Q3AI BRIEFLY COMPARE HARVARD AND VON NEWMAN IN

RELATION TO COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

VON NEUMANN
ARCHITECTURE HARVARD ARCHITECTURE

It is ancient computer architecture It is modern computer architecture

based on stored program computer based on Harvard Mark I relay based
concept. model.

Same physical memory address is Separate physical memory address is

used for instructions and data. used for instructions and data.

There is common bus for data and Separate buses are used for
instruction transfer. transferring data and instruction.

Two clock cycles are required to An instruction is executed in a

execute single instruction. single cycle.

It is costly than Von Neumann

It is cheaper in cost. Architecture.

CPU cannot access instructions and CPU can access instructions and
read/write at the same time. read/write at the same time.

It is used in personal computers and It is used in micro controllers and

small computers. signal processing.

Q3b. with the help of a diagram discuss the major components of a simple
memory hierarchy system
 Level-0:

 At level-0, registers are present which are contained inside the CPU.
 Since they are present inside the CPU, they have least access time.
 They are most expensive and therefore smallest in size (in KB).
 Registers are implemented using Flip-Flops.

Level-1:

 At level-1, Cache Memory is present.

 It stores the segments of program that are frequently accessed by the
processor.
 It is expensive and therefore smaller in size (in MB).
 Cache memory is implemented using static RAM.

Level-2:

 At level-2, main memory is present.

 It can communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory devices
through an I/O processor.
 It is less expensive than cache memory and therefore larger in size (in few
GB).
 Main memory is implemented using dynamic RAM.

Level-3:

 At level-3, secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present.

 They are used as back up storage.
 They are cheaper than main memory and therefore much larger in size (in few
TB).

Level-4:

 At level-4, tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present.

 They are used to store removable files.
 They are cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).

3ci briefly describe the operation of cache

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main
memory or disk memory but economical than CPU registers.
Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between
RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main
memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the
data from frequently used main memory locations. There are various different
independent caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data.
3cii What are the components that helps the computer to perform operations

There are five basic components of the computer which help in making this
processing of data easier and convenient.
In this article, we shall discuss the basic computer components along with their
functions. Also, for candidates preparing Computer Knowledge for upcoming
competitive exams, sample questions based on this concept have been given
further below in this article.
By definition, components of a computer system are the primary elements
which make the functioning of an electronic device smooth and faster. There are
five basic components which include:

1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. Memory Unit
4. Control Unit
5. Arithmetical and Logical Unit

 Input Unit
A computer will only respond when a command is given to the device. These
commands can be given using the input unit or the input devices.
For example: Using a keyboard we can type things on a Notepad and the
computer processes the entered data and then displays the output of the same of
the screen.
The data entered can be in the form of numbers, alphabet, images, etc. We enter
the information using an input device, the processing units convert it into
computer understandable languages and then the final output is received by a
human-understandable language.

 Output Unit
When we command a computer to perform a task, it reverts for the action
performed and gives us a result. This result is called output. There are various
output devices connected to the computer. The most basic of which is a
monitor. Whatever we write using a keyboard or click using a mouse, is all
displayed on the monitor.
Thus, the output unit gives us the final result once the entire processing is done
within the mechanism of a device.
For example: when we visit an ATM, we enter our details like language, pin,
amount to be withdrawn, etc. and then the final money which the cash dispenser
releases is our outcome. In this case, the cash dispenser acts as an output unit.
To get a list of computer input and output devices and the function of the
various I/O devices, visit the linked article.
For better understanding and more interactive analysis of the components of the
computer, candidates can check the video given below and get detailed
information reading the five major components responsible for the functioning
of a computer device.

 Memory Unit
When we enter the data into the computer using an input device, the entered
information immediately gets saved in the memory unit of the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). Because of the presence of some existing programming,
the Memory Unit transmits the data further to the other parts of the CPU.
Similarly, when the output of our command is processed by the computer, it is
saved in the memory unit before giving the output to the user.

 Control Unit
This is the core unit which manages the entire functioning of the computer
device. It is one of the most essential components of the computer system.
The Control Unit collects the data entered using the input unit, leads it on for
processing and once that is done, receives the output and presents it to the user.
It can be said to the centre of all processing actions taking place inside a
computer device.
Basically, the instructions taken, interpretation of entered data, issuing signals
to execute the data and then finally retrieving the data is all done in the Control
Unit.

 Arithmetic & Logical Unit

As the name suggests, all the mathematical calculations or arithmetic operations
are performed in the Arithmetic and Logical Unit of the CPU.
It can also perform actions like a comparison of data and decision-making
actions. The ALU comprises circuits using which addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and other numerical based calculations can be
performed.
4ai What are the major goals of parallel computers?
The primary goal of parallel computing is to increase the computational power
available to your essential applications. Typically, This infrastructure is where
the set of processors are present on a server, or separate servers are connected to
each other to solve a computational problem.
Main Reasons to use Parallel Computing is that:
1. Save time and money.
2. Solve larger problems.
3. Provide concurrency.

4aii what are the major trends that contributed a lot the paradigm shift to
parallel computing
Over the years there has been a shift in the way computers are being built from
single processor computers to parallel processor computers. This shift has been
majorly powered by the quest for high speed computers, and has seen
tremendous advancements on the architecture of computers and also on the
way these computers are programmed. The need for high performance
computation led to the birth of parallel computers. These computers can be built
from special high speed microprocessors to everyday personal computers.
Parallel computers can be categorized as follows;

a. Symmetric Multiprocessor Parallel Computers: Computers

involving multiple processing units/processors all sharing a
common memory,
b. Multicore Parallel Computers: Parallel computers involving a
processing unit with multiple cores sharing a common memory,
c. Distributed Parallel Computers: Parallel computers consisting
of multiple processing unit with each unit having its own memory,
d. Cluster Parallel Computers: Cluster parallel computers are a
group of loosely coupled, not necessarily symmetric computing set
that collectively work together as a group to solve a compute task.
These computers are connected via a commodity hardware network.
e. Massively Parallel Computers: These types of parallel
computers are similar to Cluster parallel computers with the
exception that its multiple processors are interconnected via a
specialized high speed networks. Massively parallel computers are
 usually a collection of more number of processors than the cluster
parallel computers,
f. Grid Computers: Grid computers are a special kind of parallel
computers whose collection of computers are interconnected via the
internet. Hence, issues of bandwidth and latency play a great role in
limiting speedup of computation.
4bi What is pipelining?
Pipelining is the process of accumulating instructions from the processor through
a pipeline. It allows storing and executing instructions in an orderly process. It is
also known as pipeline processing.
Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during
execution. Pipeline is divided into stages and these stages are connected with one
another to form a pipe like structure. Instructions enter from one end and exit
from another end. Pipeline increase the overall instruction throughput.

In pipeline system, each segment consists of an input register followed by a

combinational circuit. The register is used to hold data and combinational
circuit performs operations on it. The output of combinational circuit is applied
to the input register of the next segment.