Chapter 6

Occupational and Organizational Choice

 Key Points in this Chapter

 Occupational Choice
 Theories of Occupational Choice
 Guidelines for Effective Occupational Decision Making
 Organizational Choice: The Process of Entering an
Organization
 Theories of Organizational Choice
 Organizational Actions During the Entry Process
 Individual Actions During the Entry Process
 Occupational Choice

 This chapter examines two critical steps in the career

management process.
 The occupational choice process

 Organizational entry

 The dynamics of occupational selection can be relevant at

each career stage.
 The choice of an appropriate occupation (either initially or as
a career change) is a pivotal task in the career management
process, one that can take place at any point in one’s life.
 Theories of Occupational Choice

 An occupation is a group of similar jobs found in several

establishments.
 This definition distinguishes a specific job in a particular
organization from the broader notion of an occupation.
 The book presents four significant themes that can help one
understand the manner in which people make occupational
choices and appreciate the variety of psychological, social,
economic, and cultural factors that enter into occupational
decisions.
 Theories of Occupational Choice
 Occupational Choice as a Matching Process
 Most theories of occupational choice contend that a person,
consciously or unconsciously, chooses an occupation that
“matches” his or her unique set of needs, motives, values,
and talents.
 Trait and factor theory proposes that a person would identify his or
her abilities, needs, interests, and values; select appropriate career
goals; and then choose an occupation thought to be most compatible
with these goals.
 John Holland’s theory proposes that people express their
personalities in making an occupational choice, and individuals can
be classified in terms of their similarity to six personality types
(RIASEC). Each personality type is characterized by a common set of
activities, preferences, interests, and values.
 Theories of Occupational Choice

 Occupational Choice as a Matching Process

 Holland proposes that the occupational environments can also be
classified into these six categories. He also classified specific
occupations into the same six environments as the personality types.
 One of Holland’s major assumptions is that individuals will seek out
work settings that allow them to showcase their skills and abilities,
express their interests and values, and take on relevant assignments.
 Holland also proposes that people’s stability in an occupational area
will depend on the fit or match between personality type and
occupational environment.
 Theories of Occupational Choice

 Occupational Choice as a Matching Process

 The matching of individuals with occupations is based on the notion
of supplementary congruence, the matching of individuals with
environments in which they are similar to people already in those
environments. There is a possibility of complementary congruence
where personality characteristics and abilities of the individual can
serve to complement personal characteristics and abilities already
present in the work environment.
 Donald Super’s work is also based on the matching concept. The key
concept in his model is the person’s self-concept, “the individual’s
picture of himself, the perceived self with accrued meanings”. Our
self concept consists of attributes we believe we possess: our abilities,
personality traits, needs, interests, and values.
 Super believes that an occupational choice enables a person to play a
role appropriate to the self-concept. People implement their self
concept in developing an occupational choice.
 Theories of Occupational Choice
 Occupational Choice as a Developmental Process
 The choice of an occupation can be considered a developmental process
that evolves over time.
 The decision to pursue a particular occupation is really a series of
decisions that span a significant portion of one’s life. A number of
educational and vocational decisions and activities culminate in an
occupational choice. The self concept develops over time and it takes
time for one to learn about the world of work.
 It is proper to view occupational choice as an unfolding, gradual, evolving
process, and the need to make occupational choices can occur
throughout the life cycle.
 People learn about themselves and the world of work through exploratory
behavior. Adults continue to gain personal insights over the later stages
of the life cycle. Transitions and changes in life roles can also necessitate
the making of occupational choices. Organizational changes can also
force a change in one’s occupational field.
 Theories of Occupational Choice

 Occupational Choice as a Decision Making

Task
 Given a set of alternative occupations, how does one choose which
occupation to pursue? A number of models of vocational decision
making have been developed to address this very issue.
 Most are based on some of psychological decision theory where it is
generally assumed that individuals use compensatory or trade-off
approaches in which unfavorable aspects of a given job are offset by
the favorable elements of the job.
 Note, however, that finding an occupation attractive is not the same
as choosing to enter an occupation. The individual assesses the
likelihood of actually getting into the identified occupations, so that
we are most likely to pursue an occupation that we not only find
attractive but also have a decent chance of entering.
 Theories of Occupational Choice
 Occupational Choice as a Decision Making
Task
 There is evidence that individuals make unprogrammed decisions
where they do not initially assess a job on a long list of outcomes but
rather focus on one or two significant outcomes. Jobs that fail to
reach an acceptable level on these significant outcomes are rejected
from further consideration, even if they would provide many other
desirable outcomes. Jobs that survive the cut are placed on an active
roster of acceptable alternatives and the person makes an implicit
decision to favor one alternative over the others, based on just one or
two outcomes.
 Choices are based on perceptions of different occupations or jobs. If
beliefs and perceptions are unrealistic, occupational decisions are
likely to be faulty.
 Theories of Occupational Choice

 Social and Cultural Influences on Occupational Choice

 The sociological approach to careers reflect the idea that
circumstances beyond the individual’s control can exert
considerable influence on the course of his or her life and
occupational choices.
 The environment – both past and present – plays a major
role in occupational decision making. Past environment
includes family of origin, social class, income, and place of
residence. The present environment includes the
economic, political, and cultural climate in which a person
lives.
 Even the role of accidents in career decision making must
not be forgotten.
 Guidelines for Effective
Occupational Decision Making

 Development of Self-Awareness
 Development of Accurate Occupational Information
 Identify a number of occupations that may be

potentially compatible and satisfying

 Collect more in-depth information on each
occupation
 Effective Goal Setting
 Development of Career Strategies
 Organizational Choice:
The Process of Entering an Organization

 Once a person has settled upon a particular

occupation, the next step is to find a job and
successfully gain entry into an organization.
 Past research has identified four phases in the
organizational entry process:
 Recruitment

 Selection

 Orientation

 Socialization
 Organizational Choice:
The Process of Entering an Organization
 Stages
 Recruitment is the process of mutual attraction between
the individual and the organization.
 Selection involves the process of mutual choice.

 Orientation is the period of initial adjustment once the

person has actually entered the organization.
 Socialization is the process of mutual adjustment.

 The ultimate objective of organizational entry is to attain a

match between the individual and the organization.
 The candidate’s capabilities and the job’s requirements
must match and the individual’s needs and the
organization’s rewards or reinforcements must match.
Both matches affect the contribution a new employee
makes to his or her organization. Consequences of a
mismatch can be severe.
 Theories of Organizational Choice
 Job candidates are attracted to an organization that is most
likely to provide desirable outcomes and they avoid those
organizations that would likely result in undesirable
outcomes.
 Programmed decisions

 Unprogrammed decisions

 Although research has supported the efficacy of both types of

decision making, one can argue that the more thorough the
search and the greater the number of outcomes and
organizations considered, the greater the likelihood of a
favorable match and success in the job search process.
 Theories of Organizational Choice

 The Role of Expectations in Organizational Entry

 Candidates develop expectations about an organization’s

capacity to provide valued outcomes. These expectations

guide people toward or away from various job
opportunities.
 Job expectations may not be realized when a candidate

actually enters the organization as a new employee.

 New employees often experience “reality shock”, a sense
of disillusionment, disappointment, and dissatisfaction
upon discovering that the reality of the job and the
organization does not quite match their preconceived
expectations.
 Theories of Organizational Choice
 Development of Unrealistic Expectations
 Candidates who hold unrealistic expectations become
dissatisfied when faced with the realities of a job and,
ultimately, may choose to leave the organization.
 Why do people develop unrealistic expectations?

 Career transitions
 A career transition is a period in which a person
either changes career role or changes orientation to a
current role.
 The Recruitment process
 Organizational Stereotypes
 Educational Process
 Lack of Prior Work Experience
 Self-Delusion
 Theories of Organizational Choice

 Organizational Choice and Entry in Later

Adulthood
 The issues surrounding organizational entry are

relevant at any age.

 Older adults confront these demands from a
different, more experienced perspective.
 Organizational Actions During
the Entry Process

 Attraction of Job Candidates

 Research on recruitment has identified a number
of issues that have significant implications for
organizations.
 Impact of the Recruiter

 Follow-Up Activities
 Organizational Actions During
the Entry Process

 Realistic Recruitment
 An organization’s image can be “too positive” if it is not
based on reality.
 Realistic recruitment means presenting candidates with
relevant and undistorted information about the job and the
organization, even when this information might be seen as
negative or unflattering to the hiring organization.
 A realistic job preview or RJP presents job candidates with
a balanced, realistic picture of the job and the
organization, and with a preview of the positive and
negative aspects of the job.
 The presentation of realistic information to job candidates
should reduce the level of voluntary turnover among
candidates who ultimately join the organization.
 Organizational Actions During
the Entry Process
 Do Realistic Job Previews Work?
 Research suggests that RJPs can reduce turnover

significantly, which can provide considerable savings to

organizations who have to recruit, select, and train fewer
new employees to replace those who terminate.
 But not in every case.

 Little evidence to support any of the four mechanisms

that explain the effectiveness of RJPs.
 There are situations in which RJPs are likely to be most

effective.
 Organizational Actions During
the Entry Process
 Assessment and Selection
 In the selection of individuals for employment,

organizations first attempt to achieve a match or fit

between the knowledge, skills, and abilities of the
individual and the specific requirements of the job.
 Recruiters also assess the fit between the job candidate

and such broader organizational factors as strategy,

culture, and corporate values.
 Other organizations make hiring decisions using a single

criterion.
 Individual Actions During
the Entry Process

 Development of Self-Awareness
 Identification of Prospective Employers
 Effective Job Interview Behavior
 Assessing Organizations
 Choosing Organizations