Origin of Oil in the Sureste Basin, Mexico1
M. A. Guzman-Vega2 and M. R. Mello3
ABSTRACT
Geochemical and biological marker analyses
of oils and rock samples from the Sureste basin
of Mexico were effective in identifying and geo-
graphically limiting four major oil families relat-
ed by age and source rock depositional environ-
ment: Oxfordian, Tithonian, Early Cretaceous, and
Tertiary.
The source rocks giving rise to the Jurassic and
Cretaceous oils are associated with marine carbon-
ate environments. In contrast, the source rocks
giving rise to the Tertiary oils are associated with a
marine deltaic siliciclastic depositional setting.
Biomarker and isotope differences observed in the
oils derived from marine carbonate environments
can be interpreted in terms of salinity, clay con-
tent, and oxygen depletion variations. These differ-
ences provide diagnostic criteria for recognizing
and differentiating five distinct organic-rich depo-
sitional regimes as the sources for these oil types:
an anoxic hypersaline marine-carbonate environ-
ment associated with a nar row and shallow
semirestricted sea (Oxfordian age, family 1 oil); an
anoxic marine-carbonate environment associated
with a silled basin geometry (Tithonian age, family
2 oils, subtype 2a); an anoxic marine-carbonate
environment associated with a shallow, gentle,
broad marine-carbonate ramp in a distal position
(Tithonian age, family 2 oils, subtype 2b); a clay-
rich suboxic/anoxic marine-carbonate environ-
ment associated with a carbonate platform in a
©Copyright 1999. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
1Manuscript received August 22, 1996; revised manuscript received May
18, 1998; final acceptance December 4, 1998.
2Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo, Eje Central Lazaro Cardenas #152 CP
07730 Mexico D.F., Mexico; e-mail: maguzman@www.imp.mx
3Petrobras/Cenpes, Cidade Universitaria, Ilha Do Fundão, Quadra 7 C.P.
21949-900, Rio de Janeiro-RR, Brazil.
This study represents a joint effort by Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo,
Petróleos Mexicanos, and Petrobras Research Center, and it has benefited
from the assistance of numerous people in Mexico and Brazil. We appreciate
Baldomero Carrasco Velazquez, Raul Gonzalez García, Pablo Cruz Helu,
and Noel Holguin for their continuous support. We thank the technical staff
from CEGEQ/PETROBRAS for the data and analytical assistance. We are
especially grateful to Ricardo Marins P. Da Silva for the drawings and all the
final art. We appreciate the helpful comments of Wallace Dow, Alain Huc,
Javier Meneses, and an anonymous reviewer who greatly contributed to the
content and style of the manuscript. M. A Guzman deeply thanks his
coauthor, M. R. Mello, for hours of input, discussion, and advice.
1068
proximal position (Tithonian age, family 2 oils,
subtype 2c); and an anoxic marine-evaporitic
environment (Early Cretaceous age, family 3 oils).
The Tertiary oils (family 4) are derived from bacte-
rially reworked terrigenous and marine organic
source materials deposited in a marine-deltaic
environment.
The Tithonian-related oils in the Mexican south-
ern side of the Gulf of Mexico accumulated both
offshore and onshore and throughout the strati-
graphic column from Kimmeridgian to Pleistocene
reservoirs, suggesting vertical pathways as the prin-
cipal secondary migration mechanism. The lateral
variations of these oils can be interpreted to reflect
the Tithonian paleogeography in the area and could
be useful in predicting differences in the oil com-
positions.
INTRODUCTION
In most Mexican sedimentary basins petroleum
exploration has not been extensively studied
using the petroleum system approach involving
both geochemistry and geology. Geochemical
data, in this study and others (Holguin, 1987;
Gonzalez and Holguin, 1991; Guzman-Vega et al.,
1991, 1992; Dahl et al., 1993), have shown that
several source rock and oil families occur in the
Tampico-Tuxpan and Mexican southeastern basins.
Recognizing these oil families when these data are
integrated with geological and paleogeographical
evolution data can aid in understanding the hydro-
carbon source potential and the petroleum sys-
tems in the area.
The Gulf of Mexico is one of the largest petro-
leum regions in the world. The southern portion is
highly oil prone and contains more than 80% of the
total petroleum reserves (Brooks, 1990). To evalu-
ate the hydrocarbon potential, this area has been
divided into several basins and provinces (counter-
clockwise from north to south): Burgos, Tampico-
Misantla, Veracruz, Salina, Chiapas-Tabasco,
Macuspana, Campeche Sound, and the recently dis-
covered Sierra de Chiapas. The Salina, Chiapas-
Tabasco, Campeche, and Macuspana areas comprise
the so-called Sureste basin (Gonzalez and Holguin,
1991) (Figure 1). Exploration in the Sureste basin
AAPG Bulletin, V. 83, No. 7 (July 1999), P. 1068–1095.

began in the late 1920s, but the main discoveries
were made in the 1950s for the Salina basin and in
the 1970s and early 1980s for the Chiapas-Tabasco
and Campeche areas (Acevedo and Mejia-Dautt,
1980). With the exception of the Macuspana basin,
which is mainly gas prone, all the basins are oil
prone. The petroleum resources of these basins are
concentrated in the Campeche Sound area, which
has more than 95% of the total Mexican reserves
and production.
Sedimentary organic matter and oils contain
complex assemblages of biological marker com-
pounds. In the same fashion that geological fossils
preserve the morphology of biological organisms,
biological markers preserve the molecular struc-
ture of compounds that constitute the organisms.
Both geological and biological markers reflect the
biological input and physico-chemical conditions
of the depositional environment. The biological
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1069
Figure 1—Map showing
location of marginal
sedimentary basins in
the Gulf of Mexico.
features include organic matter derived from organ-
isms present within the water column, organic mat-
ter at the sediment-water interface, and the bacteri-
al communities within the sediments. Organic
matter transported to the site of deposition is also
part of this assemblage. The nature of the deposi-
tional environment, its salinity, and its dissolved
oxygen content also are reflected in the biological
markers. Biological marker distributions in oils,
therefore, can serve as diagnostic fingerprints,
carrying information about the prevailing paleo-
environmental conditions. Molecular geochemistry
thus can assist in ascertaining the depositional envi-
ronment of petroleum source rocks via the types of
contributing organisms in their related oils (e.g.,
Mackenzie, 1980; Mackenzie et al., 1984; Rullkötter
et al., 1984; Moldowan et al., 1985; Mello, 1988;
Mello et al., 1988; Mello and Maxwell, 1990; Mello
et al., 1993; Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
1070 Mexico Oil Origin
Figure 2—Generalized
stratigraphic column of the
Mexican Sureste basin showing
the reservoir and source
rocks units.
In an effort to classify the oil types present in
the Sureste basin and to assess the depositional
environment of their source rocks we studied
more than 150 selected oil samples and more
than 1000 rock samples from the Sureste basin.
For the purpose of presentation, only the most
representative oils and source rock extracts are
shown. This paper also extends previous investi-
gations by using a biological marker approach
(Mello et al., 1995). The purpose is to develop a
reliable classification of the oils, to determine
their source rocks, and to understand differ-
ences in their composition through molecular
geochemistry.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
The stratigraphic column of the Sureste basin
comprises a sedimentary section ranging in age
from the Middle Jurassic to the Holocene (Figure
2). During the Late Triassic–Lower Jurassic, a rift
phase associated with the opening of the Gulf of
Mexico allowed the deposition of salt bodies in the
basin (Salvador, 1991). Salt tectonics resulted in the
formation of structural and stratigraphic traps both
in the Salina basin and Campeche area, where
petroleum reservoirs associated with salt diapirs
produce from both the Miocene and Cretaceous
(Acevedo and Mejia-Dautt, 1980).

During the Callovian and the beginning of the
Oxfordian, marine conditions extended over all of
the Sureste basin. In the Campeche area, the
Oxfordian embraced a sedimentary sequence com-
prising shallow-marine clastics, evaporites, and
shallow organic-rich carbonates (Cruz and
Gonzalez, 1994).
The marine transgression increased in the
Sureste basin during the Kimmeridgian. The basin’s
lower part is represented by shaly sediments that,
in some areas, are sandy with limestone intercala-
tions. In contrast, oolitic carbonate banks partially
dolomitized with layers of dolomites and anhy-
drites characterize the upper portion of the
Kimmeridgian. These oolitic banks constitute one
of the main petroleum reservoirs in the Chiapas-
Tabasco area (Nehring, 1991).
Maximum f looding occurred during the
Tithonian (Salvador, 1991). At this time, undis-
turbed, laminated, organic-rich calcareous mud-
stone sediments containing mainly type II kerogen
were deposited. This Tithonian calcareous shale is
considered to be the most important oil source
rock in the Mexican Sureste basin (Gonzalez and
Holguin, 1991).
The Lower Cretaceous section in the Chiapas-
Tabasco area is characterized by carbonate-evaporitic
deposits. In contrast, dolomite and shaly limestones
containing chert are present in the Campeche area.
Considerable oil production comes from these sec-
tions in the Chiapas-Tabasco and the Campeche
areas (Nehring, 1991).
In the Sierra de Chiapas, the carbonate platform
consists mainly of sabkha-type sequences linked to
evaporite and restricted inner shelf deposits,
including organic-rich carbonate beds. Petroleum
reservoirs in the Chiapas-Tabasco and Campeche
areas are essentially found in a high-energy bank-
edge sequence west of the Yucatan carbonate plat-
form (Viniegra, 1981). These rocks are the most
important Mesozoic petroleum producing trend in
the Gulf of Mexico (Nehring, 1991).
In the Campeche area, Upper Cretaceous deposits
are represented by dolomites, shaly limestones, and
chert. Dolomitized breccias are one of the main
Upper Cretaceous reservoir plays in the Campeche
area. Throughout the Cenozoic the basin filled
with a thick prograding sequence of shale and
sand, building the shelf edge out to its present
position.
SAMPLES AND METHODS
Geochemical analysis was done on oil samples
from 69 oil fields and two oil seeps, and 30 poten-
tial source rocks. This paper includes data from
only selected oil and rock samples taken as being
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1071
representative of the oil families identified (Tables
1, 2, 3). The oil samples representing reservoirs
ranging in age from Oxfordian to Pleistocene
(Figure 2, Table 1) were first analyzed for API gravi-
ty, carbon isotopes, and elements (Ni, V, and S).
Bitumen from representative source rocks ranging
in age from Oxfordian to middle Miocene was
extracted by soxhlet.
Carbon isotopes of whole oils and bitumens
were measured in the normal way and reported rel-
ative to PDB (Peedee belemnite). The oils and
organic extracts were fractionated via solid-liquid
chromatography and the resulting saturate frac-
tions analyzed by gas chromatography (HP 5890)
and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TSQ-
70) following established methods of Mello et al.
(1995).
ASSESSING THE PALEOENVIRONMENT OF
DEPOSITION USING OIL SAMPLES
Four major source-related oil families have been
identified: Oxfordian, Tithonian, Lower Cretaceous,
and Tertiary (Figure 3). Each oil family is discussed
separately to assess and differentiate the oil types
and the paleoenvironment of deposition of their
respective sources.
Oxfordian Oils (Family 1)
Family 1 oil production in the Campeche area
comes from eolian sandstone reser voirs of
Oxfordian age. A minor portion originates from
Kimmeridgian oolitic carbonate bank reservoirs
(Cruz and Gonzalez, 1994).
The oils have geochemical features that appear
to be related to high-sulfur kerogen deposited in an
anoxic marine-hypersaline environment. The oils
typically are dominated by aromatic and NSO com-
pounds with saturate contents commonly account-
ing for less than 40% by weight (Table 1). Their
bulk features (Table 1) include API gravities of
around 26°, sulfur contents greater than 1%, V/Ni
ratios around 1.5, and whole-oil 13 C values of
around –25‰ (Figure 4). These data suggest that
these oils were derived from marine carbonate
source rocks (cf. Wenger et al., 1990; Kennicutt et
al., 1991; Mello et al., 1993).
The gas chromatography and biomarker features
of a representative family 1 oil are characterized by
a dominance of low-molecular-weight n-alkanes,
pristane/phytane <1, Ts / Tm <<1, abundant
extended hopanes, very high C35/C34 hopane ratios
(Figures 5–7, Table 2), low abundance of tricyclic
terpanes relative to pentacyclics, presence of
17α(H)-29,30 bisnorhopane, high abundance of
Table 1. Identification of and Bulk Data for Oils from the Mexican Southeastern Basins

Basin Reservoir δ13C API S V Ni %

Oil Family Well or Province Depth (m) Age Lithology (‰) Gravity (%) (ppm) (ppm) V/Ni Sat.*
1 CA-1 Campeche 4400–4428 Oxfordian Limestones –25.4 25.8 2.2 18.0 13.0 1.4 10.1
1 CA-2 Campeche 4540–4565 Oxfordian Limestones –25.7 26.0 2.6 15.0 12.0 1.3 36.5
2a SA-1 Salina 1539–1549 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.9 15.2 3.6 110.0 31.0 3.5 23.5
2a SA-2 Salina 1540–1543 Upper Miocene Sandstones –28.1 16.3 6.0 39.9
2a SA-3 Salina 385–390 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.3 23.9 2.2 49.0 23.0 2.1 43.7
2a SA-4 Salina 1805–1830 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.4 25.0 1.7 20.0 7.0 2.9 45.0
2a SA-5 Salina 550–569 Upper Cretaceous Limestones –26.8 33.6 1.3 16.0 4.0 4.0 59.4
2a SA-6 Salina 490–500 Middle Cretaceous Limestones –26.8 33.8 1.3 16.0 4.0 4.0 62.3
2b CHI-1 Chiapas–Tabasco 4035–4047 Middle Cretaceous Limestones –26.4 35.5 0.6 >5 1.0 69.2
2b CHI-2 Chiapas-Tabasco 2028–2040 Upper Pliocene Sandstones –27.7 12.9 4.2 429.0 70.0 6.1 19.3
2b CHI-3 Chiapas-Tabasco 2200–2300 Pliocene Sandstones –27.3 4.4 38.2
2b CA-3 Campeche 4317–4400 Upper Cretaceous Limestones –27.4 24.7 1.5 75.0 19.0 3.9 48.0
2b CA-4 Campeche 3855–3875 Middle Eocene Calcareous breccia –27.5 16.2 2.4 296.0 59.0 5.0 28.5
2b CA-5 Campeche 4245–4260 Lower Cretaceous Limestones –27.5 22.3 1.8 215.0 63.0 3.4 51.6
2c SAL-7 Salina 2591–2596 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.5 12.9 1.2 30.0 21.0 1.4 38.1
2c SAL-8 Salina 620–627 Upper Pliocene Sandstones –27.2 15.5 2.1 38.0 19.0 2.0 37.1
2c SAL-9 Salina 3383–3397 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.8 27.0 2.1 39.3
2c SAL-10 Salina 2685–2717 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.3 27.2 1.3 33.0 21.0 1.6 45.8
2c SAL-11 Salina 2997–3017 Upper Miocene Sandstones –27.1 36.4 0.9 7.0 1.8 58.7
2c SAL-12 Salina 1250–1260 Lower Pliocene Sandstones –27.4 37.2 0.8 11.0 4.0 2.2 63.2
2c CAM-6 Campeche 5820–5860 Lower Cretaceous Limestones –27.3 20.7 3.6 5.0 41.1
3 CHI-4 Chiapas-Tabasco 2900–2960 Lower Cretaceous Limestones –24.4 31.5 1.4 >5 >1 59.3
3 CHI-5 Chiapas-Tabasco 2787–2805 Upper Cretaceous Limestones –24.3 22.1 2.8 48.0 11.0 4.4 39.0
3 SIECHIA-1 Sierra de Chiapas 3389–3375 Lower Cretaceous Limestones –22.9 18.4 2.9 21.0 38.0 0.6 29.3
3 SIECHIA-2 Sierra de Chiapas 3261–3273 Lower Cretaceous Limestones –23.8 23.0 3.0 77.0
4 MACUS-1 Macuspana 1914–1920 Upper Miocene Sandstones –21.7 54.2 0.2 >5 6.0 37.1
4 MACUS-2 Macuspana 1735–1740 Upper Miocene Sandstones –22.6 30.5 0.1 >5 >1 68.4
4 MACUS-3 Macuspana 1585–1590 Pliocene Sandstones –22.5 45.4 0.1 >5 3.0 1.7 86.5
4 MACUS-4 Macuspana 1496–1499 Pliocene Sandstones –23.7 45.1 0.1 80.0
4 MACUSEEP Macuspana seep Pliocene Sandstones –22.3 25.8 0.3 >5 34.0 72.5

*Sat. = saturates.
Table 2. Source-Related Biomarker Parameters for Oils from the Mexican Southeastern Basins*

Oil Basin or C29/ C35/ % % % % % Oleanane 24/4 C*30/ Ts/ Dias % % % Ster./ Pr/
Family Well Province C30 C34 C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 Index 26/3 C29Ts Tm Index C27 C28 C29 Hop. Ph
1 CA-1 Campeche 0.8 1.4 30.2 23.7 17.0 12.5 17.5 0.0 1.4 0.1 0.4 0.0 32.7 22.0 45.4 5.7 0.6
1 CA-2 Campeche 0.8 1.5 26.1 22.8 18.7 13.3 20.2 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.5 0.4 29.0 21.9 49.1 4.4 0.6
2a SA-1 Salina 0.9 1.3 44.5 23.4 15.9 7.2 9.2 0.0 1.3 0.2 0.5 0.6 31.4 25.3 43.3 5.2 0.7
2a SA-2 Salina 0.8 1.2 46.1 24.0 15.0 7.0 8.2 0.0 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.8 33.5 24.2 42.3 4.4 0.7
2a SA-3 Salina 0.7 1.1 43.5 25.8 15.7 7.5 7.9 0.0 1.5 0.3 0.7 1.0 33.9 25.0 41.0 4.7 0.8
2a SA-4 Salina 0.9 1.2 43.1 25.4 16.2 7.8 9.6 0.0 2.1 0.3 1.0 0.6 31.2 25.5 43.4 6.6 1.0
2a SA-5 Salina 0.9 1.3 40.1 22.5 14.9 10.3 12.9 0.0 2.7 0.2 0.7 0.6 29.6 25.2 45.2 5.5 1.1
2a SA-6 Salina 0.9 1.2 36.2 25.6 16.7 10.6 12.5 0.0 3.2 0.2 0.7 0.8 32.7 30.4 36.9 5.4 0.9
2b CHI-1 Chiapas-Tabasco 1.2 0.8 38.9 24.9 16.0 11.4 9.2 0.0 3.1 0.2 0.9 0.9 27.7 32.0 40.3 6.2 1.2
2b CHI-2 Chiapas-Tabasco 1.1 1.2 42.7 24.2 14.2 8.9 10.4 0.0 2.9 0.2 0.3 0.3 32.6 27.0 40.4 4.9 0.6
2b CHI-3 Chiapas-Tabasco 1.2 1.1 38.8 25.0 15.2 10.5 11.2 0.0 2.3 0.2 0.6 0.4 30.3 25.7 43.9 4.7 0.7
2b CA-3 Campeche 1.1 0.9 40.4 25.5 15.9 9.8 8.9 0.0 1.6 0.2 0.5 0.1 26.4 34.3 39.2 3.1 0.9
2b CA-4 Campeche 1.2 1.0 39.3 25.5 15.7 10.0 10.1 0.0 1.9 0.2 0.5 0.8 36.7 23.6 39.7 4.3 0.8
2b CA-6 Campeche 1.2 0.9 47.4 28.4 11.7 6.9 6.0 0.0 1.8 0.1 0.7 0.7 34.0 28.0 38.0 5.2 0.8
2c SA-7 Salina 0.8 1.0 39.1 25.3 17.6 9.3 9.3 0.0 1.6 0.4 1.2 1.5 32.0 25.6 42.4 5.8 1.1
2c SA-8 Salina 0.8 1.0 39.3 24.8 17.5 9.3 9.3 0.0 1.6 0.5 1.0 1.1 27.9 21.4 50.8 5.2 –
2c SA-9 Salina 0.7 0.8 42.4 25.7 16.3 8.7 7.3 0.0 1.3 0.4 1.0 1.5 34.5 24.1 41.4 5.1 1.0
2c SA-10 Salina 0.7 0.9 42.4 25.6 16.1 8.7 7.6 0.0 1.7 0.4 1.4 1.5 34.2 22.2 43.6 4.8 1.0
2c SA-11 Salina 0.8 0.9 41.4 24.0 16.5 8.9 7.7 0.0 1.7 0.5 1.2 1.0 31.2 23.8 45.0 4.9 0.9
2c SA-12 Salina 0.7 1.0 40.3 24.1 17.3 9.5 9.3 0.0 1.6 0.5 1.3 1.1 29.2 22.3 48.5 5.3 1.1
2c CA-6 Campeche 0.7 1.1 35.6 24.4 17.3 11.3 12.0 0.0 1.5 0.3 0.9 0.9 29.1 26.1 44.9 5.4 1.0
3 CHI-4 Chiapas-Tabasco 1.7 0.9 37.6 23.7 14.8 12.8 11.6 0.0 8.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 30.2 31.1 38.7 8.5 0.5
3 CHI-5 Chiapas-Tabasco 1.8 1.1 37.6 22.7 14.1 12.3 13.7 0.0 10.9 0.2 0.2 0.4 28.7 32.7 38.6 9.4 0.8
3 SIE-1 Sierra de Chiapas 1.4 1.0 28.9 26.1 11.4 18.0 17.2 0.0 22.7 0.2 0.5 0.1 36.8 19.4 43.8 12.3 0.4
3 SIE-2 Sierra de Chiapas 1.8 0.9 37.1 21.8 13.1 15.2 13.7 0.0 34.0 0.4 0.2 0.1 32.4 24.9 42.7 13.1 0.7
4 MA-1 Macuspana 0.5 0.6 41.7 27.3 16.5 9.3 5.8 0.7 0.5 0.3 1.1 0.4 23.6 36.6 39.8 9.3 2.1
4 MA-2 Macuspana 0.6 0.6 43.3 27.7 16.1 8.2 5.1 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.9 0.5 26.4 37.5 36.1 10.1 2.1
4 MA-3 Macuspana 0.6 0.3 48.8 29.3 13.5 6.5 2.3 0.6 1.1 0.4 1.3 0.9 31.2 32.3 36.6 11.0 3.2
4 MA-4 Macuspana 0.6 0.4 50.5 29.4 12.8 5.2 2.3 0.8 0.9 0.6 1.1 0.7 28.4 35.5 36.1 8.8 3.4
4 ASEE Macuspana 0.5 0.6 48.2 28.9 13.6 6.1 3.4 0.6 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.8 30.6 33.2 36.2 7.9 –
*C29 = peak area of 17α,21β(H)-30-norhopane in m/z 191 chromatogram. C30 = peak area of 17α,21β(H)-hopane in m/z 191 chromatogram. C35 = peak area of 17α,21β(H)-29-pentakishomohopane 22S + 22R in
m/z 191 chromatogram. C34 = peak area of 17α,21β(H)-29-tetrakishomohopane 22S + 22R in m/z 191 chromatogram. % C31 = [C31/(C31–C35)] × 100 homohopanes in m/z 191 chromatogram; epimers 22S + 22R were
measured for each carbon number. % C32 = [C32/(C31–C35)] × 100 homohopanes in m/z 191 chromatogram; epimers 22S + 22R were measured for each carbon number. % C33 = [C33/(C31–C35)] × 100 homohopanes in
m/z 191 chromatogram; epimers 22S + 22R were measured for each carbon number. % C34 = [C34/(C31–C35)] × 100 homohopanes in m/z 191 chromatogram; epimers 22S + 22R were measured for each carbon
number. % C35 = [C35/(C31–C35)] × 100 homohopanes in m/z 191 chromatogram; epimers 22S + 22R were measured for each carbon number. Oleanane Index = peak are of 18α(H)-oleanane in m/z 191 chromatogram
over peak area of 17α,21β(H)-hopane in m/z 191 chromatogram. 24/4 = peak area of tetracyclic terpane (C24) in m/z 191 chromatogram; 26/3 = peak area of tricyclic terpane (C26) in m/z 191 chromatogram. C*30 =
peak area of 17α(H)-diahopane. C29Ts = peak area of 18α(H)-30-norneohopane in m/z 191 chromatogram. Ts = peak area of 18α(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane in m/z 191 chromatogram; Tm = peak area of 17α(H)-
22,29,30-trisnorhopane in m/z 191 chromatogram. Dias Index = sum of peak areas of C 27 20R and 20S 13β,17α(H)-diasteranes in m/z 191 chromatogram over the sum of peak areas of C29 20S and 20R
5α(H),14β(H),17β(H),24-ethylcholestane in m/z 191 chromatogram. % C27 = [C27/(C27–C29)] × 100; % C28 = [C28/(C27–C29)] × 100; % C29 = [C29/(C27–C29)] × 100; peak area of 5α(H),17β(H)-cholestane 22S + 22R in
m/z 218 chromatogram; peak area of 5α(H),14β(H)17β(H)-methylcholestane 22S + 22R in m/z 218 chromatogram; and peak area of 5α(H),14β(H)17β(H)-ethylcholestane 22S + 22R in m/z 218 chromatogram.
Ster./Hop. = steranes/hopanes = intensity of regular steranes in m/z 217 chromatogram over intensity of homohopanes in m/z 191 chromatogram. Pr/Ph = pristane/phytane, here meaning peak area of pristane/peak
area of phytane; peak areas of pristane and phytane were measured in whole-oil gas chromatogram.
1074 Mexico Oil Origin

Table 3. Biomarker Peak Identification
Gas Chromatograms
PR 2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane (pristane)
PH 2,6,10,14-tetramethylhexadecane (phytane
Triterpanes (m/z 191)
1 C19 tricyclis terpane
2 C20 tricyclis terpane
3 C21 tricyclis terpane
4 C23 tricyclis terpane
5 C24 tricyclis terpane
6 C25 tricyclis terpane
7 C24 (Des-E) tetracyclic terpane
8 C26 tricyclis terpane (S/R)
Te C24 (Des-A) tetracyclic terpane
9 C28 tricyclis terpane (S/R)
10 C29 tricyclis terpane (S/R)
11 C27 18α(H),22,29,30-trisnorneohopane (C27 – Ts)
12 C27 17α(H),22,29,30-trisnorhopane (Tm)
R C30 Triterpanes
T C27 17α(H),18α(H),21β(H),25,28,30-trisnorhopane
13 C28 17α(H),21β(H),29,30-bisnorhopane
14 C*30 17α(H)-diahopane
15 C29 17α(H),21β(H)-norhopane
16 C29 18α(H),30-norneohopane (C29 – Ts)
O Oleanane
17 C30 17α(H),21β(H)-hopane
N C30 17α(H),30-nor,29-homohopane
18 C31 17α(H),21β(H)-homohopane (22S + 22R)
19 C32 17α(H),21β(H)-bishomohopane (22S + 22R)
20 C33 17α(H),21β(H)-trishomohopane (22S + 22R)
21 C34 17α(H),21β(H)-tetrakishomohopane
(22S + 22R)
22 C35 17α(H),21β(H)-pentakishomohopane
(22S + 22R)
o Hexahydrobenzohopane series
Steranes (m/z 217)
23 13β(H),17α(H)-diacholestane, 20S
(C27 – diasterane)
24 13β(H),17α(H)-diacholestane, 20R
(C27 – diasterane)
25 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20S
(C27 – cholestane)
26 5α(H),14β(H),17β(H),20R + 20S
(C27 – cholestane)
27 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20R (C27 – cholestane)
28 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20S
(C28 – methylcholestane)
29 5α(H),14β(H),17β(H),20R + 20S
(C28 – methylcholestane)
30 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20R
(C28 – methylcholestane)
31 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20S
(C28 – ethylcholestane)
32 5α(H),14β(H),17β(H),20R + 20S
(C29 – ethylcholestane)
33 5α(H),14α(H),17α(H),20R (C29 – ethylcholestane)
34 C30 – steranes
C29 steranes relative to their C27 counterparts, and
low relative abundance of diasteranes.
High bacterial contributions and hypersaline
anoxic carbonate environments are indicated by a
predominance of phytane/pristane; the terpane fea-
tures, for example, the low tricyclic terpanes; low
Ts/Tm ratios; and high relative abundance of
extended hopanes with very high C35/C34 hopane
ratios (ten Haven et al., 1985; Jiamo et al., 1986;
Mello et al., 1988, 1995). The predominance of C29
steranes are held to be diagnostic of nonmarine
environments (Mackenzie et al., 1984; Moldowan et
al., 1985); however, marine carbonate oils, derived
from source rocks older than Early Cretaceous, gen-
erally show high relative amounts of C29 steranes
and are attributed to algal precursors (Grantham
and Wakefield, 1988; Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
The low relative abundance of diasteranes is in
keeping with the idea of starved conditions during
the deposition of the source rocks. Such evidence,
together with the occurrence of biological markers
diagnostic of hypersaline water, suggests that the
Oxfordian in the Campeche sound was an environ-
ment with the low precipitation and intense evapo-
ration that generally occurs in restricted basins with
arid to semiarid climates. Sedimentological data for
the Oxfordian on this area also suggest the deposi-
tion of marls in an hypersaline environment and are
consistent with the geochemical results (Cruz and
Gonzalez, 1994).
Figure 8 shows an oil-source rock correlation
using m/z 191 (terpanes) and m/z 217 (steranes)
mass chromatograms. The biological markers show
a good match for the family 1 oil and an Oxfordian
organic-rich marl extract taken from a well in the
Campeche Sound.
The potential source rock selected for oil-source
rock correlation corresponds to an Oxfordian lami-
nated shaly limestone recovered from the well
Bacab 1 (4770 m); this limestone is interpreted as
deposited in a restricted environment near the
shoreline. Total organic carbon (around 2%) and
hydrogen index (430 mg HC/g TOC) values charac-
terize a type II kerogen with good source potential.
The organic petrographical data suggest a marginal-
ly mature character with a vitrinite equivalent value
of around 0.6% (beginning of the oil window).
The block diagram in Figure 9 is an idealized
illustration of the depositional environment that
may have existed during the Oxfordian in the
Campeche Sound area. This model assumes that
the Oxfordian sea was narrow, shallow, and semire-
stricted in an arid to semiarid climate. Such condi-
tions are associated with high evaporation and
cyclic deposition of evaporites, mixed carbonates,
and eolian siliciclastics, as observed in Oxfordian
sediments from the Campeche area. These charac-
teristics led to a sluggish circulation, increased
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1075

Figure 3—Geographical
distribution of oil families
in the Sureste basin.

Figure 4—Sulfur content

(wt. %) vs. whole-oil
carbon isotope
composition of oils
analyzed.
 1076
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 5—Example of whole-oil gas chromatogram, terpanes

(m/z 191), and sterane (m/z 217) distributions for oil family 1
(Oxfordian). Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.

water salinity, halocline and picnocline stratifica-
tion, and, consequently, bottom-water anoxia
(Mello, 1988; Koutsoukos et al., 1991a, b; Mello et
al., 1993). Organic-rich marls and calcareous mud-
stones were deposited in a hypersaline anoxic con-
dition between periods of marine transgression in
which less hypersaline conditions were established
(Koutsoukos et al., 1991a, b; Mello et al., 1993).
In summary, the geochemical characteristics of
family 1 oils are diagnostic of marine-carbonate,
anoxic, hypersaline conditions of the source rock
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1077
Figure 6—Representative
homohopane distribution of oil
families from the Mexican south-
eastern basins. Key calculation of
percent of homohopanes is given
in Table 2.
Figure 7—C35/C34 hopanes ratio
vs. whole-oil carbon isotope
composition of oils analyzed from
Mexican southeastern basins.
Oil families are roughly
delineated. Key for calculation
of C35/C34 hopanes ratio is
represented in Table 2.
depositional environment (ten Haven et al., 1985;
Connan and Dessort, 1987; Mello et al., 1988,
1993, 1995; Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
Tithonian Oils (Family 2)
The oils classified as belonging to family 2 are
found in marine siliciclastic and carbonate reser-
voirs ranging in age from Kimmeridgian to Pliocene
in the Salina basin, Chiapas-Tabasco area, the
 1078
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 8—Oil-source rock correlation (terpanes and steranes) using a representative oil from family 1 and an extract from an organic-rich marl
recovered from the Oxfordian section of a well from the Campeche Sound area. Biomarker identification is given in Table 3.

Figure 9—Idealized illustration of the paleoenvironment of deposition proposed during the Oxfordian in the
Campeche Sound area (modified from J. Ruiz, 1993, personal communication).
Macuspana basin, and the Campeche Sound area
(Figures 1–3). Their bulk geochemical features
(Table 1) include saturate hydrocarbon contents
ranging from 21 to 63%, low to high API gravities
ranging from 15 to 47°, sulfur content from 0.1 to
6% (Figure 4), whole oil δ 13 C values of –25.6 to
–27.8‰ with most values around –27‰ (Figure 4),
and V/Ni ratios ranging from 1 to 5%. The lighter
(less negative) carbon isotope values of these oils
compared to family 1 oils (Table 1) suggest a less
hypersaline condition in the source rock deposi-
tional environment (Mello et al., 1988; Guzman-
Vega et al., 1992; Mello et al., 1993; Peters and
Moldowan, 1993). The broad variation in these geo-
chemical features may be explained by slight
source rock organic facies variations and by a wide
range of thermal evolution (from normal oil to con-
densate).
Family 2 oils share several biological marker fea-
tures that are related to carbonate depositional
environments. Based on very specific molecular
characteristics, family 2 oils can be divided into
three subtypes (Figure 3, Table 2) (Guzman-Vega et
al., 1995): the 2a subtype is restricted to the Salina
basin, the 2b subtype is present in wells from the
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1079
Chiapas-Tabasco basin and the Campeche Sound
areas, and the 2c subtype is limited to the Salina
basin and some wells from the Campeche Sound
area.
Results of GC (gas chromatography) and
GC–MS (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry)
for representative family 2 subtypes are shown in
Figures 10 and 11. In general, the family 2 subtypes
all show a dominance of low-molecular-weight
n-alkanes and pristane/phytane ratios ≤1 (Figure
10, Table 1), abundant extended hopanes, low to
medium abundance of tricyclic terpanes relative to
pentacyclics, presence of hexahydrobenzo-
hopanes, and 17α(H)29,30-bisnorhopane (Figures
10, 11). The relatively high abundance of extended
hopanes and the elevated C35 hopanes commonly
are associated with marine-carbonate environ-
ments (Connan et al., 1986; Mello et al., 1988).
The presence of hexahydrobenzohopanes and
17α(H) 29,30-bisnorhopane also is consistent with
carbonate depositional environments (Connan and
Dessort, 1987; Peters and Moldowan, 1993).
Sterane features of the family 2 subtypes (Figure 11)
all show the presence of C30 steranes and a high
abundance of C29 steranes relative to C27 (Table 1).
 1080
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 10—Example of whole-oil gas chromatograms oil subtypes for

2a, 2b, and 2c. Peak identification is given in Table 3.
 Guzman-Vega and Mello

Figure 11—Example terpanes (m/z 191) and steranes (m/z 217) distributions for oil 2a, 2b, and 2c subtypes (Tithonian). Biomarker peak identifi-
1081

cation is shown in Table 3.

1082 Mexico Oil Origin
Figure 12—C29/C30 hopanes ratio
vs. C35/C34 hopanes ratio of oils
analyzed from Mexican
southeastern basins. Oil
subfamilies are roughly
delineated. Key for calculation of
C29/C30 and C35/C34 hopanes
ratio is given in Table 2.
These features have been considered diagnostic for
marine algal organic matter (Moldowan et al.,
1985). The presence of low relative abundances of
low-molecular-weight steranes and high relative
abundances of tricyclic terpanes in the family 2 oils
(Table 2), when compared with family 1 oils,
reflects the less saline conditions in the deposition
environment of their source rocks (Cassani, 1986;
ten Haven, 1986; Mello et al, 1988).
Subtype 2a Oils
The subtype 2a oils are restricted to the Salina
basin (Figure 3). They are associated with marine
siliciclastic reservoirs ranging in age from Late
Cretaceous to the late Miocene, with almost 90% of
the oil found in Miocene reservoirs (Table 1).
The key molecular features that differentiate this
subtype oil are pristane < phytane, C 29 /C 30 αβ-
hopane ratios < 1, C35/C34 extended hopane ratios
>1, Ts/Tm ratios < 1, and very low abundance of
diasteranes (Figures 10–12). These biological mark-
er features are characteristic of oils derived from
anoxic marine carbonate source rocks (e.g., Mello
et al., 1988; Sofer, 1988; Sassen 1990; Comet et al.,
1993; Peters et al. 1993).
Figure 13 illustrates the oil-source rock correla-
tion using biological markers. There is a good cor-
relation between the representative subtype 2a oil
and an organic-rich Tithonian marl from a well in
the Tampico-Misantla basin. The selected sample is
a Tithonian shaly limestone, containing radiolaires
and calpionellids, that suggests deposition in a
bathyal environment. This limestone has total
organic carbon (TOC) content of approximately 2%
and a hydrogen index value of about 300 mg HC/g
TOC, composed mainly by type II kerogen. The
organic matter is predominantly algal and presents
a thermal evolution stage around peak oil genera-
tion (R o around 0.8%). The good oil-source rock
correlation, in this case, allows us to speculate on
the presence of a Tithonian source rock, as
observed in this example of a organic extract from
Tampico-Misantla basin.
The block diagram shown in Figure 14 is an ide-
alized illustration of the paleoenvironment of depo-
sition for the source rocks of the family 2 oils. For
subtype 2a, this model assumes that the Tithonian
ocean was a narrow, shallow semirestricted sea in a
semiarid climate. Such conditions were favored by
a silled basin geometry in an extensional tectonic
setting, restricted vertical mixing, and enhanced
water stratification, leading to the development of
anoxia and organic preservation (e.g., Tampico-
Tuxpan basin) (Guzman-Vega et al., 1991, 1992).
Subtype 2b Oils
The subtype 2b oils are the most widely spread
in the Sureste basin. These oils are present in
wells from the Chiapas-Tabasco basin and the
Campeche Sound area (Figure 3) and are associat-
ed mainly with marine carbonate reservoirs rang-
ing in age from Kimmeridgian to Pleistocene
(Table 1), with approximately 95% of the subtype
2b oil found in Mesozoic reservoirs. Subtype 2b
oils share similar bulk properties with subtype 2a
oils (Table 1), including compositional elemental
Figure 13—Oil-source rock correlation (terpanes and steranes) using a representative oil from 2a subtype and an extract from an organic-rich marl
from the Tithonian section in a Tampico-Misantla area well. Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.
Guzman-Vega and Mello
1083
1084 Mexico Oil Origin
Figure 14—Idealized illustration of the paleoenvironment of deposition of source rocks related to family 2 oils
(modified from Mello et al., 1993).
carbon isotope data. As suggested previously,
these characteristics are typical of oils derived
from marine-carbonate source rocks.
These oils also show many biological markers
similar to those for the subtype 2a oils (Figures
10–12): pristane < phytane, C 35 /C 34 extended
hopanes >1, Ts/Tm < 1, and a very low relative
abundance of diasteranes. The key diagnostic
molecular feature that distinguishes these oils is the
high relative abundance of C 29 αβ-hopane com-
pared with C 3 0 (C 2 9 /C 3 0 αβ-hopane ratio >1)
(Figure 12). High C29/C30 hopane ratios have been
related to oils derived from organic-rich carbonate
and some evaporitic source rocks (Zumberge 1984;
Connan et al, 1986).
Figure 15 illustrates the oil-source rock correla-
tion using biological markers. There is a good cor-
relation between the representative subtype 2b oil
and an organic-rich Tithonian shaly limestone
recovered from a well in the Chiapas-Tabasco basin
(3698-3705 m).
Petrographically, the selected sample is similar
to the Tithonian shaly limestone recovered from
Tampico-Misantla basin, but suggesting a less
restricted and broad marine-carbonate environ-
ment (Aguayo et al., 1985). It has a total organic
carbon value of around 1.5%, a hydrogen index
value of 200 mg HC/g TOC, and Tmax of around
439°C, suggesting a fully mature stage of ther-
mal evolution. Immature Tithonian samples, in
this basin, can reach more than 5% of TOC,
15–36 mg HC/g of rock, and hydrogen index val-
ues of up to 650 mg Hc/g of rock (Gonzalez and
Holguin, 1991) suggesting excellent source rock
potential.
The block diagram shown in Figure 14 suggests
that the source rock for the subtype 2b oils was
deposited in a gentle, broad carbonate ramp in a
distal position under shallow to middle neritic con-
ditions at a time of global transgression. Restricted
circulation or high organic productivity resulted in
oxygen-deficient bottom waters.
Subtype 2c Oils
The subtype 2c oils are restricted to the western
part of the Salina basin and some wells from the
Campeche Sound area (Figure 3). These oils are
Figure 15—Oil-source rock correlation (terpanes and steranes) using a representative oil from 2b subtype and an extract from an organic-rich marl
recovered from the Tithonian section of a well from the Chiapas-Tabasco area. Biomarker peak identification is presented in Table 3.
Guzman-Vega and Mello
1085
1086 Mexico Oil Origin
associated with upper Miocene marine siliciclastic
and Lower Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs.
The oils show geochemical features associated
with oils derived from marine-carbonate source
rocks, although a clay-rich facies is suggested.
Thus, the oils possess low sulfur and low V/Ni
ratios when compared to oils from subtypes 2a and
2b, medium content of saturates, pristane/phytane
ratios ≤ 1 and carbon isotope value for the whole
oils range from –26.3 to –27.8‰ (Table 1). Some of
these data indicate oils derived from clay-rich
marine carbonate source rocks (Sofer, 1984;
Talukdar et al., 1986; Mello et al., 1988, 1995).
Although the subtype 2c oils share common
molecular features with oils from subtypes 2a and
2b, there are components present in 2c oils that
distinguish and characterize them (Figures 11, 12;
Table 2). The most important of these are C29/C30
hopanes, C 35 /C 34 extended hopane ratios ≤1,
Ts/Tm ≥ 1, high relative abundance of diasteranes
compared to regular steranes and, in particular, the
high to very high relative abundance of a series of
C28-C34 17α(H)-diahopanes (Figure 11). These par-
ticular biological markers are associated with
marine-carbonate oils derived from Upper Jurassic
clay-rich source rocks in the North Sea (Northam,
1985; Schou et al., 1985) and United States Gulf
Coast basins (Wenger et al., 1990). Moldowan et al.
(1991) suggested that a high abundance of 17α(H)-
diahopane (C*30) was associated with a bacterial
input in a clay-rich sedimentary environment under
oxic or suboxic conditions. They proposed the
C*30/C29Ts ratio as an indicator of clay content and
oxygen depletion in the paleoenvironment of
deposition of the source rock. The data show a
good correlation between the C*30/C29Ts ratio and
other indicators of clay content and salinity/redox
conditions (e.g., low C 35 /C 34 extended hopane
ratio, high diasterane index, and high Ts/Tm ratio)
(Figure 11) for the subtype 2c oils. Among the
potential source rocks studied, none could be cor-
related with family 2c oils.
The block diagram shown in Figure 14 suggests
the sedimentary setting in which the source rock
for subtype 2c oils was deposited, occurring in a
more proximal setting, compared with the source
rocks from family 2a, under shallow to middle ner-
itic conditions at a time of global transgression
(Aguayo et al., 1985; Michaud, 1987).
Cretaceous Oils (Family 3)
The oils classified as family 3 oils are found in
marine-carbonate reservoirs ranging in age from
Early to Middle Cretaceous and occur in the south-
ern part of the Chiapas-Tabasco area and in the
Sierra de Chiapas (Figures 2, 3; Table 1).
The oils have API gravities that range from 18 to
36°, aromatic and NSO components dominate the
oils, sulfur contents range from 0.7 to 3% (Figure
4), V/Ni ratios range from 0.6 to 4.4 (Table 1), and
carbon isotope values for the whole oils range from
–24.4 to –22.9‰ (Figure 4). This heavy carbon iso-
tope value for the whole oil differentiates this fami-
ly and suggests that related source rocks were
deposited under the most hypersaline conditions
compared to those for oil families 1 and 2. (Palacas
et al., 1984; Mello et al., 1995; Peters and Moldowan,
1993).
Figure 16 shows the GC and GC–MS traces
obtained from the analysis of a representative family
3 oil. The features that suggest that it is sourced from
a hypersaline carbonate source rock are pristane/
phytane ratios ranging between 0.3 and 0.8, occur-
rence of high relative abundances of C25 and C30
long-chain isoprenoids, hopane/sterane ratios
<0.2, abundant extended hopanes with high
C34/C33 ratios (>1), very high relative abundances
of C24–C27 tetracyclic Des-E terpanes (Figure 16),
low to very low abundances of tricyclic terpanes,
the presence of 17α(H) 29,30-bisnorhopane and
low abundance of diasteranes (Table 2).
Similar molecular features observed for family 3
oils have been reported from carbonate-evaporitic
sequences from Guatemala (Connan et al., 1986,
1995), south Florida (Palacas et al., 1984), and
Israel (Rullkötter et al., 1984). The biota in such
an environment are expected to be largely restrict-
ed to species of salinity tolerant aquatic organ-
isms. These organisms are expected to possess
unusual distributions of lipids able to give rise to
unusual distributions of biological marker s.
Organisms such as Archaebacteria give rise to
high relative abundances of phytane and C25 and
C 30 long-chain isoprenoids. Also capable of pro-
ducing unusual distributions are certain green
algae, cyanobacteria (including halophiles), and
sulfur bacteria (Boon et al., 1983; Goosens et al.,
1984; Connan et al., 1986). The presence of these
unusual distributions in family 3 oils are a key fea-
ture in differentiating them from other oil families
(Figure 16).
Figure 17 shows a good correlation, using bio-
logical marker distributions, between a family 3 oil
and the organic extract obtained from a Lower
Cretaceous organic-rich limestone intercalated
within massive anhydrite recovered from a core
(4339–4346 m) in a well from the Sierra de Chiapas
area. The sample is characterized by laminated
microdolomites, algal mats, and mosaic anhydrite.
These features are similar to those reported in the
Lower Cretaceous of Guatemala and interpreted as
typical of coastal sabkha environments (Connan et
al., 1986). Total organic carbon and hydrogen
index values are around 1.5 % and 450 mg HC/g
Figure 16—Example of a whole-oil gas chromatogram, terpanes
(m/z 191) and steranes (m/z 217) distributions for oil family 3
(Cretaceous). Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.
Guzman-Vega and Mello
1087
 1088
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 17—Oil-source rock correlation (terpanes and steranes) using a representative oil from family 3 and an extract from an organic-rich marl
recovered from the Lower Cretaceous section of a well from the Sierra de Chiapas area. Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.

Figure 18—Idealized illustration of the paleoenvironment of deposition of source rocks related to family 3 oils
(modified from Mello et al., 1993).
TOC, respectively. The organic matter is mainly
composed by type II kerogen with dominance of
bacterial and algal material. The Tmax and vitrinite
ref lectance data (around 425°C and 0.5% R o ,
respectively) suggest a very immature stage of ther-
mal evolution.
Figure 18 shows a block diagram of an idealized
paleoenvironment of deposition for the source
rocks giving rise to family 3 oils, suggesting that
these rocks were deposited in sabkha environ-
ments during the Early Cretaceous. Arid conditions
and intermittent incursions of marine water
allowed the formation of these environments in the
intertidal area of a carbonate platform. During sea
transgressions, in relatively less saline water condi-
tions, a huge quantity of nutrients allowed algal and
bacterial blooms over short periods of time
(Kirkland and Evans, 1980; Busson, 1991; Hofmann
and Leythaeuser, 1993). Frequent salinity variations
induced mass mortalities and replacement of one
species by another. Once hypersaline conditions
were reestablished, gypsum and halite precipitated
and only a few species of algae and bacteria could
survive. The hydrocarbon potential of evaporitic
sequences commonly is limited due to the erratic
distribution of the source rocks, which are deposit-
ed in thin bedded, laterally discontinuous strata
(Connan et al. 1995).
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1089
Tertiary Oils (Family 4)
The family 4 oils are geographically limited to
the Macuspana basin and are found in siliciclastic
reser voirs ranging in age from late to middle
Miocene (Figure 3, Table 1).
The oils typically have saturate hydrocarbon con-
tents of <60%, medium to high API gravities rang-
ing from 28 to 45°, only traces of Ni and V, very low
sulfur content, and whole-oil carbon isotope values
ranging from –23.7 to –21.9‰ (Figures 4, 7). These
data characterize and differentiate family 4 oils and
suggest an origin source rock deposited in a dysaer-
obic, siliciclastic environment (Talukdar et al.,
1986; Mello, 1988; Doust and Omatsola, 1990;
Mello et al., 1995).
Figure 19 shows the most important molecular
features of the family 4 oils. These include high
pristane/phytane ratios, very low abundance of
extended hopanes, high relative abundance of
18α(H)-oleanane, the presence of Des-A and Des-E
C24 tetracyclic terpanes, a dominance of C 29 ster-
anes, and a high relative abundance of diasteranes
(Figures 19, 20). These features are typical for oils
derived from source rocks deposited in a marine
deltaic depositional environment (Ekweozor et al.,
1979; Grantham et al., 1983; Murray et al., 1994).
The presence of 18α(H)-oleanane in an oil suggests
 1090
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 19—Example of whole-oil gas chromatogram, terpanes

(m/z 191) and steranes (m/z 217) distributions for oil family 4
(Tertiary). Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.

a terrestrial input and has been found in many
Tertiary oils worldwide (Grantham et al., 1983;
Brooks, 1986; Philp and Gilbert, 1986; Mello et al.,
1988; Kennicutt et al., 1991). Similarly, the pres-
ence of Des-A and Des-E C24 tetracyclic terpanes
indicates a significant contribution of higher plant
material to the source rocks for family 4 oils
(Trendel et al., 1982; Philp and Gilbert, 1986;
Abdullah et al., 1988; Mello et al., 1988; Murray et
al., 1994). Other peaks present, but not marked, in
Figure 19 are bicadinanes and C30 triterpanes. The
latter are almost certainly oleanoids, which are sug-
gested to be derived mainly from Tertiar y
angiosperm (Grantham et al., 1983; Czochanska et
al., 1988; van Aarssen et al., 1990; Murray et al.,
1994). The predominance of C29 steranes and the
relative abundance of diasteranes reflect the high
terrigenous input and clay mineral input, respec-
tively, to the source rocks of family 4 oils and is
consistent with a deltaic depositional environment
(see discussion for family 2c oils). The presence of
C30 steranes, albeit in low abundance, indicates a
marine depositional influence (Table 2) (Moldowan
et al., 1985). Thus, the evidence suggests very
strongly that the family 4 oils were derived from a
Tertiary marine siliciclastic deltaic source rock.
Examples of oils derived from such environments
include those from the Niger Delta (Hills and
Whitehead, 1966; Ekweozor et al., 1979), Mahakam
Delta (Grantham et al., 1983; Schoell et al., 1983;
Hoffmann et al., 1984), Beaufort-Mackenzie Delta
(Brooks, 1986), Amazon Delta (Mello et al., 1988),
Mississippi Delta (Kennicutt et al., 1991), and
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1091
Figure 20—Pristane/
phytane ratio vs.
whole-oil carbon isotope
composition of oils
analyzed from the
Mexican southeastern
basins. Oil families are
roughly delineated.
deltas from southeastern Asia, southern China, and
New Zealand (Murray et al., 1994).
Figure 21 shows an oil-source correlation
between a family 4 oil and an organic extract from a
middle Miocene organic-rich shale recovered from a
well in the Macuspana basin (2004–2054 m). Total
organic carbon values are low (around 0.5%) and
composed mainly of type II-III kerogen (hydrogen
indices are up to 154 mg HC/g TOC). Although the
organic extract exhibits low thermal maturity
(Tmax around 429°C), the molecular parameters
used show a good correlation with those from the
family 4 oils.
In summary, the geochemical data from family 4
oils indicate an origin from bacterially reworked
terrigenous and marine source material deposited
in a Tertiary marine deltaic environment.
CONCLUSIONS
Geochemical analyses of oils and rock samples
have identified four major age-source related oil
families in the Sureste basin: Oxfordian, Tithonian,
Early Cretaceous, and Tertiary.
The Jurassic, Oxfordian, and Tithonian oils are
related to sources from marine-carbonate environ-
ments and the Tertiary oils are associated with a
source from a marine-deltaic siliciclastic deposi-
tional environment.
Biomarker and carbon isotope differences
observed between the marine-carbonate oils are
interpreted as being due to differences in salinity,
 1092
Mexico Oil Origin

Figure 21—Oil-source rock correlation (terpanes and steranes) using a representative oil from family 4 and an extract from an organic-rich shale
recovered from the Miocene section of a well from the Macuspana basin. Biomarker peak identification is given in Table 3.

clay content, and oxygen depletion of the deposi-
tional environment of the source rocks. These dif-
ferences provide diagnostic criteria for recognizing
and differentiating four distinct organic-rich deposi-
tional regimes as the sources for these oil types: an
anoxic hypersaline marine-carbonate environment,
an anoxic marine-carbonate environment ranging
from low to high siliciclastic input, an anoxic
marine-evaporitic environment, and a marine delta-
ic environment.
The Tithonian-related oils are present both
onshore and offshore and throughout the strati-
graphic column from Kimmeridgian to Pleistocene
in marine siliciclastic and carbonate reservoirs and
represent more than 80% of all oil reserves from
the Sureste basin. The presence of multiple, verti-
cally stacked petroleum reservoirs containing the
same genetic type of oil indicates a Tithonian verti-
cally drained petroleum system.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mario Alberto Guzman-Vega
Mario Alberto Guzman-Vega
received a B.S. degree in geology
from the Polytechnic National
Institute of Mexico. In 1986 he
joined the Exploration Division of
the Mexican Petroleum Institute
(IMP), where he performed several
projects focusing on petroleum
exploration in Mexican sedimenta-
ry basins. From 1987 to 1991 he
studied in Pau University, France,
where he received an M.S. degree and a Ph.D. His cur-
rent interests include basin analysis, petroleum system
characterization, and the generation of oil and gas in
Mexican basins. Presently, he is in charge of the reser-
voir geochemistry projects of IMP. He is president of the
Mexican Association of Petroleum Geologists (AMGP) of
the Mexico City section and an associate professor in
the Polytechnic National Institute of Mexico.
Guzman-Vega and Mello 1095
et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 54, p. 3021–3031.
Viniegra, F., 1981, Great carbonate bank of Yucatan, southern
Mexico: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 3, p. 247–278.
Wenger, L. M., R. Sassen, and D. Schumacher, 1990, Molecular
characterization of Smackover, Wilcox, and Tuscaloosa–
reservoired oils in the eastern Gulf Coast, characteristics,
origin, distribution, and exploration and production
significance: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Research
Conference, Gulf Coast Section, SEPM Foundation, p. 37–57.
Zumberge, J. E., 1984, Source rocks of the La Luna Formation
(Upper Cretaceous) in the Middle Magdalena Valley,
Colombia, in J. G. Palacas, ed., Petroleum geochemistry and
source rock potential of carbonate rocks: AAPG Studies in
Geology 18, p. 127–134.
Marcio Rocha Mello
Marcio Rocha Mello received a
degree in geology from Brasilia
University. In 1976 he joined
Petrobras as a well-site geologist
working in the Reconcavo basin,
located in northeastern Brazil. By
1982, after work as a petroleum
explorationist in the Ceará and
Potiguar basins in northeast Brazil,
he became the head of the Petro-
bras Geochemistry Laboratory. In
1985, he joined Bristol University, in England, where he
received a Ph.D. in petroleum geochemistry. In 1988, he
was promoted to be the head of the Petrobras geochem-
istry section. Presently, he is the head of the Center of
Excellence in Geochemistry of Petrobras. In addition,
Marcio is the president of the Brazilian Association of
Petroleum Geologists, a recipient of AAPG’s Distin-
guished Achievement Award, and an associate professor
in several Brazilian Universities.