MREN 506

ENERGY USE AND EFFICIENCY

Eng H Chingosho
MSc MSOM(Eng), MSc MREN(Eng), B.Eng, MZweIE, E.C.Z (ZIM), CEM ®, AEE
(USA).

+263 0773 192 734 / chingoshorus@gmail.com

Module Objectives
• To provide a thorough understanding of the broad concept of energy
management and energy auditing.
• To provide participants with tools and knowledge necessary
conducting energy auditing and to have an efficient energy
management plan
• To impact skills to analyse and design an energy plan and policy.
• To develop an overall energy cost awareness and an energy efficiency
ethic.
• To equip students with techniques of applying theory to real energy
management and audit systems.
• To determine where, when, why and how energy is used in a facility.
Expected Outcomes
• At the end of the course, attendees should be able to discuss and
evaluate:
– Energy supplies, uses, and management in commercial and
institutional buildings and industries.
– How energy can be used more efficiently in commercial and
institutional buildings and in industries.
– Relationships between energy and the environment in buildings, as
well as basic design concepts involved with construction of green
buildings and facilities.
– Different energy‐using systems and equipment for buildings and
manufacturing plants.
 Sections

• 1. Energy Management and Surveys

• 2. Economic Analysis and Life Cycle Costing
• 3. Electrical Systems and Electric Energy Management
• 4. Lighting System Basics and System Improvements
• 5. Electric Motors and Drives
• 6. Energy Management Software

Main Reference Book:

Guide to energy management by Barney L. Capehart, Wayne C. Turner,. William J.
Kennedy--Seventh Edition. ©2012 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved.
Energy Management And
Surveys

Section 1
Three major Problems
Three global priorities dictate saving energy:
• 1. Environmental Quality ‐ Reduce global climate change & acid rain
• 2. Economic Competitiveness – Reduce costs and create jobs
• 3. Energy Security ‐ Reduce oil imports & balance of payments

None of these goals can be fully attained without an energy efficient

economy!!

• Green buildings, Energy efficiency and energy conservation, Renewable

energy, Greenhouse gas reduction, Carbon reduction, Energy productivity
improvement, Energy cost reduction
Driving Factors for Business & Industry
• Environmental regulations
• Product quality improvement (KAIZEN, POKER YOKE, JIDOKA)
• Productivity improvement. (QFD,DFMA,DFSS)
• Energy ‐ relates to the other three
• Lean manufacturing
– Energy should be added as the 8th deadly waste.(CP, EECP)
• Total quality management (TQM)
– TQM, Quality control, Quality circles
– Ringfence energy costs out of overhead
Energy Management
• Energy management ‐ the use of engineering and economic principles to control
the cost of energy to provide needed services in buildings and industries.
• Most savings in energy costs = improvements in energy efficiency
• Some savings will come from changing the patterns of energy use and possibly
shifting to other sources of energy.

• Consider a balanced three phase load consuming 36 kW at a power factor of 0.86

and line to line voltage of 400 V (VLL) :
Determine
1)phase voltage
2)single phase real power
3) single phase apparent power
4) the current
Fundamentals
 Energy Audit
• Goals
• Clearly identify types and costs of energy use
• Understand how energy is being used/wasted
• Identify & analyse more cost‐effective ways of using energy
• improved operational techniques, new equipment, new processes, new technology, perform an economic
analysis of alternatives, determine which are cost‐effective & rank.

• Determining which audit to choose

• Depends on the funding available for the audit, the cost and potential of the Energy Conservation Opportunity,
the required accuracy for the audit information, the type of facility, function of the facility, processes within a
facility.

Research on:
• Types and levels of Energy Audits
• Energy Audit steps
• Instrumentation
• EMOs
Energy Audit Stages
Energy Management Stages
EE and M&V Project Interaction
How can you save energy ?
Do energy conservation first
What is ISO 50001?
• ISO 50001 is a company level certification based on a standard published by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
• The specification requires use of an energy management system with a main
purpose of using energy more efficiently.
• The main objective of the standard is to improve energy-related performance and
energy efficiency continuously and to identify energy reduction opportunities.
• This systematic approach will help organizations to establish systems and
processes.
• Consistent energy management helps organizations to realize untapped energy
efficiency potential.
• They will benefit from cost savings and make a significant contribution to
environmental and climate protection, for example by the permanent reduction
of CO2 emissions.
• The organization can discover potential savings and competitive advantages.
Furthermore, a huge image boost for the organization can be created.
Delivering ISO 50001
Energy Codes and Standards
• Energy codes – specify how buildings must be constructed or perform, written in
mandatory, enforceable language.
• Regional or local governments adopt and enforce energy codes for their jurisdictions
• Energy standards – describe how buildings should be constructed to save energy
cost‐effectively. Published by professional organizations eg American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air‐Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).
• Not mandatory, they serve as national recommendations, with some variation for
regional climate.
• Regional and local governments frequently use energy standards as the technical basis
for developing energy codes.
• Some energy standards are written in mandatory, enforceable language, making it easy
for jurisdictions to incorporate the provisions of the energy standards directly into their
laws or regulations.
Read notes on:
• International Energy Conservation Code
• ASHRAE Standard 90.1 ‐ 2010
• Green Energy Codes and Standards
Energy Purchasing
• Procurement of energy is becoming a major part of the energy
manager’s job.
• Cost effective energy procurement requires understanding of the
market, regulatory limitations and opportunities & contingency
planning.
• Optimal energy choice involves many issues including purchase price,
efficiency, availability & environmental impacts
Point of Use Cost
• Point of use cost depends on the purchase price and efficiency of use.
• All energy sources can be compared with POU for each converted to
some base measure of energy ( MJ, kwh)
• A common energy unit must be chosen to start with.

𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

POU=
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑠𝑒

• POU is used only for operating costs. No capital cost is considered for
the bases of the calculation.
Point of Use Cost
• Strictly speaking, some of the heat in hot water is usually lost between
the central hot water heater and the faucets. Given that you can
reduce this waste by improving your hot water distribution system,
hence save on costs. Determine the fuel that provides the lowest
operating cost for a facility with a steam boiler that can operate on
LPG gas or oil. Given that when using LPG gas at $1.25 per kg and
45,650 kJ/kg, the boiler is 75% efficient, when using diesel oil at
$1.00/L and 39,000 kJ/L, the boiler is 78% efficient.
Energy Use Index (EUI)
• Basic measure of a facility’s energy performance
• A statement of the number of MJ of energy used annually per
square metre of conditioned space

𝑀𝐽 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

𝐸𝑈𝐼 =
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
• To compute the EUI
– Identify all the forms of energy used in the facility
– Tabulate the total energy in MJ used in the facility
– Determine the total amount of conditioned space in m²
– EUI is ratio of MJ/m²/year
Energy Use Index (EUI) for Commercial Building
(MJ/m²/year)
Energy Cost Index (ECI)

• The EUI has some fairly obvious limitations:

– Problem with mix of fuel and electricity
– Looks only at site energy ‐ not source energy

• With site energy, 1 kWh is valued at 3.6 MJ, but back at the thermal
power plant, it took around 11 ‐12 MJ of primary energy to produce
the 3.6 MJ value of that 1 kWh.

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

𝐸𝐶𝐼 =
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
Energy Cost Index (ECI)
• The Energy Cost Index is sometimes used as a simpler and more
meaningful measure of energy efficiency.
• The Energy Use Index is somewhat misleading since all MJ are not
really equal (remember PoU efficiencies).
• Electric energy is much higher quality energy than oil or gas, but costs
about three times as much per end use MJ.
• The Energy Cost Index adds up all costs of energy and divides result
by total m² of conditioned space.
Benchmarking
• Energy Benchmarking
• Building energy benchmarking compares whole‐building energy use relative to a
set of similar buildings
• Useful start for individual energy audits & targeting buildings for energy‐saving
measures in multiple‐site audits
• Benchmarking is of interest & use to a number of groups

Energy service companies and performance contractors communicate energy

savings potential with “typical” and “best practice” benchmarks.

• Benchmarking Audits
• Are associated with the idea that after the energy bill data is collected and
processed, some facility information will be collected on a walk‐through, and the
data will be run through some benchmark to determine if there is a potential for
significant improvement in energy efficiency and reduction in energy operating
cost
Benchmarking Criterion
• Energy Use Index ‐ MJ/m²/year
– Total, Electric, Gas, Oil
• Energy Cost Index ‐ $/m²/year
– Total, Electric, Gas, Oil
• Productivity Index
– kJ/kg, kJ/person, kJ/student, kJ/tonne, kJ/item
– kWh/kg, kWh/person/ kWh/tonne, kWh/item
– L H2O/kg, or /student, or /item (also sewer)
• System performances
– kWe/kW cooling, LPS/kW air, kWh/L pumping
Load factor (LF)
• LF is an indication of the percentage of time the plant is operating at peak.
• Electrical LF is the energy consumed relative to the maximum energy that
could have been consumed if the maximum (kW) demand had been
maintained throughout the billing period. Mathematically, it is written as
follows:

• A high, short-duration peak demand will lower the LF, whereas a more
consistent rate of energy consumption will raise the LF.
• LF can be used as a barometer of a facility’s use of electricity by revealing
excessive demand for the energy consumed.
Indicator of Potential
• The utilization factor (UF) is the percent of use (occupancy, production,
etc.) of a facility.
• For comparative purposes, it should be calculated over the same period of
time as the electrical LF (24 hours, one week, one month, etc.).
• If there is a significant difference between the UF and the LF, further
investigation is probably warranted.
• Example: UF/LF calculations can be made without any demand profile
metering. All that is required is one or more electricity bills and knowledge
of facility operations.

• Calculate the UF for a typical school is occupied for 11 hours per day, five
days a week.
• Assume that the LF calculations yield an LF of 45%. Comment on the energy
efficiency position of the facility.
Typical answer:
• The fact that the LF is roughly one third higher than the UF would be
cause for further investigation and more questions:

• Are systems operating when not required?

• Is the school being used longer than first thought?
• Can system controls be adjusted or retrofitted to trim the usage closer
to the occupancy hours?
 Energy Comparative Analysis
• Energy monitoring serves to analyse information on energy consumption in
order to identify EMOs.
• By definition, monitoring is the regular collection of information on energy use.
• Its purpose is to establish a basis for management control, determine when and
why energy consumption is deviating from an established pattern, and form a
basis for taking management action where necessary.
• Monitoring is essentially aimed at preserving an established pattern.
• An internal comparative analysis methodology suggested for the audit would
involve the following:

• collect and record energy and driver data

• use regression analysis to investigate what drives energy use and establish a baseline
relationship for energy consumption
• use cumulative sum (CUSUM) analysis to investigate deviations in energy use from the
baseline
• set a target for reduced energy consumption levels
 Energy Use and Production
• Energy used in production processes typically heats, cools, changes the state
of, or moves material. Obviously, it is impossible to generalize because
industrial processes are complex and vary widely.
• There is reason to expect that energy plotted against production will also
produce a straight line of the general form;

y = mx + c
where c, the intercept (and no-load or zero-production energy consumption),
and m, the slope, are empirical coefficients, characteristic of the system being
analysed.

• The first step is to determine the functional relationship between energy

consumption and the key determining parameters, a relationship of the form
of equation.
 Regression Analysis
• The functional relationship between production and energy consumption can
usually be determined by linear regression, i.e. by finding the best fit of a
straight line using the least squares method to the plot of energy consumption
vs. production.
• However, this relationship may or may not represent consistent performance
that is unaffected by improvements or breakdowns.
• What is needed is a baseline against which all other performance can be
measured.

• Exercise
• Plot a graph of energy consumption vs. production for the given sample Energy
Use and Production Data. Determine the equation that describes the least
squares regression line. Hence or otherwise comment on the relationship
between x and y.
Regression Analysis
 Regression on the Baseline Period
• The first 12 weeks can be considered as a Baseline case as the performance
was consistent, no improvements were installed, and no breakdowns
occurred. (Without information on performance, finding the baseline is a trial-
and-error process.)
• Exercise
• Plot a graph of energy consumption vs. production for the first 12 points in the
Energy Use and Production Data. Determine the equation that describes the least
squares regression line. Hence or otherwise comment on the relationship between x
and y.
Regression on the Baseline Period
 Regression on the Baseline Period
• For the entire data set, the functional relationship that we are looking for is
• Electricity (kWh) = 476.48 × production (tonnes) + 59 611
• When a linear regression is done for the first 12 points, results, and the
functional relationship is
• Electricity (kWh) = 515.8 × Production (tonnes) + 60 978
• It is this relationship that can be used as a “standard” of performance against
which subsequent and future performance can be compared.
Exercise
• Now expand the Energy Use and Production Data by predicting consumption
based on the relationship and determine the variance between the actual and
calculated predicted values.
 CUSUM Analysis
• CUSUM is a powerful technique for developing management information.
• It distinguishes between significant events that affect performance (i.e. faults or
improvements) and noise.
• CUSUM stands for “CUmulative SUM of differences,” where “differences” refers to the
discrepancy between actual consumption and the consumption expected in light of an
established pattern.
• If consumption continues to follow the established pattern, the differences between the
actual consumption and the established pattern will be small and be randomly positive or
negative.
• The cumulative sum, or CUSUM, of these differences over time will stay near zero.
• Once a change in pattern occurs because of a fault or an improvement in the process
being monitored, the distribution of the differences above or below zero becomes less
symmetrical, and their cumulative sum – CUSUM – increases or decreases with time.
• CUSUM is calculated by accumulating the differences between predicted and actual
performance.
• Exercise:
• Calculate the CUSUM for the previous Energy Use and Production.
• Plot the CUSUM values as a time series to yielding a graph.
CUSUM PLOT
• The critical points on the CUSUM graph are the changes in the slope
of the line.
• These can be easily seen – and more precisely located – by laying
straight lines over the sections that have a more or less constant
slope.
• We see that these slope changes occurred at weeks 12,18, 25 and 30.
• Specifically, in terms of the process being analysed, the graph
indicates the following:
• There have been two measures to reduce consumption; one took
effect in week 12, the other in week 18.
CUSUM PLOT