GIS Based Pumped Storage Assessment Tool: Case Of Electricity

Generation Company (Malawi) Limited

Chimwemwe Chimonoa*, Gregory Gamulab, Charles Kapachikac
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Malawi Polytechnic, University of Malawi, Private Bag
303,Chichiri, Blantyre 3, Email: cchimono@poly.ac.mw
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Malawi Polytechnic, University of Malawi, Private Bag
303,Chichiri, Blantyre 3, Email: ggamula@poly.ac.mw
c
Department of Land Surveying, Malawi Polytechnic, University of Malawi, Private Bag
303,Chichiri, Blantyre 3, Email: akapachika@poly.ac.mw

ABSTRACT
Hydropower is the most prominent source of electricity in Malawi with a share of almost 98
%.The electricity grid system dominated by hydropower is characterized by low utilisation of
other renewable energy sources and wide gap between demand and supply during peak
periods. This current situation in Malawi’s energy sector presents an opportunity for the
adoption of pumped storage hydropower plants that can act as an enabler to integration of
intermittent renewable energy sources and act as an on grid storage system.

The first stage in pumped storage projects is finding suitable location of the plant. This paper
presents a decision support tool for preliminary site assessment applied for transforming
conventional hydropower plants into pumped storage hydropower plants. Conventional
method of site selection is expensive and time consuming especially for sites which are
inaccessible due to poor terrain.

In this study, site selection criteria where formulated in ArcGIS, each criterion was illustrated
as layers on which site selection was based. The criteria layers were overlaid with the aim of
obtaining suitability rank for the study area. The decision support tool was tested within 5 km
radius of Kapichira power station. The study generated raster maps for each criterion that
can be used with suitability map to determine suitability of the site. Kapichira suitability map
shows an overall suitability rank value ranging from 34.1 % to 87.5% from the decision
support tool which is in line with results measured on the ground..

KEYWORDS:
Pumped storage plants, site assessment, geographic information system, Suitability map

1
1.0 Introduction
Hydropower is the most prominent source of electricity in Malawi with a share of almost 98
% of all electricity produced (Government of Malawi, 2018). Hydropower plants can be run of
the river, storage or pumped storage hydropower plant. Most hydropower plants in Malawi
are either run of the river or storage plants with pumped storage hydropower plants yet to be
utilized. Despite absence of pumped storage usage in Malawi, (Government of Malawi,
2012) the electricity demand profile and Malawi’s terrain presents an opportunity to the use
of pumped storage technology. Pumped storage hydropower plants act as on-grid energy
storage systems where water is pumped from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir usually
during low demand period using cheap electricity. The water is then released to the lower
reservoir to generate electricity during periods of high demand. Despite the losses incurred
during pumping mode, the relative monetary value during peak periods makes pumped
storage hydropower plants project viable (Krajačić et al., 2013). Malawi’s demand pattern
reveals potential for usage of pumped storage plants as Malawi’s electricity grid is
characterized by periods of low and high demand with a wide gap between supply and
demand evident during peak periods (ESCOM, 2019). This gap can be minimised by the use
of pumped storage plants as peaking units as opposed to the use of diesel generators.
Diesel generators used by Malawi’s utility company is approximated to be consuming MK
300 per KWh as opposed to pumped storage plants which would require MK 64 per KWh
(Government of Malawi, 2010) if the pumping would be done during off peak periods.
Pumped storage plants would be an effective tool in demand side management to eliminate
condition of generating machines operating at poor efficiency. These shortcomings present
an opportunity for the adoption of pumped storage technology in Malawi. Pumped storage
projects are usually capital intensive. However, investment cost can be reduced if an
existing hydropower plant is considered for transformation into pumped storage plants (Soha
et al., 2017) .The transformation can be done by identifying a suitable location on which a
reservoir can be constructed and then linking it with an existing reservoir. In pumped storage
projects, site suitability assessment is one of the most important steps. Preliminary site
screening involves suitability evaluation of the site based on various technical, environmental
and economic criteria. Conventionally, site screening process requires large amount of data
and the process is complex and makes decision making process problematic (Larentis,
Collischonn, Olivera, & Tucci, 2010). Furthermore, Data crucial for the site screening
process is usually not readily available in developing countries like Malawi due to limited
research in the field. In Malawi, no decision support tool is available to support pumped
storage site screening and usually the data required is not readily available or inaccessible.
This paper proposes a decision-making support assessment tool that would enable site
visualisation and data analysis for sites which are inaccessible and whose relevant data is
not available. Specifically, the study was set to achieve the following objectives: (a) Set
selection criteria for pumped storage hydropower plants in the context of Malawi’s existing
conventional hydropower plants; (b) Develop site criteria raster maps based on predefined
site selection criteria; (c) Evaluate site suitability based on all site selection criteria; and (d)
Validate the decision support tool on Malawi’s existing conventional hydropower plant. One
of the modern ways of assessing site potential is through the use of GIS which is equipped
with standardized tools for site selection. In this study, ArcGIS is used to develop a decision
support tool in assessing the potential of transforming Malawi’s conventional hydropower
plant into pumped storage hydropower plant.
(Ahmadi & Shamsai, 2009) proposed a methodology for site screening of pumped storage
plants using Geospatial analysis in GIS. The methodology showed how GIS methods can be
used to select appropriate site and how validation can be done quickly. However, the

2
methodology used data which is not available in some areas like Malawi hence making it
impractical in Malawi. (Korkovelos et al., 2018) used GIS to assess hydropower in sub
Saharan region with a better resolution to minimize uncertainty arising when analysing the
results of site assessment process. However, the methodology was applied to small
hydropower plants while this paper proposes a methodology for pumped storage generation
plants.(Kayastha, Singh, & Dulal, 2018) proposed a GIS based approach for assessing
primary potential hydro site over a large area in a short period. Despite reducing the
processing time, the methodology is suitable for only pure hydropower site assessment and
drainage basin that are fully gauged which is not the case for most potential sites in
developing countries.
(Lu & Wang, 2017) evaluated the potential of pumped hydropower storage of Tibet through
GIS analysis. The methodology investigated all possible topologies of pumped storage
hydropower plants and revealed that more potential sites are mapped if all possible options
are investigated. However, this type of approach requires a variety of information which in
other cases could not be available especially in developing countries. (Connolly et
al.,2010) developed a site potential assessment program for pumped storage plants with flat
lands assumed to be ideal reservoir location. The program was used to identify potential
sites in the South West of Ireland. The program demonstrated its ability to identify feasible
locations, however, since the filtering of sites is done based on earth work required to obtain
a flat land, it could regard potential sites like natural sinks as inefficient site. In addition, the
program only uses one criterion which makes it liable to identifying inefficient site based on
other factors of site assessment

(Schaefer et al., 2011) used multi-criteria methods for locating PHES potential in Germany.
Selection was based on head, hydraulic slope, existing reservoirs, grid connection and
protected areas. Initially all protected sites are excluded then sites with 100 m elevation
difference within a radius of 400 m. Subsequently, sites are evaluated in a multi-criteria
approach, where existing lakes, available area and grid connection are considered. The
methods were able to identify potential sites however it disregards sites with heads of less
than 100 m which could exclude sites with potential as pumped hydro plants can have heads
as low as 30 m (IHA, 2019).
(Pauwels et al., 2012) and (Rogeau et al., 2017) identified potential sites for small PHES by
connecting existing reservoirs for instance lakes and natural sinks. The method
demonstrated its ability to mitigate ecological impact since no additional impoundment for
new structure is required. However, the method neglects many potential sites that could be
developed with changes from the existing topology. (Hall & Lee, 2014) developed
procedures for locating potential PHES sites within the USA. The study considers existing
reservoirs as starting point for site selection. If further uses head and ecological factors to
further filter potential sites. In addition, the capacity of the existing reservoir is considered.
However, automation of the site’s selection procedures was not described.
In this proposed decision support tool, digital map layers are used to develop GIS database
for assessment of potential for transforming Malawi’s existing hydropower plants into
pumped storage hydropower plants. The digital map layers includes terrain, access roads,
electricity feed in point, protected areas and reservoir storage capacity.

3
2.0 Methodology
2.1 Study Area
Kapichira hydropower plant has been investigated as the case study for the development of
a decision support tool for transforming conventional hydropower plants into pumped storage
hydropower plant. Kapichira power station is located across the shire river, in Chikwawa
district in the southern part of Malawi which is south-west of Blantyre, the financial capital of
Malawi. In terms of geographical coordinates, the power station is located at 15°53'45.0"S,
34°45'14.0"E. Its installed capacity is 128 MW and each unit operates at a head of about 54
meters with design discharge of 67 cubic meters per second

2.2 Research Approach

Development of a decision support tool for assessing the potential of existing hydropower
plants in Malawi into pumped storage hydropower plant was done in the following steps.

 Setting of Pumped storage hydropower plant site selection criteria

 Collection of digital spatial data
 Preparation of spatial data corresponding to each selection criteria
 Preparation of suitability maps
 Validation of site selection decision support tool

2.2.1 Setting of Pumped storage plant selection criteria.

This step involved identifying relevant criteria for pumped storage generation based on
expert judgment and previous studies. The choice was made to accommodate various levels
of hydropower potential that are: theoretical, environmental, social, economic and realisable
potential. The criteria used for the study are as follows:
Proximity to electricity feed in point
Produced power from the pumped storage hydropower plant has to be transmitted to load
centres; hence, there is need for connection into the National grid. The power plant should
be located near an electricity feed in point.
Proximity to access roads and protected areas
Easy access to the pumped storage hydropower plant is required for transportation of
construction and operation equipment as well as workers. Construction of access roads
highly increases investment cost and it is important that potential sites should be located
near access roads. Furthermore, the hydropower plant should not be located within
protected areas to minimise environmental impacts of the pumped storage hydropower
plant.
Proximity to existing water reservoir
The distance between the lower and upper reservoirs affects the conveyance length of the
plant. The cost of construction depends on the length of the penstock and it is cost effective
if the lower and upper reservoirs are in close proximity. Furthermore, there is need for the
reservoirs to have adequate storage capacity.
Available Head

4
For a pumped storage hydropower plant, the amount of power produced is dependent on the
head and discharge. As the head increases, the amount of energy produced also increases.
Head is dependent on topography and increase in head is more economical in that it is
important that the potential sites should have more head.
Slope of the surface ground
It is necessary for the potential site of pumped storage plant to have a mild slope for the
construction of the lower reservoir. If the land is fairly flat the cost for construction of the
artificial reservoir is reduced.
Suitability of geological conditions
It is necessary that the site should have type of lithology with rock strength adequate to bear
the weight of the dam and associated equipment. In this study the geology of the study area
is classified and ranked based on uni-axial comprehensive strength.
Conveyance length-head ratio
In pumped storage generation projects, it is important that the conveyance length is less in
a constant head which represents reduced investment cost. Hence, it is important for a plant
when the conveyance length-head ratio decreases.

2.2.2 Collection of spatial data

The data for this study was collected using the following methods:
desktop study
The method was used to collect Electricity Supply Corporation of Malawi (ESCOM) demand
profiles, distance between hydropower plants and electricity feed in points, and international
standards and guidelines related to the site screening of pumped storage generation
scheme.
Field survey and measurements
This technique was initially used to obtain the coordinates for the electricity feed in points so
as to map out the distance between sites and feed in points. Then the technique was used
for validation. Each criterion measurement was made to validate whether the results from
the site selection tool were in line with the actual measurements on the ground

2.2.3 Site screening Criteria weighting

This step involved assigning weight to each criterion based on how important it is to the site
screening process. Key informants who were selected based on their expertise and
experience scored each criterion against each other. The rating was based on pair wise
comparison for assigning weight proposed by (Saaty, 2002). Analytical Hierarchy process
was used based on the key informant’s ratings to calculate weight of each criterion. The
resulting calculated weights are shown in figure 1

5
 Criteria contribution
Head
Head to length ratio
14% Proximity to protected areas
3% 28%
Proximity to feed in point

28% Conveyance length

10%
3% Geological conditions
9% 5%
Proximity to roads
Slope

Figure 1 Site screening criteria weights

2.2.4 Preparation of spatial data

This step involved exploring the feature attributes and metadata to determine the usefulness
and fitness of the data in GIS analysis. The following data characteristics were investigated:
data format; period of data collection; level of data detail; coordinate system used; data
attributes available; data use constraints and; conversion of data to raster

2.2.5 GIS Analysis

This step involves manipulation of map layers using ArcGIS operations. The model which
manipulates site selection criteria layers to identify potential sites was created in ArcGIS as
shown in figure 2. The operations in GIS analysis includes map overlay, Euclidian distance,
reclassify, slope spatial analysis. ArcGIS analysis involved the following:

Production of criteria raster maps

Head
The head of the pumped storage plant is equal to the difference in the elevation of water
levels of the reservoirs. The head was calculated as in equation 1.
H g=Eu−E l 1

where Hg is gross head, Eu is the upper reservoir elevation and El is the lower lever
elevation. For each location within the specified region, Head calculated data was converted
to raster using raster conversion Arc toolbox Function. Figure 3 shows the result of the
Euclidean distance spatial data analysis in ArcGIS to calculate Head raster map.
Conveyance length
The parameter conveyance length directly affects the power generated and cost and this
parameter was calculated using equation 2
CL=Du-Dl 2

Where CL is the conveyance length, Du is the distance of the upper reservoir from a
reference point and Dl is the distance of the lower reservoir from a reference point. For each
location, using Euclidian distance Arc toolbox was used to plot a raster map as shown in
figure 4.

6
 Conveyance length to head ratio
The parameter conveyance length to head ratio directly affects the cost of construction,
power generated and power required to pump water from lower reservoir to upper
reservoir .The parameter was calculated as in equation 3.
CL
L/ H= 3
Hg
Where L/H is the conveyance length to head ratio, C L is the conveyance length and Hg is the
gross head. For each location within the specified region, conveyance length to head ratio
with upper reservoir as reference, conveyance length to head ratio data was calculated
using equation 3 and results of Euclidian function to calculate conveyance length. Figure 5
shows conveyance length-head ratio raster map.
Distance from electricity feed in point and access roads
These parameters directly affect investment cost of a pumped storage plant. The position
coordinates of feed in point were entered into the ArcGIS application and distance between
the potential sites and electricity feed in point was calculated as in equation 4 .
Ls=Ds-Dl 4

Where Ls is the distance from feed in point, Ds is the distance at the feed in point from a
reference point and Dl is the distance at the lower reservoir from a reference point.
Distance from access roads was be calculated as in equation 5.
Lr =Dr-Dl 5

Where Lr is the distance from the access road, Dr is the distance of the access road from a
reference point and Dl is the distance of the lower reservoir from a reference point. Euclidian
distance Arc toolbox spatial analysis tool was used to produce the raster maps as shown in
figures 6 and 7.
Distance from protected areas
The parameter has been included to make sure that the lower reservoir is not located within
protected area. The distance from the protected areas was calculated as in equation 6.
Lp= Dp-Dl 6
Where Lp is the distance from protected areas, Dp is the distance of protected area from a
reference point and Dl is the distance at the lower reservoir from a reference point. Euclidian
distance Arc toolbox spatial analysis tool was used to produce raster map as shown in figure
8.
Slope
The objective was to create a slope raster for the entire area under study in order to create
a map that shows the steepness of the terrain. The output is calculated as percentage of
slope and uses slope spatial analysis tool. The slope is calculated as in equation 7.

S= √(dz /dx) +¿ ¿
2
7

Where S is slope in percent; dx,dy and dz are differences of x,y and z values between a cell
and its neighbours in the raster map. Figure 9 shows the slope raster map for the study area.

7
 Geological Suitability
Geological suitability investigation involved geological classification of lithology within the
study area by expert geologists using expert judgement. This classification was based on
uni-axial comprehensive strength. Various rocks were ranked from 1 to 10 with 1 being the
worst and 10 being the best class as shown in figure 10.

2.2.6 Criteria reclassification and ranking

The raster maps developed were reclassified and values for the region within the study area
were ranked from worst to best. Using reclassify Arc toolbox function ranked maps for each
criterion were produced .All the maps are reclassified with a range of 1 to 10 with 1 being the
worst and 10 the best in terms of criterion suitability.

2.2.7 Production of suitability map using criteria overlay

Using ArcGIS, maps for each criteria were overlaid to determine the suitability value of each
site by summing the criteria .Finally suitability map which can help in decision making during
assessment was produced using overlay function in ArcGIS.

2.2.8 Criteria based tool validation.

Validation was done on criterion basis through ground measurements and decision support
tool measurement and comparing the two measurements. The variation between the two
measurements were tested using Independent paired T-Test at 95% confidence interval of
difference. The null hypothesis tested was: There was no variation on the criteria values
measured on the ground and values measured from the decision support tool.

3.0 Results and Discussions

The GIS analysis model as shown in Figure 2 produces outputs in form of study area raster
maps, ranked maps and suitability map. This method can be an effective tool in identifying
sites with potential remotely, thereby making feasibility study more focused and less costly.
Raster maps show how each criterion varies within the study area while ranked maps rank
criteria values in terms of the suitability. Suitability map assign suitability rank values to all
regions within the study area to show how suitable the site is in percentage based on all
criteria.
Figure 3 shows the output of the GIS model which shows how criterion head is varying within
the study area so as to enable a decision maker determine how the parameter is varying
within the study area. The output shown in Figure 3 is reclassified to show suitability of the
sites within the study area as shown in Figure 11 enabling regions within the study area to
be classified into suitable and unsuitable sites. Figure 4 shows how conveyance length
varies within the study area which when reclassified the model produces ranked map as
shown in Figure 12 to show suitability for a range of values within the study area remotely.
Figure 5 shows the output of the GIS model which shows how the conveyance length to
Head ratio within the study area varies which is then reclassified by the GIS model to show
range of classes in terms of suitability as shown in Figure 13 hence providing guidance to
the decision maker on how parameter conveyance length to head ratio varies and stands in

8
terms of suitability. Proximity to electricity feed in point can be calculated by the GIS analysis
model as shown in Figure 6 which shows how distance from electricity feed in point is
varying within the study area. Reclassification of proximity to electricity feed in point raster
map produces ranked map as shown in Figure 14 which shows the suitability of each range
of values within the study area. Production of these maps is a crucial part of the decision
support tool as it provides guidance on how parameter proximity to electricity feed in point
varies within the study area.
Figure 7 shows the distance between access roads and sites within the study area which
when reclassified in terms of suitability, the GIS model of Figure 2 produces ranked access
roads proximity map as shown in Figure 15 to enable a decision maker know how far from
access roads the site is. The GIS model is capable of showing how distance between
regions within the study area and protected areas varies as shown in Figure 8 which when
reclassified it can show how range of values are rated in terms of suitability as shown in
Figure 16. This provides guidance to the decision maker on how proximity to protected areas
varies. Figure 9 shows how the terrain varies within the study area and when reclassified in
terms suitability in relation to hydro resource assessment, ranked map is produced which
shows how slope varies in terms of suitability as shown in Figure 17. Figure 10 shows the
rocks within the study area which are then reclassified as shown in Figure 18 in terms of
strength suitability to withstand weight of the reservoirs. The decision support tool enables
the decision maker to know type of lithology available on the ground and their suitability
It is evident that the GIS model is capable of producing raster maps which enables site
characterisation of the study area remotely as demonstrated in Figures 3-10. Further the GIS
model can produce ranked maps which reclassify the study area to show suitability of the
range of values within the study area as shown in Figures 11-18. All ranked maps are
ranked with rank values ranging from 1 to 10 with 1 meaning the site is unsuitable and 10
most suitable based on respective criteria. Reclassification enables the criteria to be
compared on dimensionless basis. This method can incorporate all site selection criteria and
classify sites into suitable or unsuitable by assigning suitability rank value which can be used
to identify remote areas with pumped storage potential. This can enable detailed feasibility
study to be focused and less costly.
Execution of the overlay function in the GIS model produces suitability map as shown in
Figure 19 in which suitability rank value is assigned to each region ranging from 0 to 100
percent. A value 0 indicates that the site does not meet any of site selection criteria and 100
shows that the site meets all the criteria and is most suitable site. Kapichira suitability map
shows an overall suitability ranging from 34.1 % to 87.5%. Figure 19 shows that the decision
support tool is able to able to assess the suitability of the site based on all site selection
criteria. Suitability map is produced by overlaying all the site selection criteria based on the
weight of each criteria as calculated using analytical Hierarchy process since each criterion
has a different contribution towards the site selection process hence the criterion were
weighted so it reflects their contribution. Contribution of each criterion is as shown in Figure
3. The GIS model has demonstrated how contribution of each criterion based on its
importance can be integrated by calculating weight for each criterion hence accurately
enabling selection of suitable sites.
It is evident that the GIS based decision support tool is capable of producing accurate
criteria raster maps, criteria ranked maps and suitability map which can be used by a
decision maker to remotely assess which sites to be considered for detailed feasibility study.

9
Validation process using Independent T-Test results are as presented in Table 1, for all site
selection criteria. Table 1 shows P-values and T statistic values for each criterion validation.
P-Value is always greater than 0.96 and T-statistic is 0.00123 for all site selection criteria.
Validation objective was to test the null hypothesis that results from ground measurement
and decision support tool are similar. The minimum P value for all the criteria shows that
there is a 96 % chance of rejecting a true null hypothesis if the null hypothesis is rejected.
The maximum T-statistics values as shown in Table 1 are within is within 95% critical value
accepted range when compared to the critical T-value. Validation results of Table 1, shows
that samples from ground measurement and decision support tool are not different. Hence,
the difference between the two samples is insignificant therefore the decision support tool
gives results which are significantly close to what is on the ground.
The GIS analysis model has laid foundation for Malawi’s other sites pumped storage
potential to be investigated. Information collected from sites and analysed using the GIS
analysis model would enable approval or rejection of sites to be recommended for further
detailed feasibility study.

10
Figure 2 GIS analysis model

Table 1.T-Test results

CRITERIA P-Value T-statistic

Head 0.9791 -0.02619
C-H ratio 0.9685 -0.03948
Conveyance length 0.96881 -0.03913
Slope 0.98996 0.012597
Roads proximity 0.9937 -0.00793
Protected areas 0.99857 -0.0018
proximity
Transmission lines 0.9986 0.001769
proximity

11
 Figure 4. Conveyance length raster
Figure 3. Head raster map map

Figure 6. Feed in point proximity raster

Figure 5.C/H ratio raster map map.

12
Figure 7. Access roads proximity Figure 9. Slope raster map
raster map.

Figure 8. Protected areas proximity

raster map. Figure 10. Geology raster map

13
Figure 11.Head ranked map Figure 13.C/H ratio ranked map

Figure 14. Transmission lines

Figure 12. Conveyance length ranked proximity ranked map
map

14
Figure 15.Access roads ranked
proximity map Figure 17.slope ranked map

Figure 16. Protected areas ranked

Figure 18. Geology ranked map
map

15
 Figure 19 . Kapichira suitability map
4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
The use of decision support tool in identifying potential sites for pumped storage generation
in Malawi can be an effective way of identifying suitable site in precise and cost effective
manner. Using clearly defined selection criteria formulated as layers in ArcGIS can enable
determination of hydro potential at various levels. Using overlay function, suitability maps are
developed which assign suitability value to the regions within the study area. The suitability
output can help with guiding decision makers on further investment for full feasibility study
with a clear view of the suitability of the site.
However, the proposed decision support tool does not replace the need for detailed
feasibility study. It is designed to enable identification of areas to focus on during feasibility
study. The tool can provide accurate data to support decisions and reduce time and cost of
conducting a feasibility study. In addition, the tool is designed for transformation of
conventional hydropower plants into pumped storage and must only be used for assessing
pumped storage potential under this topology. Hence, future work should focus on decision
support tool that can be applied to other forms of pumped storage generation site selection.

16
References

Ahmadi, H., & Shamsai, A. (2009). Preliminary Site Selection of Pumped Storage. AUT
Journal of Modeling and Simulation, 11(41), 25–32.
https://doi.org/10.22060/MISCJ.2009.237

Adhikary, P., Kr Roy, P., & Mazumdar W R E, A. S. (2015). Selection Of Small Hydropower
Project Site: A Multi-Criteria Optimization Technique Approach, 10(8). Retrieved from
www.arpnjournals.com

Connolly, D., MacLaughlin, S., & Leahy, M. (2010). Development of a computer program to
locate potential sites for pumped hydroelectric energy storage.Energy, 35(1), 375-381.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036054420900437X

ESCOM. (2019). Generation Control Centre Bulletin.

Gamula, G., Hui, L., & Peng, W. (2014). An Overview of the Energy Sector in Malawi.
International Journal of Sustainable Energy Development.
https://doi.org/10.20533/ijsed.2046.3707.2014.0017

Fitzgerald, N., Lacal, R., McKeogh, E., & Leahy, P (2012). A GIS-based model to calculate
the potential for transforming conventional hydropower schemes and non-hydro
reservoirs to pumped hydropower schemes. Energy, 41(1), 483-490.
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360544212001399

Hall, G., & Lee, R. (2014). Assessment of opportunities for new United States pumped
storage hydroelectric plants using existing water features as auxiliary reservoirs. Tech
Rep.

IHA. (2019). Hydropower status report. London, International Hydropower Association.

https://hydropower-assets.s3.eu-west-2.amazonaws.com/publicationsdocs/

Ghorbani, N., Makian, H., & Breyer, C. (2019).A GIS- based method to identify potential sites
for pumped hydro energy storage - case of Iran. Applied Energy,169, 300-312.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.177

Government of Malawi. (2003). National energy policy for Malawi. Lilongwe.

Government of Malawi. (2010). Malawi Electricity Investment Plan. Lilongwe.
Government of Malawi. (2012). Malawi Energy Survey Report. zomba.
Government of Malawi. (2018). National Energy Policy for Malawi. Lilongwe.
Kayastha, N., Singh, U., & Dulal, K. P. (2018). A GIS Approach for Rapid Identification of
Run-of-River (RoR) Hydropower Potential Site in Watershed: A case study of Bhote
Koshi Watershed, Nepal. Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy and Environment, 23,
48–55. https://doi.org/10.3126/hn.v23i0.20825

17
Korkovelos, A., Mentis, D., Siyal, S., Arderne, C., Rogner, H., Bazilian, M., … De Roo, A.
(2018). A Geospatial Assessment of Small-Scale Hydropower Potential in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Energies, 11(11), 3100. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11113100
Krajačić, G., Lončar, D., Duić, N., Zeljko, M., Lacal Arántegui, R., Loisel, R., & Raguzin, I.
(2013). Analysis of financial mechanisms in support to new pumped hydropower
storage projects in Croatia. Applied Energy, 101, 161–171.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.07.007
Kurse, B., Baruah, D., Bordoloi, P., & Patra, S. Assessment of hydropower potential using
GIS and hydrological modeling technique in Kopili River basin in Assam (India). Applied
Energy, 87(1), 298-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.07.019
Larentis, D. G., Collischonn, W., Olivera, F., & Tucci, C. E. M. (2010). Gis-based procedures
for hydropower potential spotting. Energy, 35(10), 4237–4243.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.07.014

Lu, B., Stocks, M., Blakers, A., & Anderson, K. (2018). Geographic information system
algorithms to locate prospective sites for pumped hydro energy storage. Applied
Energy, 222, 300–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.177

Lu, X., & Wang, A. (2017). A GIS based assessment of tibet's potential for pumped
hydropower. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 69, 1045-1054.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032116305809

Pauwels, M., Albanel, A., Blanc, P., Neirac, F,. & Biscaglia, S. (2012). Assessment of the
potential of pumped hydro energy storage

Rehman, S., Al-Hadhrami, L & Alam,M. (2015). Pumped hydro energy storage system: A
technology review. Renew sustain Rev, 44, 586-598.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.12.040

Rogeau, A., Girard, R., & Kariniotakis, G. (2017). A generic GIS-based method for small
pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) potential evaluation at large scale. Applied
Energy,141,

Saaty, T. L. (2002). Decision making with the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Scientia Iranica,
9(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijssci.2008.017590
Soha, T., Munkácsy, B., Harmat, Á., Csontos, C., Horváth, G., Tamás, & L.,Szabó, M.
(2017). GIS-based assessment of the opportunities for small-scale pumped hydro
energy storage in middle-mountain areas focusing on artificial landscape features.
Energy, 141, 1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.051
Schaefer, P., Thapa, P., Schlüter, J., & Vennemann, P. (2011). Identification of Potential
Pumped-Storage Sites in Large Areas Based on a Multi-Criteria GIS-Model. In:
Proceedings of the hydro 2011 conference.

Taulo, J. L., Gondwe, K. J., & Sebitosi, A. Ben. (2017). Energy supply in Malawi: Options
and issues. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 26(2), 19.
https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3051/2015/v26i2a2192

18
19