Materials 15 06510

materials
Article
Numerical and Field Investigations of Acoustic Emission Laws
of Coal Fracture under Hydro-Mechanical Coupling Loading
Jie-Fang Song 1 , Cai-Ping Lu 1, *, Zhao-Wei Zhan 2 , Hai-Feng Cui 2 , Yan-Min Wang 2 and Jian-Hua Wang 2
1 Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Resource Mining, Ministry of Education, School of Mines,
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
2 Xiaoyun Coal Mine, Jining Energy Group, Jining 272000, China
* Correspondence: cplucumt@126.com
Highlights:
• The relationships among stress, acoustic emission (AE), and energy during coal fracture under
hydro-mechanical coupling loading were analyzed.
• Moment tensor reveals event distribution, source type change, and b value of AE during crack
initiation and propagation in coal.
• The relationships among stress, number and type of cracks, AE, number of contacts and KE were
revealed under different water and confining pressures.
Abstract: Taking coal under hydro-mechanical coupling as the research object, the discrete element
software PFC3D (particle flow code) was used to analyze the relationships among the force, acoustic
emission (AE), and energy during coal fracture. Based on the moment tensor (MT) inversion, we
revealed the AE event distribution and source type during crack initiation and propagation until the
Citation: Song, J.-F.; Lu, C.-P.; Zhan, final failure of coal. Meanwhile, we examined the relationships among the stress, number and type of
Z.-W.; Cui, H.-F.; Wang, Y.-M.; Wang, cracks, magnitude, KE , and b value of AE under different water and confining pressures. The results
J.-H. Numerical and Field show that the numerical simulation can effectively determine the microscopic damage mechanism of
Investigations of Acoustic Emission coal under different conditions. Moreover, the rupture type of the numerical simulation is consistent
Laws of Coal Fracture under with the field investigations, which verifies the rationality of the simulation. These research results
Hydro-Mechanical Coupling can provide reference for safety production evaluation of water inrush mines.
Loading. Materials 2022, 15, 6510.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196510
Keywords: hydro-mechanical coupling; failure mechanism; confining pressure; acoustic emission;
Academic Editors: Vasily Novozhilov moment tensor inversion
and Cunlu Zhao
Received: 28 July 2022

Accepted: 26 August 2022
1. Introduction
Published: 20 September 2022
With the continuous increase in the mining depth of coal mines, geological conditions
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral have become particularly complex [1]. Discontinuous joints such as microcracks in a rock
with regard to jurisdictional claims in stratum provide necessary locations for the storage and migration of groundwater [2,3]. In
published maps and institutional affil- the seepage process, the generated water stress affects the stress field of a coal and rock
iations.
mass [4]. Under the superposition of multiple stress fields, the frequency and intensity
of catastrophic accidents such as rock bursts and water inrush remarkably increase [5,6].
When a water inrush accident occurs, the overall strength and plastic deformation of a
coal pillar significantly change, which has a notable impact on the support capacity and
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
resistance of the roadway confining pressure system, thereby affecting the width of the coal
This article is an open access article
pillar [7].
distributed under the terms and Studies on the mechanical properties of coal and rock under hydro-mechanical cou-
conditions of the Creative Commons pling have mainly focused on the interaction between the seepage and stress fields, and the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// research methods have primarily included laboratory experiments and numerical simula-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ tions. For example, Hui et al. [8] conducted a series of laboratory acoustic emission (AE)
4.0/). tests to study the influence of fluid-filled rock joints on the propagation and attenuation
Materials 2022, 15, 6510. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196510 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2022, 15, 6510 2 of 21
of stress waves. Gardner et al. [9] investigated the interaction relationship between a rock
mass and a fluid based on the three-dimensional discrete element and lattice Boltzmann
methods. For the purpose of improving the calculation efficiency and accuracy, an extensive
discussion on aspects that still need to be optimized was conducted. Chen et al. [10] studied
the characteristics of the permeability evolution during sandstone failure under triaxial
compression by experiments and simulations. Cai et al. [11] analyzed the evolution of
the crack growth, coordination number, volumetric strain, and permeability under hydro-
mechanical coupling in sandstone and established a synergistic mechanism among the
microstructure, accumulated damage, and permeability evolution. Liu et al. [12] analyzed
various parametric changes of a rock mass with hydro-mechanical coupling under unload-
ing conditions. Wang et al. [13] investigated the mechanical characteristics and permeability
evolution of red sandstone under hydro-mechanical coupling. Yao et al. [14] analyzed the
mechanical properties and failure precursor characteristics of a coal and rock system caused
by water content using AE and infrared radiation. Wang et al. [15] studied the deformation
characteristics of granite under hydro-mechanical coupling and analyzed the changes in
the permeability before and after expansion under different confining pressures. Zhang
et al. [16] studied the influence of water and confining pressures on the permeability of
fractured sandstone. Many scholars have studied the changes of rock mechanical param-
eters under the hydro-mechanical coupling loading in the laboratory, but there are few
studies on the influence of seepage under different water and confining pressure [17,18].
In addition, few scholars have focused on the source rupture type in the process of rock
seepage through AE.
In recent years, AE has been commonly used in the analysis of coal and rock failure.
As an accompanying phenomenon in this process, it contains substantial information about
the internal damage process of rocks, which helps to understand the mechanism of rock
failure [19–21]. For instance, Shimizu et al. [22] discussed the effects of different fluid
viscosity and particle size distributions on fracture propagation. Jia et al. [23] analyzed
the relationship between AE and spatial fractal dimensions under different water soaking
times. Ye et al. [24] obtained the relationships among AE events and the joint angle,
water injection pressure, stress, and deformation amount in the process of a rock slip
instability. Makhnenko et al. [25] observed that AE activity coincides with the onset of
inelastic response in a fluid-saturated rock and explored the relationship between the
clustering of AE events and inhomogeneous deformation. Li et al. [26] applied AE to
dynamic disaster monitoring of coal and rock systems. Li et al. [27] concluded that there is
a good positive correlation between the change in coal AE events and the water pressure
curve under the action of triaxial hydraulic coupling. Chitrala et al. [28] reported the
changes in the AE during hydraulic pressure damage of sandstone under different applied
stresses. Chen et al. [29] used AE to analyze the evolution characteristics of granite damage
during uniaxial compression and established a relationship between the permeability and
the confining pressure. Makoto et al. [30] studied the relationship between the AE and
fluid pressure during the failure of the Eagle Ford Shale, and analyzed the main types of
AE. Lu et al. [31] successfully reproduced the stress redistribution, AE event evolution,
permeability change, and formation of water inrush channels during a mining process.
Jiang et al. [32] analyzed the AE event, energy, peak frequency, and crack type under the
action of hydraulic fracturing in a layered rock. Most scholars widely use AE to locate the
crack position of rock, and then study the force of the specimen [33]. However, there are
few studies on the focal mechanism of AE, and analysis of the rupture form of rock/coal
mass under different stress conditions is still lacking.
In summary, most studies mainly focused on the basic mechanical parameters of
coal and rock masses under the action of hydro-mechanical coupling. However, they
did not conduct detailed investigations on the focal mechanism of this action, and rarely
used an energy method to evaluate the impact tendency of coal under hydro-mechanism
coupling [34,35]. To better understand the characteristics of AE and its impact tendency
under hydro-mechanism coupling, this study used the PFC3D software to analyze the
[34,35]. To better understand the characteristics of AE and its impact tendency under hy-
dro-mechanism coupling, this study used the PFC3D software to analyze the relationships
among the force, AE distribution (type), energy, and b value in the failure process of a
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 3 of 21
coal sample under different water pressures. In addition, it is consistent with the results
of our field investigation. These results are highly significant for guiding the safe produc-
tion of coal mines.
relationships among the force, AE distribution (type), energy, and b value in the failure
process of a coal sample under different water pressures. In addition, it is consistent with
2. Damage Mechanism of Coal under Hydro-Mechanism Coupling
the results of our field investigation. These results are highly significant for guiding the
To ensureofnocoal
safe production shear failure occurs during the loading of a rock, the limit value of the
mines.
rock force can be obtained by the Mohr–Coulomb criterion [36] as follows:
2. Damage Mechanism of Coal under Hydro-Mechanism Coupling
 the
To ensure no shear failure occurs during  s of a rock, the limit value of the (1)
C loading
rock force can be obtained by the Mohr–Coulomb criterion [36] as follows:
where  is the shear stress of the |rock,
τ| = C + γs σC is the internal cohesion, Pa, and(1) s is
MPa,
the internal friction coefficient, which can be also expressed as
where |τ | is the shear stress of the rock, MPa, C is the internal cohesion, Pa, and γs is the
 sexpressed
internal friction coefficient, which can be also  tan  as (2)
It is assumed that the minimumγprincipal

s = tan ϕ stress on the rock is  3 . When the (2)
rock is
in the critical limit state, the maximum principal stress,  1 , can be calculated. Owing to
It is assumed that the minimum principal stress on the rock is σ3 . When the rock is in
thecritical
the existence
limitofstate,
waterthepressure
maximum in principal
the rock stress,
pores,σa , part of the confining pressure and
1 can be calculated. Owing to the
vertical stress is offset; therefore, the water pressure eliminates
existence of water pressure in the rock pores, a part of the confining the confining
pressure andpressure
vertical (re-
ducing
stress the servo
is offset; stress).
therefore, theThe triaxial
water stress
pressure state of the
eliminates therock underpressure
confining water pressure is the
(reducing shown
in Figure
servo stress).1. The triaxial stress state of the rock under water pressure is shown in Figure 1.
Figure
Figure 1. 1. Schematic
Schematic of critical
of critical stress
stress statestate
underunder influence
influence of pressure
of water water pressure based
based on on Mohr–Cou-
Mohr–Coulomb
lomb criterion.
criterion.
Whenthe
When theMohr–Coulomb
Mohr–Coulomb circle
circle is tangent
is tangent to the
to the envelope
envelope curve,
curve, the the length
length of the
of the
right-angle side of the grey triangle area is1 11 1 2 32 3  / 2 , and the hypotenuse length
right-angle side of the grey triangle area is ( λ σ − λ σ ) /2, and the hypotenuse length is is
C/ tan ϕ + (λ1 σ1 + λ2 σ3 )/2. Based on trigonometric functions,
C / tan    1 1  2 3  / 2 . Based on trigonometric functions,
(λ1 σ1 − λ2 σ3 )/2 = [C/ tan ϕ + (λ1 σ1 + λ2 σ3 )/2] sin ϕ (3)
 
 1 1  2 3  / 2  C / tan    1 1  2 3  / 2 sin  (3)
Combined with Equation (2), the maximum principal stress under the critical stress
state ofCombined
the samplewith Equation
can be (2),as
expressed the maximum principal stress under the critical stress
state of the sample can be expressed as
p
2C + λ2 γs + γs2 + 1 σ3
σ1 = p (4)
λ1 γs2 + 1 − γs
1 

2C  2  s   s2  1  3 
4 of(4)
Materials 2022, 15, 6510
1   s2  1   s  21
In the experiments, when the internal cohesion and the friction angle have certain
In the experiments,
values, because 1 and when
2 arethe
lessinternal
than 1,cohesion and the curve
the stress–strain friction
of angle have certain
the sample under
values, because λ1 and λ2 are less than 1, the stress–strain curve of the sample under water
water pressure is above that of the sample without water pressure; however, the peak
pressure is above that of the sample without water pressure; however, the peak stress in
stress in the former is smaller. This is attributed to the effect of the pore water pressure
the former is smaller. This is attributed to the effect of the pore water pressure reducing
reducing the effective average stress of the rock, making it easier for the rock to reach the
the effective average stress of the rock, making it easier for the rock to reach the ultimate
ultimate strength when the deviatoric stress remains constant.
strength when the deviatoric stress remains constant.
3.3.Modeling
ModelingMethodology
Methodology
3.1.Engineering
3.1. Engineering Background
Background
AAwater
waterinrush
inrush accident
accident occurred
occurred in
in the
the Xiaoyun
Xiaoyun coal
coal mine
mine in
in Shandong
Shandong province
province onon
11September
11 September2018.2018. The
The coal
coal body
body of
of the
the 1318
1318 working
working face
face was
was severely
severely affected
affected byby the
the
waterpressure
water pressureof ofproximately
proximately 33 MPa,
MPa, and
and the
the soaking
soaking time
time was
was 100
100 days.
days. A A sample
sample waswas
taken from
taken from the
the soaking
soaking water
water coal
coal body
body ofof the
the above
above working
working face,
face, which
which has
has aa simple
simple
structureand
structure andisisrelatively
relatively stable.
stable. To
To make
make thethe sample
sample moisture
moisture non-volatile,
non-volatile, itit was
was stored
stored
inplastic
in plastic wrap
wrap before
before experiments
experiments and
and processed
processed into
into aa cylinder
cylinder with
with aa diameter
diameter of of 50
50
mmand
mm andaalength
length ofof100
100mm.
mm. AnAn MTS
MTS Landmark
Landmark 370.50
370.50 rock
rock testing
testing machine
machine was was used
used
forloading.
for loading.
3.2.Model
3.2. ModelSetup
Setup
Inthe
In thediscrete
discrete element
element model,
model, the
the core
core of
of the
the fluid
fluid flow
flow algorithm
algorithm isis the
the topological
topological
structureformed
structure formedby bypipe
pipedomains.
domains.AsAsshown
shown inin Figure
Figure 2, many
2, many domains
domains thatthat
cancan store
store the
the pore water pressure are formed between the particles, and these domains are repre-
pore water pressure are formed between the particles, and these domains are represented
sented
by by red squares.
red squares. A fracture
A fracture between
between adjacent
adjacent particles
particles is regarded
is regarded as aasseepage
a seepagepipepipe
to
to simulate the flow of water. A pipeline is represented by a yellow line. When there is aa
simulate the flow of water. A pipeline is represented by a yellow line. When there is
pressuredifference
pressure differencebetween
betweenadjacent
adjacentdomains,
domains, thethe fluid
fluid flows
flows through
through the
the pipe
pipe to
to them.
them.
Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
ofincorporation
incorporation of
of fluid
fluid coupling.
coupling.
To study the mechanical characteristics and instability mechanism of coal under

the action of seepage, a model was set up, which is shown in Figure 2. For the model,
the standard size (Φ50 mm × 100 mm) was adopted, and a total of 3117 particles were
generated. The radius was 2–2.5 mm. The linear contact bond model was used between
particles, and the servo mechanism was used to apply different confining pressures around
the model. When the confining pressure reached the target stress, the particles in contact
with the wall were fixed. A high-pressure water area was applied within the range of
action of seepage, a model was set up, which is shown in Figure 2. For the model, the
standard size (Φ50 mm × 100 mm) was adopted, and a total of 3117 particles were gener-
ated. The radius was 2–2.5 mm. The linear contact bond model was used between parti-
cles, and the servo mechanism was used to apply different confining pressures around
the model. When the confining pressure reached the target stress, the particles in contact
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 with the wall were fixed. A high-pressure water area was applied within the range 5 ofof
210–
10 mm in the z-axis direction at the bottom of the model. Under the action of the pressure
difference, a water body seeped from the bottom to the top of the model. At this time, the
water
0–10 mmpressure
in the is close
z-axis to linear
direction at distribution
the bottom ofalong the longitudinal
the model. direction,
Under the action of the which
pressure can
be regardedaas
difference, the equilibrium
water body seepedstatefromof hydro-mechanical
the bottom to the top coupling. After
of the model. Atthe
thisbalance
time, the was
reached, the upper
water pressure and to
is close lower
linearwalls were controlled
distribution along the tolongitudinal
apply an axial pressure
direction, at a speed
which can
be regarded as the equilibrium state of hydro-mechanical coupling. After the
of 0.03 m/s, and the loading was stopped when the residual stress reached 70% peak stress. balance was
reached,
The the upper
model and lowercalibration
parameter walls werewas
controlled
based to onapply an axial pressure
the uniaxial at a speed
compressive of
strength,
0.03 m/s, and the loading was stopped when the residual stress reached 70% peak stress.
strain, and failure form of the specimen. Based on Figure 3, the peak stresses from the
The model parameter calibration was based on the uniaxial compressive strength,
experiments and numerical simulations are 6.09 MPa and 6.05 MPa, respectively, and the
strain, and failure form of the specimen. Based on Figure 3, the peak stresses from the
corresponding strains are 1.93% and 1.95%. The difference between them is relatively
experiments and numerical simulations are 6.09 MPa and 6.05 MPa, respectively, and the
small, and the failure modes are also similar. From the variation trends of the AE events,
corresponding strains are 1.93% and 1.95%. The difference between them is relatively small,
the
andmicroscopic properties
the failure modes inside
are also the coal
similar. body
From theare changedtrends
variation owingoftothe
theAEsoftening
events, effect
the
of water. When the strain is approximately 5%, the number of AE events
microscopic properties inside the coal body are changed owing to the softening effect shows remarka-of
ble fluctuations,
water. When the which
strain isisapproximately
followed by a 5%,quiet
theperiod.
numberWhenof AEthe strain
events reaches
shows 1.6%, the
remarkable
AE events abruptly
fluctuations, which isincrease,
followedsubsequently cracks
by a quiet period. gradually
When penetrate
the strain reachesto1.6%,
formthe macro-
AE
scopic cracks, and, finally, the number of AE reaches the maximum.
events abruptly increase, subsequently cracks gradually penetrate to form macroscopicBased on the above
analysis, the finally,
cracks, and, rationality of the microparameter
the number of AE reaches thevalues can beBased
maximum. verified,
on thewhich
above are listed in
analysis,
Table 1.
the rationality of the microparameter values can be verified, which are listed in Table 1.
6.4 160
4.8 mag 120

-5.00
-5.25
-5.50
Number of AE
Stress/MPa
-5.75
-6.00
-6.25
3.2 -6.50
-6.75
80
-7.00
1.6 40
0.0 0
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Strain/%
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Variation curves of
Variation curves of vertical
vertical stress
stressand
andAE
AEimpact
impactnumber
numberofofcoal
coal sample
sample during
during uniaxial
uniaxial
compression. The red and black lines represent the AE number and the stress-strain curve, respec-
compression. The red and black lines represent the AE number and the stress-strain curve, respectively.
tively. The upper left corner figure is the failure figure of laboratory and simulated respectively.
The upper left corner figure is the failure figure of laboratory and simulated respectively.
Table 1. Microparameters of numerical model.

Table 1. Microparameters of numerical model.
Mechanical Parameters of Coal
Mechanical Parameters of Coal
Particle radius/mm 2.0–2.5 Elastic modulus/GPa 0.5
Particle radius/mm 2.0–2.5 Elastic modulus/GPa 0.5
Density/kg·m3 3 1250 Friction angle/° ◦ 45
Density/kg·m 1250 Friction angle/ 45
Cohesive
Cohesive strength/MPa 4.5 Porosity 0.18
4.5 Porosity 0.18
strength/MPa Parameters for Flow Model
Parameters for Flow Model
Ap_zero/mm 1.3 × 10−3 Bulk_W/MPa 2.2 × 103
Ap_zero/mm
Flow_perm/mm/s 1.3 × 10 −3 −2
7.0 × 10 Bulk_W/MPa
Flow_dt/s 2.2 ×
1.0 × 10
10−3 3
Flow_perm/mm/s
P_give/MPa 7.0 × 102.5
−2 Flow_dt/s
Gap_mul 1.0 ×010−3
P_give/MPa 2.5 Gap_mul 0
3.3. MT Calculation in the PFC
In seismology, MT is a mathematical representation of fault motion and an impor-
tant tool for source characterization. We use M to represent the source MT, which is a
3 × 3 symmetric matrix with nine couples and six independent components, as shown in
Figure 4.
3.3. MT Calculation in the PFC
In seismology, MT is a mathematical representation of fault motion and an important
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 tool for source characterization. We use M to represent the source MT, which is a 3 × 3 sym- 6 of 21
metric matrix with nine couples and six independent components, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. The
Thenine
nineforce
forcecouples
couplesrepresenting thethe
representing components of MT.
components of MT.
Figure
Figure44shows
showsthetheforce
forcecouples
couplesin in
thethe
Cartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem, which
system, is related
which is related
to source strength and fault direction. We can further decompose the MT
to source strength and fault direction. We can further decompose the MT into elementary into elementary
sources, e.g.,
sources, e.g.,compression,
compression,shear, and
shear, and tensile. Then,
tensile. Then,we wecancan
intuitively obtain
intuitively the rupture
obtain the rupture
type of
type of A.E.
A.E. Hudson’s
Hudson’ssource
sourcetype
typeplot
plot[37,38],
[37,38],which
which is is
a way
a wayto to
vividly represent
vividly decom-
represent decompo-
position
sition of of
an an
MTMT into
into isotropic,
isotropic, compensated
compensated linear
linear vectordipole
vector dipole(CLVD)
(CLVD)and anddouble-couple
double-
couple
(DC) (DC) components.
components. The MT Thedecomposition
MT decomposition is shown
is shown in following
in the the following Equations
Equations (5)(5)
and (6):
and (6):
M=M +M + Mv−clvd
M  M DC  M iso DC
M vclvd iso (5)
= M1 (φS ) + M2 (φD ) + Miso + Mv−clvd
(5)

M11 M12 M13
 
− 12( M −S M
M22
1  11M) 2 D  MM12iso  M v0clvd
 
0 0 M13

1
 M21 M22 M23  =  M21 2 ( M22 − M11 ) 0 +   0 0 M23 
M31 M32  331
M 0 0 0 M31 M32 0
  2  M 22  M111 0 0M 12 0   (6)
 M 11 M 12 M     0 0 1M 130 0 
 + 13 (13M11 + M22 + M33 )0 11 0 + 31 12 ( M11 +    220
M ) − M 0 1 0
 
33
 M 21 M 22 M 23   M 21 M  M 0 0 0M 230 −2
 0 0 1
2
22 11
 
M M 32 M 33   The PFC 5.0 software (Itasca Consulting
  M 31Group, 
M 32 Inc.,0 Minneapolis,
 31 0 0 0  MN, USA) can
  (6)
directly obtain the force magnitude, direction, and displacement of particles, and then
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW   7 of 22
obtain the MT according to the definition of AE. The calculation process of the AE in PFC
is shown in Figure 5.
1 0 0 1 0 0 
1   11  
  M 11  M 22  M 33   0 1 0     M 11  M 22   M 33   0 1 0 
3 0 0 1 3  2  
   0 0 2 
The PFC 5.0 software (Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA) can
directly obtain the force magnitude, direction, and displacement of particles, and then
obtain the MT according to the definition of AE. The calculation process of the AE in PFC
is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Generation
Generationprocess
processofof
anan
AEAE
event: (a) (a)
event: is the startstart
is the of an
ofevent and (b)
an event andis(b)
theisfinish state of
the finish state of
this event.
this event.
An AE event is composed of particles around microcracks in PFC 5.0 software. When

the contact between two particles is broken, a crack will occur. Two particles in contact
with the crack and particles in contact with these two particles are marked as an AE event
[39,40]. From Figure 5, (a) is the AE start stage, (b) is the AE end stage, and the range
Figure 5. Generation process of an AE event: (a) is the start of an event and (b) is the finish state
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 this event. 7 of 21
An AE event is composed of particles around microcracks in PFC 5.0 software. Wh

the contact between
An AE event two particles
is composed is broken,
of particles a crack will
around microcracks occur.
in PFC 5.0 Two particles
software. When in cont
with
the the crack
contact betweenandtwo particles
particlesiniscontact
broken, awith
crackthese two particles
will occur. are marked
Two particles in contactas an AE eve
with
[39,40]. From Figure 5, (a) is the AE start stage, (b) is the AE end stage, and the ran
the crack and particles in contact with these two particles are marked as an AE event [39,40].
From Figure 5,
delineated by(a)the
is the
redAE start is
circle stage,
the (b)
AEis event.
the AE end stage, and
Through MTthe range delineatedtensile,
decomposition, by she
the red circle is the AE event. Through MT decomposition, tensile, shear, and compression
and compression failure mode can be obtained. The AE rupture mode corresponding
failure mode can be obtained. The AE rupture mode corresponding to PFC 5.0 numerical
PFC 5.0 numerical
simulation software issimulation software
shown in Figure 6. is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of AE event failure mode in particle model.

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of AE event failure mode in particle model.
Similar to earthquakes, the intensity of AE can also be expressed by magnitude. In
Similar to
PFC software, theearthquakes, the
AE intensity is intensityaccording
calculated of AE can also
to the be expressed
strain energy (Ek )by magnitude.
change
PFC software,
before theevent
and after the AE [41].
intensity is calculated
For each according
step of calculation, the Ektoofthe strain energy
all particles (Ek) chan
in the AE
before and after the event [41]. For each step of calculation, the Ek of all particles in the A
event can be written as Equation (7):
event can be written as Equation (7):
 2 2 
n F l l
1 n Fs 
 
Ek = ∑  n
2 kn 1
+ l 2 
Fnks Fsl
2
 (7)
i =1
Ek    
i 1 2  kn ks 
 normal stiffness,
where Fnl , Fns , k n , and k s are normal stress, shear stress,  and shear stiffness,
respectively; n is
s the number of contacts within the AE range. For an AE event, its
where Fnl can
magnitude
, Fbe , kn , and by
n measured
ksthe
arechange
normal stress, shear stress, normal stiffness, and she
of Ek at the beginning and end of AE [42]:
stiffness, respectively; n is the number of contacts within the AE range. For an AE eve
2
its magnitude can be measured Meby
= the change
(log of )Ek at the beginning and end(8)
∆Ek − 6.0 of AE [42
3
2
Based on the knowledge of seismology,
the frequency is 3

M e the relationship
log Ek  6.0 
between the magnitude and
log N = a − bMe (9)

Based on the knowledge of seismology, the relationship between the magnitude a
Me is the magnitude,
the frequency
where is N is the frequency, and a and b are constants. The b value can
be used to evaluate the damage degree of a rock mass and the size of a crack. A large b
value implies a large proportion of small-sized cracks in the rock mass and a slow initiation
and development of new cracks.
4. Mechanical Characteristics and Failure Mechanism of Water-Soaked Coal

4.1. AE and Stress Changes during Failure
In the simulations, the AE and the energy were monitored to investigate the char-
acteristics of coal failure. To study the coal failure mechanism under hydro-mechanical
coupling, the simulations described in Section 4.1 were taken as an example, and the con-
fining and water pressures were set as 1 MPa and 2.5 MPa, respectively. The microscopic
characteristics of the AE distribution (type) and energy change during the failure process
were analyzed in detail.
In the simulations, the AE and the energy were monitored to investigate the charac-
teristics of coal failure. To study the coal failure mechanism under hydro-mechanical cou-
pling, the simulations described in Section 4.1 were taken as an example, and the confin-
ing and water pressures were set as 1 MPa and 2.5 MPa, respectively. The microscopic
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 characteristics of the AE distribution (type) and energy change during the failure 8process
of 21
were analyzed in detail.
4.1.1.
4.1.1. Relationship betweenAE
Relationship between AEand
andStress
Stress
To study the
To study the coal
coalfailure
failurecharacteristics,
characteristics,the thefish
fishlanguage
language andandthethe history
history module
module
were
were used
used to
tomonitor
monitorthe
thevertical
verticalstress,
stress,strain, AE,
strain, energy,
AE, etc.etc.
energy, Simultaneously,
Simultaneously,the the
mon-
itoring circlecircle
monitoring module waswas
module usedused
to record the the
to record parameter,
parameter, andand
thetheresults areare
results shown inin
shown Fig-
ures 7 and
Figures 8. 8.
7 and
mag mag mag mag

-5.00 -5.00 -5.00 -5.00
-5.25 -5.25 -5.25 -5.25
-5.50 -5.50 -5.50 -5.50
-5.75 -5.75 -5.75 -5.75
-6.00 -6.00 -6.00 -6.00
-6.25 -6.25 -6.25 -6.25
-6.50 -6.50 -6.50 -6.50
-6.75 -6.75 -6.75 -6.75
-7.00 -7.00 -7.00 -7.00
0.68UCS 0.94UCS UCS 0.7UCS

(a) (b) (c) (d)
7.5 1200
（ c）
6.0 （ b）
Stress-strain curve （ d） 900
Total crack
Number of cracks
UCS=7.85 MPa
Stress/MPa
Shear crack （ a）
4.5
Tensile crack
600
3.0
Ⅰ Ⅱ Ⅲ Ⅳ
300
1.5
0.0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Strain/%
Figure 7. Stress–strain
Figure 7. Stress–strain curve
curveand
andnumber
numberofofcracks;
cracks;upper
upper snapshots
snapshots show
show source
source distributions
distributions at at
different stages. I, II, III, and IV are the stages of crack generation, which are pore compaction
different stages. I, II, III, and IV are the stages of crack generation, which are pore compaction stage,stage,
fracture expansion stage,
fracture expansion stage,peak
peakstress
stressstage
stageand
andpost
postpeak
peak stage,
stage, respectively.
respectively.
The
The simulated
simulated stress–strain
stress–strain curve,
curve, cracks,
cracks,and
andlocations
locationsofofthe
theAE
AEsources
sourcesduring uni-
during
axial compression of water-soaked coal are shown in Figure 7. The coal failure process can
uniaxial compression of water-soaked coal are shown in Figure 7. The coal failure process
can be divided into four stages. The first stage is the compaction stage, in which the stress
gradually increases without cracks. The second stage is the crack initiation stage, and
the crack initiation stress is 5.33 MPa. The crack distribution is mainly observed in the
lower part of the model, and the increase in the number of shear cracks is significantly
greater than that in the number of tensile cracks. The third stage shows a notable increase
in the cracks. In this stage, the increase rate of the shear cracks is much larger than that
of the tensile cracks, and microcracks gradually develop upward. However, the damage
degree of the lower part of the entire sample is much greater than that of the upper part,
and the peak stress reaches 7.8 MPa. The fourth stage is the post-peak stage, in which the
number of cracks sharply increases, the cracks gradually penetrate, and, finally, the entire
instability occurs.
By depicting the distribution of the micro contact force in the particle system, the
macro mechanical mechanism can be revealed. Figure 8 shows the contact force between
particles in the model, which can better reflect the force in different directions of the model.
From Figure 8, as the axial stress increases, the internal contact force shows a gradually
increasing trend. The shape of the contact force gradually evolves from “spherical” to
of the lower part of the entire sample is much greater than that of the upper part, and the
peak stress reaches 7.8 MPa. The fourth stage is the post-peak stage, in which the number
of cracks sharply increases, the cracks gradually penetrate, and, finally, the entire insta-
bility occurs.
By depicting the distribution of the micro contact force in the particle system, the
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 macro mechanical mechanism can be revealed. Figure 8 shows the contact force between 9 of 21
particles in the model, which can better reflect the force in different directions of the
model. From Figure 8, as the axial stress increases, the internal contact force shows a grad-
ually increasing trend. The shape of the contact force gradually evolves from “spherical”
“elliptical”, the stress
to “elliptical”, levelslevels
the stress at different positions
at different gradually
positions change,
gradually and at
change, theatfinal
and the stage
final of
failure, the local stress abruptly increases. The vertical stresses at monitoring points
stage of failure, the local stress abruptly increases. The vertical stresses at monitoring F1–F4
arepoints
consistent with the stress–strain curve. Except for at point F1, closeness to
F1–F4 are consistent with the stress–strain curve. Except for at point F1, closeness the water
injection
to the water injection area implies a high vertical stress. Based on the change in the yy- the
area implies a high vertical stress. Based on the change in the yy-stress, when
stress,
strain when the
is 1.8%, the horizontal
strain is 1.8%, theremarkably
stress horizontal stress remarkably
changes, changes,
and the model and the
shows model
an instability
at shows an instability at this stage.
this stage.
(A) Changes in contact force

16 3.2
F-1 F-1
F-2 F-2
F-3 （ b） 2.4 F-3 （ b）
12
F-4 （ a） F-4
（ a）
Stress-yy/MPa
Stress-zz/MPa
1.6
8
（ c） 0.8 （ c）
4 （ d）（ d）
0.0
0
-0.8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Strain/% Strain/%
(B) Stress changes at different monitoring points
Figure
Figure 8. 8. Changesininmodel
Changes modelinternal
internal stress
stress and
and contact
contactforce.
force.Panel
Panel(A)
(A)shows
showsthethe
internal contact
internal contact
force at different stages of the model. The warmer the color and the thicker the network, the greater
force at different stages of the model. The warmer the color and the thicker the network, the greater
the contact force. Panel (B) is the stress change at the monitoring point under the different stage
thecorresponding
contact force.toPanel (B) isare
(A). (a–d) thethe
stress change
stages at the
of crack monitoring
generation, point
which under
are pore the different
compaction stage
stage,
fracture expansion
corresponding stage,
to (A). peak
(a–d) arestress stage and
the stages post peak
of crack stage, respectively.
generation, which are pore compaction stage,
fracture expansion stage, peak stress stage and post peak stage, respectively.
4.1.2. AE Event Distribution and Field Verification

In the loading process, a total of 509 AE events were recorded. Figure 9 shows the T–K
diagram of the MT obtained using the standard inversion method.
From Figure 9, at the four stages of loading, total of 15, 77, 65, and 417 AE events are
recorded, respectively. The distribution of the AE events is relatively scattered, and most of
them are distributed in the shear area. At stages (a) and (b), 15 and 77 events are generated,
respectively, with magnitudes of between −6.68 and −5.3. The corresponding stresses at
the end of these two stages are 5.32 MPa and 7.4 MPa, which are approximately 68% and
94% of peak stress, respectively. The AE events during this period are mainly dominated
by the water pressure. At stages (c) and (d), the axial stress gradually reaches the peak
strength of the coal. During this period, the effect of the axial stress is far greater than that
of the water pressure, and the number of AE events sharply increases (mainly shear failure),
which leads to instability of the sample.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
4.1.2. AE Event Distribution and Field Verification

Materials 2022, 15, 6510 10 of 21
In the loading process, a total of 509 AE events were recorded. Figure 9 shows the T–
K diagram of the MT obtained using the standard inversion method.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure 9. 9.Hudson
HudsonT–K
T–Klocations
locations of
of source
source models
modelsfrom
from(a–d).
(a–d).
From Figureof
4.1.3. Proportions 9, Source
at the four stages of loading, total of 15, 77, 65, and 417 AE events are
Type
recorded,
To studyrespectively.
the types ofThe
AEdistribution of the
events in coal AE events
under is relatively
the action scattered, andcoupling,
of hydro-mechanical most
of
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW them are distributed in the shear area. At stages (a) and (b), 15 and 77
the number and proportion of tensile, shear, and implosion source types at different events are
11gen-
of 22
failure
erated, respectively, with magnitudes of between −6.68 and
stages were quantitatively counted. The results are shown in Figure 10. −5.3. The corresponding
stresses at the end of these two stages are 5.32 MPa and 7.4 MPa, which are approximately
6.4
68% and 94% （ c）
of peak360
stress, respectively. The AE events during this period are mainly
Explosion Shear Implosion
Implosive dominated
（ b）
by the water pressure. At stages
100 (c) and (d), the axial stress gradually reaches
Shear the peak strength of the coal. During this period, the effect of the axial stress is far greater
Tensile 25% 28% 24%
4.8 than that of the water270 pressure, and the number of AE events 29% sharply increases (mainly
（ a）（ d）
shear failure), which leads to instability of75 the sample.
Number of sources
Proportion of sources
Stress/MPa
3.2 4.1.3. Proportions of Source

180 Type
50
To study the types of AE events in coal under the action of hydro-mechanical
68%
cou-
69%
1.6 pling, the number and90proportion of tensile, shear, and implosion
70% source
70% types at different
failure stages were quantitatively counted.
25 The results are shown in Figure 10.
0.0 0
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 6% 8%
0 1% 2%
Strain/% (a) (b) (c) (d)
(A) (B)
Figure 10. Nature of source versus time in uniaxial compression tests: (A) number and ratio of
Figure 10. Nature of source versus time in uniaxial compression tests: (A) number and ratio of
sources and (B) proportion of sources. (a–d) are the stages of crack generation, which are pore com-
sources and
paction (B) fracture
stage, proportion of sources.
expansion (a–d)stress
stage, peak are the
stagestages of crack
and post generation,
peak stage, which are pore
respectively.
compaction stage, fracture expansion stage, peak stress stage and post peak stage, respectively.
From Figure 10, as the axial stress increases, the numbers of implosions and shears
Fromincrease;
sharply Figure 10, as the axial
however, stress increases,
their proportions the numbers
first increase of implosions
and subsequently and shears
decrease. The
sharply
entireincrease;
damage ishowever,
dominatedtheir
by proportions
shear cracks. first increase
In stages and(b),
(a) and subsequently decrease.
the proportions The
of shear
and tension source types become larger, from 69% and 25% to 70% and 29%, respectively.
Tensile failure increases in a slightly larger proportion than shear cracks. Observing the
AE distribution shows that the damage is mainly concentrated in the lower part of the
model. The particles in the water pressure area are subjected to tension. Simultaneously,
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 11 of 21
entire damage is dominated by shear cracks. In stages (a) and (b), the proportions of shear
and tension source types become larger, from 69% and 25% to 70% and 29%, respectively.
Tensile failure increases in a slightly larger proportion than shear cracks. Observing the
AE distribution shows that the damage is mainly concentrated in the lower part of the
model. The particles in the water pressure area are subjected to tension. Simultaneously,
tensile failure is prone to occur under axial stress. With the increase in the axial stress, the
influence of the water pressure gradually weakens. Therefore, in stages (c) and (d), the
proportion of tensile source type slightly decreases, whereas that of implosion source type
increases to 8%. In summary, the water pressure mainly affects the early stage of loading
and is primarily influenced by the axial stress in the later failure process.
4.1.4. Energy Change

Coal failure process is accompanied by generation, accumulation, dissipation, and
release of energy, and the evolution of energy is closely consistent with the expansion of
internal cracks in coal. Using the energy module of the PFC3D, the energy variation was
recorded during coal failure process.
From Figure 11, the kinetic energy tends to increase in the initial stage of loading. The
main cause is the force unbalance between some particles under the action of the axial
pressure, which destroys the linear parallel bonds between them. There is no increase in
the slip energy within a certain period. When the vertical stress of the coal body reaches
approximately 50% peak stress, the kinetic and slip energies gradually increase. When
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW the strain reaches 2%, the model slips overall. At this time, the slip and kinetic energies12 of 22
gradually reach maximum. The total strain energy is consistent with the overall change
trend of the stress–strain curve.
6.4 24 0.024 3.2
4.8 18 0.018 2.4
Total energy by slip/J

Total Strain energy/J
Kinetic energy/J
Stress/MPa
3.2 12 0.012 1.6
1.6 6 0.006 0.8
0.0 0 0.000 0.0

0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Strain/%
Figure 11. 11.

Figure Various
Variousenergy
energychanges incoal
changes in coalfailure
failure process.
process.
4.2.4.2. Effects
Effects of Waterand
of Water andConfining
Confining Pressures
Pressuresonon
Coal
Coal
The confining and water pressures were set as 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 MPa, respectively. The
The confining and water pressures were set as 0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 MPa, respectively. The
specific settings are summarized in Table 2.
specific settings are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Setting of confining and water pressures.
Model P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6 P-7 P-8 P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12
Model P-1
Confining pressure/MPa
P-2
0.5 0.5
P-3 0.5
P-40.5 P-5
1
P-6
1
P-7
1 1
P-8 1.5
P-9 1.5
P-101.5 P-11
1.5
P-12
Confining
Waterpres-
pressure /MPa 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
sure/MPa
Water pressure
0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5
/MPa
4.2.1. Failure Characteristics

Model P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6 P-7 P-8 P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12
Confining pres-
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
sure/MPa
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 12 of 21
Water pressure
0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5
/MPa

AA total
totalofof12
12models
models were established,and
were established, andeach
each model
model number
number andand its corresponding
its corresponding
parameters
parametersare arelisted
listedininTable
Table2.2.To
Toanalyze
analyze the internaldamage
the internal damageofofcoal
coalunder
under the
the effects of
effects
of different
different waterwater and confining
and confining pressures,
pressures, the events
the AE AE events distribution
distribution of the
of the different
different models
models
were were examined,
examined, and theare
and the results results
shownare shown in Figure
in Figure 12. 12.
P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4
P-5 P-6 P-7 P-8
P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12

Figure 12. Source distributions of different models at different stages.
Figure 12. Source distributions of different models at different stages.
From Figure 12, it is seen that the confining and water pressures significantly affect
theFrom
failureFigure 12,ofitcoal.
pattern is seen that
When the
the confining
model and water
is damaged, pressures
the AE significantly
events are affect the
mainly concen-
failure
tratedpattern of coal.
in the water When area.
pressure the model
Basedisondamaged, the AE analysis
the comparative events are mainly concentrated
of P-1–P-4, P-5–P-8,
in and
the water pressure
P-9–P-12, area. Based
as the water onincreases
pressure the comparative analysis
with the same of P-1–P-4,
confining P-5–P-8,
pressure, and P-9–
the inter-
nal damage and high-energy events increase, and most of the AE events are mainly con-
centrated in the lower part of the model. When the water pressure is kept constant, the
model accumulates more elastic energy before it reaches failure with increasing confining
pressure. When the model is damaged, more high-energy events are generated.
From Figure 13, the force of the model has a large anisotropy under the effects of the
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 13 of 21
P-12, as the water pressure increases with the same confining pressure, the internal damage
and high-energy events increase, and most of the AE events are mainly concentrated in the
lower part of the model. When the water pressure is kept constant, the model accumulates
more elastic energy before it reaches failure with increasing confining pressure. When the
model is damaged, more high-energy events are generated.
From Figure 13, the force of the model has a large anisotropy under the effects of
the confining, water, and axial pressures. As the water pressure increases, the number of
contacts in the lower part is much smaller than that in the upper part, mainly owing to
the greater damage in the lower part. As the confining pressure increases, the number of
contacts increases significantly. The maximum number of contacts is increased from 28
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
to 29, and the influence of the water pressure is gradually weakened, indicating14 of that
22 the
strengthening of a support can help protect the stability of the roadway.
Figure 13. Number of contacts in different orientations.

Figure 13. Number of contacts in different orientations.
4.2.2. Relationship between AE and Stress–Strain Curve
To analyze the effects of different water and confining pressures on the overall
strength of the model, the stress–strain curves of the P-1–P-12 models were examined, and
are shown in Figure 14.
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 14 of 21
4.2.2. Relationship between AE and Stress–Strain Curve

To analyze the effects of different water and confining pressures on the overall strength
22, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of the model, the stress–strain curves of the P-1–P-12 models15were
of 22examined, and are shown
in Figure 14.
10.0
10.0
7.5
7.5
Stress/MPa
Stress/MPa
5.0
5.0
P-1 P-2
P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4
P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6
2.5 P-5 P-6
2.5 P-7 P-8
P-7 P-8 P-9 P-10
P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12
P-11 P-12
0.0
0.0 0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
Strain/%
Strain/%
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Stress–strain
Stress–straincurves
curvesofofdifferent
differentmodels.
models.
Figure 14. Stress–strain curves of different models.
Based on
Based on Figure
Figure14, 14,whenwhenthe thewater
water pressure
pressure remains
remains constant, a large
constant, confining
a large confining
Based on Figurepressure
14, when the water
implies a high pressure
peak remainsofconstant,
strength the sample a large
and aconfining
large deformation before fail-
pressure implies a high peak strength of the sample and a large deformation before failure.
pressure implies a high ure. peak
When strength
the of the sample
confining pressure and is aconstant,
large deformation
a large before
water fail- implies a low peak
pressure
When the confining pressure is constant, a large water pressure implies a low peak strength
ure. When the confining pressure
strength isa constant,
and axialsmall a large
axial water pressure
deformation before implies
the peak; a low peak the slope increases,
however,
and a small deformation before the peak; however, the slope increases, which is
strength and a smallwhich axial deformation
is consistent before
with the the peak; results
analysis however, of the slope(3).
Equation increases,
consistent
which is consistent with the
with
analysis
the analysis
resultsthe
results
of Equationin
of
(3).
Equation (3).
Figure 15 shows thechanges inthe numbers of shear andand tensile cracks during the the
the Figure
Figure 15 showsfailure changes 15
inshows
of different the models.
numbers changes
of shear
The number
the
and numbers
oftensile
shearcracks
of shear
cracksduring thetensile cracks
is approximately
during
twice that of
failure of
failure of different models. Thedifferent
number models. The number of shear cracks is approximately twice that of
tensile cracks. As theofwater shearpressure
cracks isincreases
approximately twice that
before uniaxial of
compression, more cracks
tensile
tensile cracks. As the are
water cracks.
pressure As the
increases water pressure
before uniaxial increases before uniaxial compression, more cracks
generated during the seepage process,compression,
and the number more of cracks
shear cracks is greater than
are generated duringthat the seepage
are
of tensileprocess,
generated
cracks. and
during the
In the the numbercompression
seepage
uniaxial of shear cracks
process, and the is greater
number
process, whenthan
of shear cracks is greater
the confining pressure is
than
that of tensile cracks. small,
In the the
that of uniaxial
watercompression
tensile
pressure hasprocess,
cracks. In the uniaxial
a significantwheneffectthe confining
compression pressure
process,
on the number
when
of AE is events (NP-2 ≈ 1.23NP-
the confining pressure
small, the water pressure has a the
is small, significant
water effectpressure on thehas number of AE events
a significant effect(Non P-2 ≈the
1.23N
3 ≈ 2.01NP-4). When the confining pressure is high, the effect of the water pressure signifi-
number
P- of AE events (NP-2
3 ≈ 2.01NP-4). When the confining P-3 pressure(NP-10isP-4
≈high, the effect of the water pressure signifi-
≈ 1.23N
cantly weakens
≈ 2.01N ).
1.05N
When the confining pressure is high,
P-11 ≈ 1.4NP-12), and the degree of weakening significantly
the effect of the water
cantly weakens (NP-10strengthens.
≈ 1.05NP-11 ≈ 1.4NP-12), and the degree
pressure significantly weakens (N P-10 of weakening
≈ 1.05N P-11 ≈ significantly
1.4N P-12 ), and the degree of weakening
strengthens. significantly strengthens.
1000
1000 P-1 P-2
P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4
P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6
Number of shear cracks
P-5 P-6750 P-7 P-8

Number of shear cracks
750 P-7 P-8 P-9 P-10

P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12
P-11 P-12
500
500
250
250
0
0 0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
0.0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
Strain/%
Strain/%
Figure 15. Cont.

22, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 16 of 22 15 of 21
600
P-1 P-2 600
P-3 P-4 P-1 P-2
P-5 P-6 P-3 P-4
Number of tension cracks

450 P-7 P-8 P-5 P-6
Number of tension cracks

450 P-7 P-8
P-9 P-10
P-11 P-12 P-9 P-10
P-11 P-12
300
300
150
150
0
0.0 0.6 1.2 0 1.8 2.4 3.0
0.0
Strain/% 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
Strain/%
Figure 15. Development of cracks
Figure 15. in coal body failure
Development process
of cracks in different
in coal models.
body failure process in different models.
Figure 15. Development of cracks in coal body failure process in different models.
4.2.3. Frequency–Magnitude Curve and b Value
Smaller earthquakes Smaller
occur more frequentlyoccur
earthquakes than large
moreearthquakes
frequently than [43]. This
largetrend
earthquakes [43]. This trend
can be expressed by the Smaller earthquakesrelationship
magnitude–frequency occur moreand frequently
evaluated than
by large
b value.earthquakes [43]. This trend
can be expressed by the magnitude–frequency relationship and evaluated by b value.
can there
Figure 16 shows that be expressed by the magnitude–frequency relationship andcon-
evaluated by b value.
Figureis16 a good
showslinear relationship
that there is a good between
linearthe water and
relationship between the water and confin-
fining pressures and ing Figure
the pressures 16
b value. If and shows that
the confining there is
andIfwater a good linear
pressuresand relationship
are high, between the water and con-
the b value. the confining waterthe value are
pressures high, the value of b
fining
of b is small, which proves pressures
thatwhich and
the large-scale the b value.
cracks If the confining and water pressures are high, the value
is small, proves that the inside the model
large-scale cracksgradually
inside theincrease
model gradually increase and
of b is small,
and rapidly and unsteadily expand, which
and proves AEthat
the expand, the large-scale
distribution becomescracks inside
more the model gradually increase
diffusing.
rapidly
and and unsteadily
rapidly and unsteadily and the
expand, and AE
the distribution
AE becomes
distribution more
becomes diffusing.
more There-
diffusing.
Therefore, as the water and
fore, asconfining
the water pressures
and increase,
confining the internal
pressures stress the
increase, concentration
internal stress concentration of the
of the model rises. WhenTherefore,
cracks as the water
occur inside and confining
the occur
model,inside pressures increase,
microcracks are more the internal
likely stress concentration
to are
model rises.
of the model When
rises. cracks
When cracks aoccur the model, microcracks more likely to grow
grow and penetrate large-scale cracks. Simultaneously, high inside the pressure
confining model, microcracks
implies are more likely to
and
growpenetrate
and large-scale cracks.cracks.
penetrate Simultaneously, a high high
confining pressure implies a large
a large number of AE events inside the rocklarge-scale
mass. Thus, the water Simultaneously,
and confininga pressuresconfining pressure implies
a large
number number of
of AE events AE
have remarkable impacts on the AE of the coal body. events
inside inside
the rock the rock
mass. mass.
Thus,Thus, the
the water water
andand confining
confining pressures
pressures have
have remarkable
remarkable impacts impacts
on theonAE theofAE theofcoal
the coal
body. body.
P-2 P-3 P-4
85 3.2 85 3.2 85
Cumulative number of AE logN P-2 Cumulative number of AE logN P-3 Cumulative number of AE logN P-4
AE event frequency 3.2 85
AE event frequency 3.2 AE event frequency
85 3.2 85
Cumulative number of AE logN Cumulative number of AE logN Cumulative number of AE logN
Cumulative number of AE logN
AE event frequency AE event frequency

68 AE event frequency 68
68
2.4
2.4
logN=-2.11M-11.22 68 logN=-2.10M-10.98 68 logN=-2.01M-10.45 68

AE event frequency
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
R2=0.962.4 logN=-2.11M-11.22 R2=0.942.4 2.4

R2=0.96 logN=-2.01M-10.45
logN=-2.10M-10.98
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
b-value:2.12 51 R2=0.96 b-value:2.10 51 b-value:2.01 51 R2=0.96

R2=0.94
b-value:2.12 51 b-value:2.10
1.6 51 b-value:2.01 51
1.6
1.6 34 1.6 34 1.6 34
34 34 34
0.8 0.8
17 17 17
0.8 0.8 0.8
17 17 17
0 0.0 0 0.0 0
-7.0 -6.5 -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0
-6.5 -6.0 -5.5
0.0 -5.0 0 -6.0 -5.5
0.0 -5.0 0 0.0 0
Rupture strength M -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 strength M
Rupture -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 strength M
Rupture -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0
P-6 Rupture strength M P-7 Rupture strength M P-8 Rupture strength M
100 3.2 100 3.2 100
Cumulative number of AE logN P-6 Cumulative number of AE logN P-7 Cumulative number of AE logN P-8
Cumulative number of AE logN Cumulative number of AE logN Cumulative number of AE logN
AE event frequency AE event frequency AE event frequency

2.4
75
logN=-2.08M-10.75 75 2.4 logN=-2.04M-10.44 75 logN=-1.98M-10.17

AE event frequency
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
R2=0.972.4 logN=-2.08M-10.75 75 2.4

R2=0.96 logN=-2.04M-10.44 75 2.4
R2=0.97 logN=-1.98M-10.17 75
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
b-value:2.08 R2=0.97 b-value:2.04 R2=0.96 b-value:1.98 R2=0.97

50 b-value:2.08
1.6 50 b-value:2.04
1.6 50 b-value:1.98
1.6 50 1.6 50 1.6 50
25 0.8 25 0.8 25
0.8 25 0.8 25 0.8 25
0 0.0 0 0.0 0
-6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -7.0 -6.5 -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0
0.0 0 -6.0 -5.5
0.0 -5.0 0 0.0 0
Rupture strength M -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 strength M
Rupture -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 strength M
Rupture -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0
Rupture strength M Rupture strength M Rupture strength M
Figure 16. Cont.

Materials 2022, 15, 6510 16 of 21
P-10 P-11 P-12

3.2 130 3.2 130 3.2 P-12 130
3.2 Cumulative number of AEP-10
logN 130 3.2 Cumulative number of AEP-11
logN 130 3.2 Cumulative number of AE logN 130
Cumulative
AE event frequencynumber of AE logN Cumulative
AE event frequencynumber of AE logN Cumulative
AE event frequencynumber of AE logN
AE event frequency AE event frequency AE event frequency
of AE logN
of AE logN
104 104 104

2.4 logN=-2.07M-10.54 104 2.4 logN=-1.99M-10.15 104 2.4 logN=-1.87M-9.33 104
2.4 2.4 2.4
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
AE event frequency
logN=-2.07M-10.54 logN=-1.99M-10.15 logN=-1.87M-9.33
R2=0.96 2 R2=0.97 2 R2=0.94 2
frequency
frequency
AE event frequency
R =0.96
b-value:2.07 78 R =0.97
b-value:1.99 78 R =0.94
b-value:1.87 78
78 78 78
number
number
b-value:2.07 b-value:1.99 b-value:1.87
1.6 1.6 1.6
1.6 1.6 1.6
AE event
AE event
52 52 52
Cumulative
Cumulative
52 52 52
0.8 0.8 0.8
0.8 26 0.8 26 0.8 26
26 26 26
0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0

-7.00.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 0 -7.00.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 0 -7.00.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 0
-7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -7.0 -6.5 -6.0 -5.5 -5.0
Figure 16. Frequency–amplitude

Figure curve andand
16. Frequency–amplitude b value.
Figure 16. Frequency–amplitudecurve
curve andb value.
b value.
4.3.4.3.
Burst
4.3. Tendency
Burst of Coal
Tendency
Tendency of under
ofCoal
Coal Hydro-Mechanism
under
under Coupling
Hydro-Mechanism
Hydro-MechanismCoupling
Coupling
There is a is
There
There certain
is relationship
aa certain
certain between
relationship
relationship the the
between
between dissipated andand
dissipated
the strain
dissipated energies
strain
and during
energies
strain the
during
energies the the
during
uniaxial compression of coal, which is shown in Figure
uniaxial compression of coal, which is shown in Figure 17.
uniaxial compression of coal, which is shown in 17.
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Relationship

Figure between
17. Relationship dissipated
between and strain
dissipated energies on stress–strain curve during uniax-
Figure 17.
ial compression Relationship
of coal. O, Abetween
and D dissipatedand
correspond and
to
strain
the
energies
strain energies
starting,
onon
peak
stress–strain
stress and
curve
stress–strain
post peak
during
curvevalue
uniax-
during
of uniaxial
ial compression of coal. O, A and D correspond to the starting, peak stress and post peak value of
the stress-strain
compression curve
of
the stress-strain respectively.
coal.
curve
O, A and B is Bthe
D
respectively. is strain
correspond value
to
the strain
theof the
value of model
starting, afterafter
peak
the model unloading.
stress and C and
post
unloading. D are
peak
C and
value
D are
of the
thestress-strain
strain values
the strain corresponding
curve
values to the
respectively.
corresponding to peak
Bthe
is the and
peak postpost
strain
and peakpeak
value stresses,
of the respectively.
model
stresses,
after unloading. C and D are the
respectively.
strain values corresponding to the peak and post peak stresses, respectively.
A schematic
A schematicof the energy
of the energyburst tendency
burst tendency is shown
is shownin Figure
in Figure17, where
17, whereF1 represents
F1 represents
the the
difference
A between
schematic ofthe
theelastic
energyenergy
burst accumulated
tendency is before
shown
difference between the elastic energy accumulated before the peak and the
in peak
Figure and17,the dissipated
where
the F1 represents
dissipated
energy
the consumed
difference
energy consumed during
between
duringthe
the plastic
theelasticdeformation
plasticenergy and crack
accumulated
deformation and crackdevelopment
before of
the peak and
development the coal.
of thethe F2 F2
dissipated
coal.
represents
energy the energy
consumed
represents consumed
the energyduring
consumed when the
the plastic coal
when deformationis damaged
the coal is damaged after
and crack the peak,
afterdevelopmenti.e., F1/F2
the peak, i.e., F1/F2 is an
of theiscoal.
an F2
energy burst
energy
represents tendency
burst
thetendency
energyindicator
consumed of the
indicator coal.
ofwhen
the In the
coal.
the energy
In the
coal module
isenergy
damaged module partpart
after of the
the PFC3D
of the
peak, PFC3D
i.e., 5.0 5.0 is an
F1/F2
software
energy (Itasca
software burst Consulting
(Itasca Consulting
tendency Group,
indicator Inc.,
Group, Minneapolis,
ofInc.,
the Minneapolis,
coal. In the MN, USA),
MN,
energy USA),the the
module totaltotal
strain
part of energy
strain
theenergy
PFC3D 5.0
includes the
software strain
(Itascaenergy ( E
Consulting ) and the
Group, bond
Inc., strain energy
Minneapolis,
includes the strain energy c( ) and the bond strain energy pb ( EMN,
( ), and
USA),the total
the dissipated
total strain
), and the total dissipated energy Ec E pb
includes
energy the the
includes strain energyenergy
frictional (Ec ) and
( E (the bond
) and strain energy
the the
kinetic energy ((EEpb ).),Among
and thethem,
total the
dissipated
energy includes the frictional energy ) and kinetic energy k( E ). Among them, the
energy includes the frictional energyE(E  µ ) and the kinetic energyk (Ek ). Among them, the
slipslip
energy remains
energy remainsequal to zero
equal until
to zero
zero the the
until bond breaks.
bond It can
breaks. be seen
It can
can be seen thatthat
seen the the
particle
particle flow
slip energy remains equal to until the bond breaks. It be that the particle
flowflow
cancan
monitor the change in the energy in the deformation and failure process of the
can monitor the change in the energy in the deformation and failure process of of
monitor the change in the energy in the deformation and failure process thethe
model
model
modelin real
in time.
real Therefore,
time. in the
Therefore, in fullfull
the stress–strain curve,
stress–strain the the
curve, elastic andand
elastic dissipation
dissipation
in real time. Therefore, in the full stress–strain curve, the elastic and dissipation energies at
energies at any
energies timetime
at any cancan
be expressed
be expressedin PFC3D
in PFC3D as as
any time can be expressed in PFC3D as
U(ie U
 eEpbE Ec E
 d Ui i = Epbpb + Ec c
e
(10)(10)
U  dE  E
 iUUi d = (10)
 i f EEf f k+EEk k
After deducting
After deductingthe the
energy consumed
energy consumedby the plastic
by the
the deformation
plastic of the
deformation rockrock
of the
the andand
crack After deducting
development, the the energy
burst consumed
tendency of the by
coal body plastic
can bedeformation
determined of
using rocken-
the and crack
crack development, the burst tendency of the coal body can be determined using the en-
development,
ergyergy
method the
as follows:burst tendency of the coal body can be determined using the energy
method as follows:
method as follows:  e
F1 = U peak d
+ U peak



e
F2 = U peak e
+ Uresidual (11)



KE = F1 /F2
 F1  U epeak  U peak
d

 F2  U peak  U residual
e e
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 (11)17 of 21

 K E  F1 / F2
Figure 18
Figure 18shows
showsthethecalculation
calculation results
results of of
thethe burst
burst tendency
tendency of coal
of coal underunder different
different
confining
confining and water pressures. When the water and confining pressures are 0 MPa and and
and water pressures. When the water and confining pressures are 0 MPa
1.5
1.5 MPa, respectively,the
MPa, respectively, thecoal
coalbody
bodyhas
hasthethe lowest
lowest burst
burst tendency,
tendency, KE isK2.4.
andand E is When
2.4. When
the water and confining pressures are 1.5 MPa and 0 MPa, respectively, the coal body
the water and confining pressures are 1.5 MPa and 0 MPa, respectively, the hasbody
coal
the highest burst tendency, and KE is 2.67.
has the highest burst tendency, and K E From the KE distribution,
is 2.67. From the K E when the water pres-water
distribution, when the
sure remains constant, as the confining pressure increases, KE becomes
pressure remains constant, as the confining pressure increases, K smaller. smaller.
E becomes When theWhen
confining
the pressure
confining remains
pressure constant,
remains as the
constant, aswater pressure
the water increases,
pressure KE becomes
increases, KE becomeslarger.larger.
Therefore, the
Therefore, the burst
bursttendency
tendencyunder
underdifferent
different conditions cancan
conditions be accurately determined.
be accurately determined.
1.5 KE
2.67
2.63
Confining pressure/MPa
1.2 2.60
2.57
2.53
0.9
2.50
2.47
2.43
0.6
2.40
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Water pressure/MPa
Figure 18.
Figure 18. Change
ChangeininKKE Eunder
underdifferent water
different andand
water confining pressures.
confining pressures.
5. Onsite
5. Onsite Investigations
Investigations
The
The 1314
1314working
working face is located
face at the
is located at level of −790
the level of m; the m;
−790 mining seam is the
the mining seam #3 coal
is the #3
with with
coal the thickness of 1.5–3.7
the thickness m, andm,the
of 1.5–3.7 andburied depth is
the buried 648–700
depth m. The roadway
is 648–700 is ar-
m. The roadway is
ranged along
arranged thethe
along roof of the
roof #3 coal
of the seam.
#3 coal TheThe
seam. coalcoal
seam structure
seam of the
structure ofworking
the workingface isface is
simple, with
simple, with an
aninclination
inclinationangle
angleofof13°–26°.
13◦ –26◦ .
On
On 11
11 September
September2018,
2018,a awater
waterinrush accident
inrush accidentoccurred in this
occurred working
in this face, face,
working and the
and the
coal was
coal was immersed
immersed inin aa water
water pressure
pressure of
ofapproximately
approximately 33 MPa MPa for
forapproximately
approximately 100 100 days,
days, which
which had ahad a certain
certain impactimpact
on theon stability
the stability of the
of the roadway
roadway under
under thethe influenceofofwater.
influence
water. By counting MS events during soaking, the Hudson’s source type
By counting MS events during soaking, the Hudson’s source type is obtained according is obtained ac- to
cording to focal mechanism inversion, as shown in Figure 19. There are a wide range of
focal mechanism inversion, as shown in Figure 19. There are a wide range of failure types
failure types in the coal, mainly shear and tensile cracks, and its failure mainly occurs in
in the coal, mainly shear and tensile cracks, and its failure mainly occurs in the type of
the type of shear cracks. The field observation results are consistent with the simulation
shear cracks. The field observation results are consistent with the simulation conclusions.
conclusions.
In terms of forces, a shear crack can be expressed by two perpendicular force dipoles
with zero angular momentum. Therefore, the shear failure source is usually called DC. In
order to intuitively show the internal damage form of the coal, several MS events around the
working face were selected for detailed analysis. Three types of beachballs, full, deviatoric,
and DC, were drawn, as shown in Figure 20. It is found that the shear component accounts
for a large proportion in the above MS events, and it is concluded that the force of the shear
component is the main factor leading to the failure of the coal. In summary, the failure
of coal under water pressure is mainly dominated by shear source, mixed with a small
amount of other components, which is strictly consistent with the simulation conclusions.
From Figure 21, several fault plane solutions were solved, including two normal fault,
three reverse fault, and one normal oblique slip, most of which face the interior of the
working face.
Materials
Materials2022,
2022,15,
15,x6510
FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 2119 of 22
Figure 19. Hudson’s source type of coal failure under water pressure.
order to intuitively show the internal damage form of the coal, several MS events around
the working face were selected for detailed analysis. Three types of beachballs, full, devi-
atoric, and DC, were drawn, as shown in Figure 20. It is found that the shear component
accounts for a large proportion in the above MS events, and it is concluded that the force
of the shear component is the main factor leading to the failure of the coal. In summary,
the failure of coal under water pressure is mainly dominated by shear source, mixed with
a small amount of other components, which is strictly consistent with the simulation con-
clusions. From Figure 21, several fault plane solutions were solved, including two normal
fault, three reverse fault, and one normal oblique slip, most of which face the interior of
Figure 19.Hudson’s
the working
Figure 19. Hudson’s
face. source
source type
type of coal
of coal failure
failure under
under waterwater pressure.
pressure.
order to intuitively show the internal damage form of the coal, several MS events around
the working face were selected for detailed analysis. Three types of beachballs, full, devi-
atoric, and DC, were drawn, as shown in Figure 20. It is found that the shear component
accounts for a large proportion in the above MS events, and it is concluded that the force
of the shear component is the main factor leading to the failure of the coal. In summary,
the failure of coal under water pressure is mainly dominated by shear source, mixed with
a small amount of other components, which is strictly consistent with the simulation con-
clusions. From Figure 21, several fault plane solutions were solved, including two normal
fault, three reverse fault, and one normal oblique slip, most of which face the interior of
the working face.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure
Figure 20.20. Beachballs
Beachballs in the
in the 13141314 working
working face. face.
Figure 20. Beachballs in the 1314 working face.
Figure
Figure 21. 21.
FaultFault
plane plane solutions
solutions of the 1314ofworking
the 1314
face.working face.
6. Conclusions
(1) Affected by hydro-mechanical coupling, the damage degree of coal in
part is relatively large, and its damage mainly occurs as shear cracks; th
Materials 2022, 15, 6510 19 of 21
6. Conclusions
(1) Affected by hydro-mechanical coupling, the damage degree of coal in the flooded
part is relatively large, and its damage mainly occurs as shear cracks; this is verified
by field observation. The closeness of coal to the water injection area implies a high
vertical stress.
(2) Monitoring of the energy changes shows that the kinetic and slip energies increase
slightly in the initial stage of loading. When the peak stress is greater than 50%, a
sharp energy increase occurs, and the increase rate becomes increasingly high.
(3) There is a good linear relationship between the water pressure, confining pressure,
and b value. With increasing water and confining pressures, the damage degree and
AE energy inside the model increase, the value of b reduces, and most of the AE events
are mainly concentrated in the water injection area. When the confining pressure is
low, the water pressure has a significant effect on the number of AE events; otherwise,
the effect of water pressure gradually weakens.
(4) When the water pressure is constant, as the confining pressure increases, KE de-
creases. When the confining pressure is kept constant, as the water pressure increases,
KE increases.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-M.W.; Data curation, J.-H.W.; Investigation, Z.-W.Z.

and H.-F.C.; Methodology, C.-P.L.; Software, J.-F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51574225).
Informed Consent Statement: Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient(s) to
publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement: The data in this manuscript are available from the authors.
Acknowledgments: We gratefully wish to acknowledge the collaborative funding support from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (51574225). In addition, the data in this manuscript
are available from the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publica-
tion of this paper.
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materials

Received: 28 July 2022

Materials 2022, 15, 6510. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196510 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

It is assumed that the minimumγprincipal

To study the mechanical characteristics and instability mechanism of coal under

4.8 mag 120

Table 1. Microparameters of numerical model.

An AE event is composed of particles around microcracks in PFC 5.0 software. When

An AE event is composed of particles around microcracks in PFC 5.0 software. Wh

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of AE event failure mode in particle model.

log N = a − bMe (9)

4. Mechanical Characteristics and Failure Mechanism of Water-Soaked Coal

mag mag mag mag

0.68UCS 0.94UCS UCS 0.7UCS

(A) Changes in contact force

4.1.2. AE Event Distribution and Field Verification

4.1.2. AE Event Distribution and Field Verification

3.2 4.1.3. Proportions of Source

4.1.4. Energy Change

6.4 24 0.024 3.2

4.8 18 0.018 2.4

Total energy by slip/J

3.2 12 0.012 1.6

1.6 6 0.006 0.8

0.0 0 0.000 0.0

Figure 11. 11.

4.2.1. Failure Characteristics

4.2.1. Failure Characteristics

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4

P-5 P-6 P-7 P-8

P-9 P-10 P-11 P-12

Figure 13. Number of contacts in different orientations.

4.2.2. Relationship between AE and Stress–Strain Curve

P-5 P-6750 P-7 P-8

750 P-7 P-8 P-9 P-10

Figure 15. Cont.

Number of tension cracks

Number of tension cracks

AE event frequency AE event frequency

logN=-2.11M-11.22 68 logN=-2.10M-10.98 68 logN=-2.01M-10.45 68

R2=0.962.4 logN=-2.11M-11.22 R2=0.942.4 2.4

b-value:2.12 51 R2=0.96 b-value:2.10 51 b-value:2.01 51 R2=0.96

AE event frequency AE event frequency AE event frequency

Cumulative number of AE logN

logN=-2.08M-10.75 75 2.4 logN=-2.04M-10.44 75 logN=-1.98M-10.17

R2=0.972.4 logN=-2.08M-10.75 75 2.4

b-value:2.08 R2=0.97 b-value:2.04 R2=0.96 b-value:1.98 R2=0.97

Figure 16. Cont.

P-10 P-11 P-12

Cumulative number of AE logN

Cumulative number of AE logN

0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0

Figure 16. Frequency–amplitude

Figure 17. Relationship

Figure 20. Beachballs in the 1314 working face.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-M.W.; Data curation, J.-H.W.; Investigation, Z.-W.Z.

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