- natural seismic waves (earthquakes)
- artificial seismic waves (explosion, heavy anvils, etc….)
Meteorites: extraterrestrial bodies of different compositions, falling
on Earth as shooting stars (or falling stars):
- Chondrites (stony meteorites): 86%, composed mainly of silicate
minerals (the same as the Earth) and age of about 4.55 By 
material from the asteroid belts, the most primitive and ancient
materials in the solar system;
- Achondrites (stony meteorites): 8%, also composed of silicate
minerals, but more variable composition and differentiated,
represent crustal materials of planetesimals then destroyed by
collisions during the early stages of formation of the solar system;
- Iron meteorites (Fe-Ni alloy): 5%, probably from cores of
planetesimals destroyed by collisions;
Therefore, it is necessary to resort to indirect methods:
1) terrestrial average density is 5.517 gr/cm3 (astronomic
determinations, e.g. period of the moon’s orbit, distance,
gravitational constant, calculated from a pendulus knowing
g, and Earth radius) whereas the average crustal density is 2.75
gr/cm3;
2) terrestrial average composition (meteorite findings, and their
composition);
3) precession of the equinoxes constant: this parameter allow
calculating the moment of inertia, an important information on the
distribution of the densities within the Earth;
4) seismic data: most of our knowledge on the Earth’s interior
comes from seismic data; they indicate the presence of
discontinuities within the Earth and give important information
on the elastic properties of rocks.
- natural seismic waves (earthquakes)
- artificial seismic waves (explosion, heavy anvils, etc….)
 ~ 26,000 years

1 day
Therefore, it is necessary to resort to indirect methods:
1) terrestrial average density is 5.517 gr/cm3 (astronomic
determinations, e.g. period of the moon’s orbit, distance,
gravitational constant, calculated from a pendulus knowing
g, and Earth radius) whereas the average crustal density is 2.75
gr/cm3;
2) terrestrial average composition (meteorite findings, and their
composition);
3) precession of the equinoxes constant: this parameter allow
calculating the moment of inertia, an important information on the
distribution of the densities within the Earth;
4) seismic data: most of our knowledge on the Earth’s interior
comes from seismic data; they indicate the presence of
discontinuities within the Earth and give important information
on the elastic properties of rocks.
- natural seismic waves (earthquakes)
- artificial seismic waves (explosion, heavy anvils, etc….)
Isaac Newton, 1687
Principia, Book III, The System of the World, Proposition 10,
Theorem we read:

‘If the earth were not denser than the seas, it would emerge
from those seas and, according to the degree of its lightness,
a part of the earth would stand out from the water, while all
those seas flowed to the opposite side. By the same argument
the spots on the sun are lighter than the solar shining matter
on top of which they float. And in whatever way the planets
were formed, at the time when the mass was fluid, all heavier
matter made for the centre, away from the water. Accordingly,
since the ordinary matter of our earth at its surface is about
twice as heavy as water, and a little lower down, in mines, is
found to be about three or four or even five times heavier
than water, it is likely that the total amount of matter in the
earth is about five to six times greater than it would be if the
whole earth consisted of water, especially since it has already
been shown above that the earth is about four times denser
than Jupiter.’
Direct information
 Direct information
How diamonds reach the Earth’s surface ?
Kimberlites are igneous rock matrixes composed of carbonate, garnet, olivine, phlogopite,
pyroxene, serpentine, and upper mantle rock, with a variety of trace minerals. They are found
as dykes and volcanic pipes, which are the source of rare and relatively small volcanoes.
Kimberlite pipes are the most significant primary source of diamonds.

kimberlite

View = 2.5 cm

View = 3.5 cm

lamproite
Kimberly Diamont Mine (BIG HOLE), South Africa
Inclusions in diamonds Direct information
Inclusions in diamonds Direct information

Mineralogy
of
the mantle
A different approach: Mantle PT conditions
reproduced in the lab
“end-loaded” piston cylinder multi-anvil “Walker”
A different approach: Mantle PT conditions
reproduced in the lab
diamond anvil cell (DAC)

LH-DAC = laser heated diamond anvil cell

Probing Earth’s interior: seismic waves propagation

Most of our knowledge of Earth’s interior comes from the

study of seismic waves from natural and/or artificial
earthquakes (EQ).

Earthquake: a sudden motion or trembling in the Earth caused by

the abrupt release of slowly accumulated elastic
strain;

Strain is a change in the shape (or volume) of a body

as a result of stress

As an EQ occurs, strain energy is converted to elastic wave

energy propagating within the Earth.
 SEISMIC WAVES

• Energy radiated from a seismic fault (a small amount of the total energy
involved)
• the seismic waves travel fast, on the order of kilometers per second (km/s):
The precise speed depends on several factors, most important is the
composition of the rock (strongly influencing the density of the rock)
 chemical composition vs. mineralogical composition

• The are many different seismic waves, but the main ones are basically the
following four types:
• Compressional or P (for primary)  BODY WAVE
• Transverse or S (for secondary)  BODY WAVE
• Love  SURFACE WAVE
• Rayleigh  SURFACE WAVE
Focus (or hypocenter): The point within the Earth which is the center of an
earthquake

The initial rupture point of an earthquake, where strain energy is

first converted to elastic wave energy.

Seismic waves Travel outward from focus

Epicenter: The point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the focus of an
earthquake.
some definitions:

fault: fracture or fracture zone along which there has been displacement
of the sides relative to one another.

fault line (fault trace): the intersection of a fault with the surface of the
Earth, or the trace of a fault on a surface of reference.
ANCIENT CHINESE SEISMOMETER
Measuring Seismic Waves

Seismograph: An instrument to record seismic waves

Essential features: Heavy weight suspended by a spring or wire.

As ground moves, weight and pen stay in the same place, while the
frame and drum move. The pen writes on the drum, indicating
motion.

Vertical Component Seismometer

Three-component seismograms for the M6.5 west coast
of Chile earthquake recorded at NNA
Seismographs detect three main wave types:

P Waves (primary waves) travel through the subsurface (body wave),

being the fastest of the two body types, they are the first to arrive
S Waves (secondary waves) travel roughly half as fast as P-waves
Surface Waves travel along the interface of two different materials (i.e.
air-earth) , and are the slowest and last to arrive
BODY AND SURFACE WAVES

wavefront

raypath
Seismic Wave Demonstrations
and Animations
L. Braile, Purdue University
braile@purdue.edu,
www.eas.purdue.edu/~braile

 Copyright 2004. L. Braile. Permission

granted for reproduction and use of files and
animations for non-commercial uses
 Seismic Body Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion
(and names)
P, Alternating compressions
Compressional, (“pushes”) and dilations
Primary, (“pulls”) which are directed
Longitudinal in the same direction as the
wave is propagating (along
the raypath); and therefore,
perpendicular to the
wavefront.
S, Alternating transverse
Shear, motions (perpendicular to
Secondary, the direction of propagation,
Transverse and the raypath); commonly
approximately polarized
such that particle motion is
in vertical or horizontal
planes.
Other Characteristics
P motion travels fastest in materials,
so the P-wave is the first-arriving
energy on a seismogram. Generally
smaller and higher frequency than
the S and Surface-waves. P waves
in a liquid or gas are pressure
waves, including sound waves.
S-waves do not travel through
fluids, so do not exist in Earth’s
outer core (inferred to be primarily
liquid iron) or in air or water or
molten rock (magma). S waves
travel slower than P waves in a
solid and, therefore, arrive after the
P wave.
 Seismic Surface Waves
Wave Type Particle Motion Other Characteristics
(and names)
L, Transverse horizontal Love waves exist because of the Earth’s
Love, motion, perpendicular to surface. They are largest at the surface and
Surface the direction of decrease in amplitude with depth. Love waves
waves, Long propagation and are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is
waves generally parallel to the dependent on frequency, generally with low
Earth’s surface. frequencies propagating at higher
velocity. Depth of penetration of the Love
waves is also dependent on frequency, with
lower frequencies penetrating to greater depth.

R, Motion is both in the Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the
Rayleigh, direction of propagation amplitudes generally decrease with depth in
Surface and perpendicular (in a the Earth. Appearance and particle motion are
waves, Long vertical plane), similar to water waves. Depth of penetration
waves, and “phased” so that the of the Rayleigh waves is also dependent on
Ground roll motion is generally frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating
elliptical – either to greater depth. Generally, Rayleigh waves
prograde or retrograde. travel slightly slower than Love waves.
3-D Grid for Seismic Wave Animations

Attenuation: decrease in amplitude with distance due to spreading

out of the waves or absorption of energy by the material;
Dispersion: variation in velocity with frequency;
Anisotropy velocity depends on direction of propagation;
These features are not included in the models shown.
 Compressional Wave (P-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating

compression and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the
direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material returns to its
original shape after wave passes.
 Shear Wave (S-Wave) Animation

• Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motion.

• Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse).
• Transverse particle motion shown here is vertical but can be in any direction.
However, Earth’s layers tend to cause mostly vertical (SV; in the vertical plane) or
horizontal (SH) shear motions.
 Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions

(generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the
direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.
 Love Wave (L-Wave) Animation

• Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions.

• Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation
(transverse).
• Amplitude decreases with depth
1. What seismic wave type is shown here?
2. What seismic wave type is shown here?
3. What seismic wave type is shown here?
4. What seismic wave type is shown here?
 VELOCITY OF SEISMIC WAVES
• The propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the
medium. Velocity tends to increase with depth, and ranges from approximately
2 to 8 km/s in the Earth's crust up to 13 km/s in the deep mantle.

K = bulk modulus 
 = shear modulus VS=
r
r = density
l = Lamé parameter (relates shear and stress in perpendicular directions)

• Even though S-waves are slower than P-waves, the S-waves move quickly.
Typical S-wave propagation speeds are on the order of 1 to 8 km/s.
• An important distinguishing characteristic of an S-wave is its inability to
propagate through a fluid or a gas because fluids and gasses cannot
transmit a shear stress ( = 0) and S-waves are waves that shear the
material.
Reflection and refraction

Reflection and refraction of propagating seismic waves occur

where material contrasts are encountered (boundaries between
different rocks).

The energy is partitioned

according to the contrast in
acoustic impedance Z = ρV. The
higher ΔZ, the more energy is
reflected at a given interface

Seismic velocity depends on

density and elastic parameters
of bounding materials.
Refraction
n = refraction index;

n = ratio between the speed of light in vacuum and in the medium = C0/Cm

- because light is slower in a medium, n > 1, and is generally higher in denser

materials;

- The speed of light changes going through materials with different density;

q1 q1 Snell’s Law
n1 n1 sen q1 = n2 sen q2
q2 n2
q2
In this case, n2 > n1
q1
 Z2>Z1

acoustic impedance Z = ρV
 WAVE RIFRACTION

The overall increase in seismic wave speed with depth into Earth produces an
upward curvature to rays that pass through the mantle.
Seismic waves and Earth’s structure. P wave Shadow Zone

The rather abrupt changes in

seismic wave velocities that
occur at particular depths
helped seismologists
conclude that Earth must be
composed of distinct shells.

Earth’s interior is not

homogeneous

P-wave refraction used to

infer the gross structure of
the Earth

P-wave shadow indicates a

P-wave velocity decrease ~
2900 km
S wave Shadow Zone
• S-wave
refraction
also used to
infer the
gross
structure of
the Earth

• S-wave
shadow
indicates a
solid-liquid
boundary ~
2900 km
P-Wave and S-Wave Shadow Zones
Seismology indicates a concentric shell structure for the Earth
Measuring Seismic Waves

Seismograph: An instrument to record seismic waves

Essential features: Heavy weight suspended by a spring or wire.

As ground moves, weight and pen stay in the same place, while the
frame and drum move. The pen writes on the drum, indicating
motion.

Vertical Component Seismometer

 Horizontal Component Seismometer

Three seismographs are all anchored

to bedrock;

Oriented in three mutually

perpendicular directions: North-South,
East-West, Up-Down.

Seismogram: The record made

by a seismograph.
Historically paper, recently
computer
- Analogic seism.: ink drawn on
paper
- Digital seism.: stored on a
computer
• Animation of the vertical seismograph

• Animation of the principles of a drum-style horizontal

seismograph station that records back- and-forth (N–S,
E–W) movement. The suspended mass remains at rest
as the spring and pivoting knife absorb most of the
motion during an earthquake. The instrument shifts back
and forth due to the oblique travel direction of the P
wave and the shearing movement of the S wave. The
stylus (pen) affixed to the mass, records the relative
motion between itself and the rest of the instrument,
thus recording the ground motion.

• Movie clip of an actual seismograph drum at the

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory recording a small local
earthquake. Although most Observatory seismometers
are now computerized, the rotating drums are still used
in displays for visitors. (Used with permission from
Volcano Video Productions.)
First Arrivals - Seismographic Records
 The farther away
the source,
the longer the P-S
lag time

At ~ 1900 km, the P - S lag time

is 3 minutes
Locating the Source of an Earthquake
With multiple stations, the location of the epicenter can be estimated:
this requires data from at least three seismic stations.
If the P and S velocities are known, then difference in travel times of
P and S waves may be used to estimate distance D from the station
to the epicenter.

12 minutes

9 minutes

3 minutes

The farther away the source, the longer the P / S lag time
Intersecting Distance Circles

The P / S lag time tells the

distance (D) to the
epicenter

VPVS
D TS  TP 
VP  VS

One seismic station: Epicenter is anywhere on distance circle. All points

on a circle’s circumference are equidistant from the center.

Two seismic stations: Epicenter is at one of two points. Two circles

with different centers intersect at only two points.

Three seismic stations: Epicenter is at one unique point. Three

circles with different centers intersect at only one point.
Distribution of seismograph stations in Global Seismographic Network
Measuring Earthquakes
Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes.
- Two based on energy and
- one based on intensity.
2011 Tōhoku earthquake
(Fukushima nuclear disaster)
1) Richter Magnitude Scale:

•Measures largest single

vibration.

•Logarithmic scale: Factor of

100 for every 2 magnitudes.

•Tends to be inaccurate at >7

magnitudes.

•Absolute scale: identical

numbers at all locations
How the Richter’s magnitude Scale works.

•The amplitude is
measured from the
seismogram, as is

•the time difference

between the arrival of the
P- and S-waves.

•A line connecting the two

values on the graph gives
the magnitude of the
earthquakes.
2) Moment Magnitude Scale:
Measurement of the amount of work done during the earthquake.

The magnitude is based on the moment of the earthquake, which is

equal to the rigidity of the Earth multiplied by the average amount
of slip on the fault and the size of the area that slipped.

Absolute scale: Identical numbers at all locations

Logarithmic scale: Factor of 100 for every 2 magnitudes

3) Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale:

Arbitrary scale of earthquake intensity, ranging from I (detectable
only instrumentally) to XII (causing almost total destruction)

Based on human perception of the earthquake, and damage

observed after the earthquake.

Mercalli scale: Useful for insurance adjusters

Relative scale: Very different numbers even at nearby locations (swf)
Palaeo-seismology: Interpretation of historical data on EQ
 Internal Earth Structure from Seismology

Crust: 0-60 km
2.5 to 3.0 g / cm3
Primarily basalt & granite

Mantle: 60-2900 km

3.3 to 5.5 g / cm3

Primarily ultramafics

Core: 2900-6370 km
10 to 13 g / cm3
Primarily iron & nickel
Materials found in many meteorites
Consistent with metals under high
pressure
Crust: Outermost layer or shell of the Earth.

Part of the Earth above the Mohorovičić discontinuity.

Thickness: 5-7 km under oceans; Variable 40 - 65 km under

continents

Crust represents less than 0.1% of the Earth's total volume .

Continental: Mostly granitic

rocks with gabbro at the base.
Oceanic: Mostly basalt (ext.)
and gabbro (int.)
Vp ~ 6 – 7 km/s, Vs ~ Vp/2

P-wave velocity increases to 8 km at boundary between crust and

mantle (Mohorovic discontinuity: this is the original way in which the
crust was defined, prior to an understanding of compositional change to
peridotite in the mantle).
Mantle
Most of planet
High-density silicate minerals (O,Si,Mg,Fe,Ca,Fe)
Density of 3.4 g/cm3

Upper ~ 100 km is strong, rigid (solid)

Below ~ 100 km is weak and deformable, ductile
It consists mostly of peridotite, mainly olivine and
pyroxene;
Upper mantle, includes part of lithosphere and
asthenosphere (lower velocity, partially melted,
source of basaltic magmas).
Lower mantle, has the highest seismic velocities,
likely to be compositionally similar to the upper
mantle, but higher pressure minerals.

Gutenberg Discontinuity: Seismic-velocity discontinuity at 2900 km

marks the mantle-core boundary. V of P-waves is reduced and shear
waves disappear;
Reflects change from a solid to a liquid phase and a change in
composition.
Core
Thought to be composed mostly by
Fe with Ni, S analogous to iron
meteorites;

Here the magnetic field is generated

by dynamo activity
Earth’s magnetic field: the
requirements for the core to produce
Earth’s magnetic field are met in that
it is made of material that conducts
electricity and it is mobile;

Outer Core
Mostly Fe, but also Ni, S, O
Liquid because of temperature
Density of 11 g/cm3

Inner Core
Mostly Fe, but also Ni
Solid because of pressure
Density of 13 g/cm3
Lithosphere (crust and mantle at low PT): elasto-plastic

Mantle at high PT below the lithosphere: visco-elastic

Moho 

Gutenberg 
 DISTRIBUTION OF EQ’s (6 years of EQ’s)

“Ring of Fire” (so-called because of volcanism)

 Plate boundaries & mountain ranges

Oceanic mountain ranges: MOR (mid-oceanic ridges)

Subaerial mountain ranges: orogenic belts
Deep-see trenches: subduction trenches
 are mainly distributed along tectonic
plate margins
are also mainly distributed along some plate margins
Earthquakes occur at all types of plate boundaries
Divergent: Shallow, low magnitude
Convergent: deep, high magnitude
Transform: shallow, high magnitude

Earthquakes also occur far from plate boundaries

What drives plate tectonics?
Plate Tectonic System
PT is driven by convection generated by internal heat of the Earth.
 Two Models of
Mantle
Convection

observed heat flow

warm: near ridges
cold: over cratons
 EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

HEAT SOURCES ARE:

• RESIDUAL HEAT FROM PLANETARY ACCRETION
• CORE-MANTLE DIFFERENTIATION
• RADIACTIVE DECAY
- 40K, 235U, 238U, 232Th

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT (DT/Dd)

3D Numerical model of mantle convection

Cold Temperature
 definition:
Lithosphere : Cold, rigid shell of solid Earth
Crust and a portion of upper rigid mantle (down to ~ 100 km)
Up to 200 km thick under old, cold parts of continents

Lithosphere lays on a
peculiar portion of the
astenosphere, the LVZ.

LVZ is
Hot, weak, ductile
upper mantle that
deforms with plate
motion.
 Oceanic crust (mostly basalt) Continental crust
(mostly granite)

Cold, rigid
Lithosphere
(mostly olivine)

LVZ
Hot, ductile
Asthenosphere
Mantle

Astenosphere

In the Low Velocity zone both P and S seismic waves V slow down. The low-
velocity zone occurs in the range between 100 and 350 kilometers of depth.

It is attributed to the presence of a 0.1%-1% of melt ascribed to the partial melting

of mantle rocks.
What Happens at Plate Boundaries?

Three possible motions occur along plate boundaries

- divergence  Construction (spreading centers)

- convergence  Destruction, Collision
- transform  Conservative

Transform Divergent Convergent

Divergent Boundaries

• Divergent boundaries occur at zones of

upwelling mantle
• Produces new oceanic lithosphere
• Volcanism and shallow earthquakes
• Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Mid-oceanic ridge
Fracture zone

Divergent Boundary
Earthquakes: shallow,
low magnitude EQ
 Extensional tectonics
Example: East
African Rift Valley
Continental
Rifting

Example: Red Sea

Passive Continental Margin

Passive Continental Margin

Example:
Atlantic Ocean
Continental Platform
Divergent Plate Boundary
Continental Rift : Afar

Altitude map

Mar
Rosso Yemen

Etiopia
Golfo di
Afar
Aden

Somalia

Oceano
Indiano
Conservative (transform) Boundaries

• Conservative margins are found where two plates slide past each
other
• Usually areas of frequent shallow earthquakes (all intensities are
possible!, often very strong) , but little volcanism

The San Andreas fault is a classic

example of a conservative or
transform plate boundary
Northern Anatolian Fault
Northern Anatolian Fault
Transform Boundary along transverse to mid-ocean ridges
Map of mid-oceanic ridges (red) and deep-sea trenches (blue).
Transform faults are shown in black, cutting the ridges.
Convergent Boundaries

• The heavier (usually older) plate sinks beneath the lighter plate =
SUBDUCTION
• Subduction is associated with volcanic islands, deep ocean
trenches, coastal mountain ranges and earthquakes
Passive Continental Margin

ocean–ocean (Japan)

Active Continental Margin

ocean–continent (Andes)

continent–continent (Himalaya, Alps)

Dipping planes of seismicity: Wadati-Bienoff
 Wadati-Bienoff zone:
1) alignment of hypocenter at depth,
2) high velocity (= low T) bodies in seismic tomographies
continental crust ≈ 2.8 g/cm3 cont. lithosphere is about 3.00 g/cm3
oceanic crust ≈ 3.2 g/cm3 oceanic lithosphere max 3.28 g/cm3
asthenosphere ≈ 3.3 g/cm3

When two plates collide, the denser plate will sink (subside) beneath
the less dense plate

Density differences as small as 1% are enough to cause subduction

Density increases with depth below the surface

Plates move slowly (up to 15 cm/yr) (not so slowly in geological times!)

Plates may collide, move apart, or slide past each other

Friction during plate movement often generates earthquakes.

Ocean-ocean plate boundary = Island arc China
(continental
Japan lithosphere)
Pacific Ocean (volcanic arc)
(subducting plate) Sea of Japan
forearc basin (backarc basin)

West
East

North
Ocean-continent plate boundary = Continental arc

Active Continental Margin

Andes South America

Pacific Ocean
 Continent–Continent
• In ocean-ocean and ocean–continent boundaries, collision convergence
is taken up by subduction of the denser plate
• In continent–continent boundaries, both plates are too light to be
subducted.

South

North
 are mainly distributed along tectonic
plate margins
are also mainly distributed along some plate margins

HAVE A BETTER LOOK: SOME VOLCANOES ARE WITHIN PLATES!

How do volcanoes within plate form (Hawaii type) ?
The hotspots

In geology, a hotspot is a location on the

Earth's surface that has experienced
active volcanism for a long period of time.

Hotspots are thought to be caused by a

narrow stream of hot mantle convecting up
from the Earth's core-mantle boundary
called a mantle plume, although some
geologists prefer upper-mantle convection
as a cause.
 See the hot spot swg animation

Volcanic chains like the Hawaiian Islands

result from the slow movement of a tectonic
plate across a "fixed" hot spot deep beneath
the surface of the planet.
Iceland hot spot: seismic tomography

Contour of -2.5%
shear wave
velocity anomaly
Plate tectonics

It was a theory in the past…. now is a fact !

Plate tectonics provides an explanation for the global distribution of

earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges.

The Earth’s internal “heat engine” is the driving force of

plate tectonics and the constant reworking of the Earth’s surface.

Plate tectonic reworking of the Earth’s surface impacts the

hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
1915: Alfred Wegener developed the Hypothesis of Continental Drift

Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's

continents relative to each other.

Continental Drift: Pre-Plate Tectonics Thinking

He hypothesized the existence of the
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning “all lands”)

Wegener’s Evidence for Continental

Drift
Continental margin similarities
Distribution of Glacier deposits
Distribution of Equatorial climate belts
Correlation of distinctive rock units and
mountain belts
Linking of plant and animal fossils
1. Distribution of Glacier deposits
2. Distribution of Equatorial climate belts

Climate Rock type

Swampy coal

Desert salt, desert sandstone

Tropical seas limestones

3. Correlation of distinctive rock units and mountain belts
4. Linking of plant and animal fossils
The “Missing
Mechanism”, “the
engine” of plate
motion was
discovered later in
the oceans
 Ocean Bathymetry: The measurement of the ocean floor topography

Performed by the US military using

sonar (sound waves)

Discovery of the mid-Atlantic Ridge

(undersea mountain range)

Earthquakes occur at this ridge

(this means that there are active
faults there!)
Other mid-oceanic ridges were later found
Earthquakes found there as well. These are active faults!
In the late 1950’s equipment to measure magnetic fields (identify
submarines) on the ocean seafloor was developed

Strange magnetic stripes were observed on the ocean floor

Vine and Matthews (1963) related these magnetic stripes to
magnetic reversals

Alternating bands of
high and low magnetism:
magnetic anomalies
Symmetric with respect to
the mid-ocean ridge
 Explanation of Stripes
• The first to propose an explanation that was scientifically
accepted was L. Wilson Morley, a Canadian geoscientist

• Sea-floor spreading cause new magma emerging at a MOR and

hardening into rock, which then are spread away from the ridge
with time (Hess-Dietz hypothesis)

• Polarity reversals could be due to the sudden North and

South magnetic poles exchanging position .
Magnetic anomalies in the
Atlantic oceanic
 Some minerals are magnetic because they contain iron (magnetite,
hematite)

 During cooling (below Curie temperature), the iron atoms in magnetic

minerals align themselves with the magnetic field

 At low temperature, the iron atoms are ‘locked’ into place, preserving
the direction of the earth’s magnetic field.
Earth’s magnetic field has periodically reversed polarity in the
geological past.

N N

“Normal” “Reversed”

When iron-rich lavas cool

(on land or the sea floor)
they become magnetized
in the polarity of that time.
These reversals have been dated,
and showed the same polarity
all over the world at a given time!
Polarity inversions also supported by the age of the oceanic crust
• The Earth has a powerful magnetic field that acts like a
centered bar magnet.
• It is dipolar, with the poles being called North and South
• Presently the magnetic pole is inclined about 11o from the
rotational pole
• The magnetic pole shifts slightly over short time periods
(years to thousands of years) but is on average aligned with
the rotation axis. It completely reverses at irregular intervals.
• Rocks often become magnetized because magnetic mineral
grains (usually magnetite) are aligned
• Rock’s magnetic field is fixed at the time magma cools for
igneous rocks, or at the time of lithification for sedimentary rocks
• Magnetism of older rocks is called “paleomagnetism”
The oldest ocean is dated 150 My : what does it means?
Plates moves !!!
 Rate of Plate Movement

• Once Plate Tectonics was accepted, it became necessary to

determine how fast plates move

• Three methods have been used

– Hot spots
– Magnetic reversal

– ….now: satellite tracking

 Summarizing:
Tectonic Settings and Volcanic Activity