Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
DOI 10.1007/s10661-014-3945-9
Groundwater quality assessment and its correlation
with gastroenteritis using GIS: a case study of Rawal Town,
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Syed Umair Shahid & Javed Iqbal & Ghalib Hasnain
Received: 28 October 2013 / Accepted: 11 July 2014 / Published online: 14 August 2014
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Abstract Majority of the people of Pakistan get drink-
ing water from groundwater source. Nearly 40 % of the
total ailments reported in Pakistan are the result of dirty
drinking water. Every summer, thousands of patients
suffer from acute gastroenteritis in the Rawal Town.
Therefore, a study was designed to generate a water
quality index map of the Rawal Town and identify the
relationship between bacteriological water quality and
socio-economic indicators with gastroenteritis in the
study area. Water quality and gastroenteritis patient data
were collected by surveying the 262 tubewells and the
major hospitals in the Rawal Town. The collected spatial
data was analyzed by using ArcGIS spatial analyst
(Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation) and geostatistical
analysis tools (inverse distance weighted, radial basis
function, kriging, and cokriging). The water quality
index (WQI) for the study area was computed using
pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids, calcium, hardness,
S. U. Shahid (*) : J. Iqbal
Institute of Geographical Information System, National
University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
e-mail: rollno1@hotmail.com
S. U. Shahid
e-mail: umair.nust@yahoo.com
S. U. Shahid
e-mail: umairphd13@igis.nust.edu.pk
G. Hasnain
Institute of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,
National University of Sciences and Technology,
Islamabad, Pakistan
alkalinity, and chloride values of the 262 tubewells. The
results of Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation showed that
the groundwater physicochemical parameters were clus-
tered. Among IDW, radial basis function, and kriging
and cokriging interpolation techniques, cokriging
showed the lowest root mean square error. Cokriging
was used to make the spatial distribution maps of water
quality parameters. The WQI results showed that more
than half of the tubewells in the Rawal Town were
providing “poor” to “unfit” drinking water. The
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for gastroenteritis
with fecal coliform was found significant (P<0.05) in
Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) zone 2, and with
shortage of toilets, it was significant (P<0.05) in WASA
zones 1 and 3. However, it was significantly (P<0.01)
inversely related with literacy rate in WASA zones 1, 2,
and 3.
Keywords Water quality . Fecal coliform . Spatial
interpolation . Spatial autocorrelation . Water quality
index . Gastroenteritis
Introduction
Availability of clean and safe drinking water is not a
luxury. Rather, it is considered a fundamental require-
ment and a human right as it is imperative for a healthy
life (Rosemann 2005). But the situation in Pakistan is
the other way round. The population of Pakistan has
been increasing rapidly. Simultaneously, the water de-
mand has also been on the rise which results in the
7526
overexploitation of available water resources. In the
middle of the twentieth century, Pakistan had 5,600 m3
water available for each person which now has drasti-
cally decreased to only about 1,000 m3. This situation
has led Pakistan to the border of water shortage
country (Hashmi et al. 2009). An estimate of Pakistan
Council of Research in Water Resources states that
national income of Pakistan bears a loss of nearly
USD 380–883 million per annum as a result of water-
borne illnesses (PCRWR 2010). The overall expendi-
tures as a result of water-related illnesses and deaths are
projected to be in excess of 1.8 % of the gross domestic
product of Pakistan (World Bank 2006). There are a
number of elements and compounds that have contam-
inated the groundwater, available to the people of Paki-
stan. If the bacterial indicators are found in drinking
water, it is obvious that water-related disease-causing
organisms are also present. The human waste contains
pathogens in the form of viruses and bacteria. When
such material enters the water body, it is dissolved in it
and unquestionably that contaminated water turns out to
be a vector for that waterborne disease (Pakistan
Environmental Protection Agency 2008). In the recent
years, in view of the fact that fecal coliform is consid-
ered the most significant pathogenic organism causing
gastroenteritis, a lot of apprehensions about the fecally
contaminated public drinking water supplies have been
uttered in Pakistan (Qaiser et al. 2011). The existence of
thermotolerant bacteria in water is an indication that the
human waste has found its way to the water and is
resulting in its contamination. So the fecal coliform tests
should be undertaken for the water supply (Pakistan
Environmental Protection Agency 2008). The water
containing high microbial counts has more chances of
containing the pathogens. So such water is objectionable
(Hashmi et al. 2011).
The drinking water is a source of the spread of
infectious agents, specifically those that become the
base of enteric infections as a large number of great
epidemics in the annals of history have revealed
fecally contaminated water as their causative agent
(Ministry of Health and New Zealand 2005). There
can be so many pathogens in the water, so it is imprac-
ticable to monitor each and every pathogen. It is prudent
to use indicator organisms in this regard. Instead of
examining each and every pathogen in a water sample,
the microbial indicators are widely used on the globe, as
their tests are easy and take shorter time span with only a
little expense than examining the individual pathogens.
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
Due to their low-cost tests, large number of samples can
be tested that aids in depicting a relatively better scenar-
io of water quality (Water Quality and Health Bureau,
Canada 2006). Fecal coliform and fecal pollution have a
very strong correlation, so fecal coliforms can confi-
dently be used to deduce the fecal contamination of
water (Germs et al. 2004).
There are several health effects related to the expo-
sure of disease-causing bacteria present in drinking wa-
ter, but the most common among them is short-duration
gastroenteritis, also known as gastro or gastric flu,
which is the inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract
that includes both the stomach and the small intestine.
The main symptoms of gastroenteritis include abdomi-
nal cramps, nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. The body
bears a loss of large quantity of fluids and salts making
the gastroenteritis patient become dehydrated, weak,
and feel thirsty (World Health Organization and
National Institute of Health 2005). Gastroenteritis is
not a novelty in Pakistan. Every year in summer, we
frequently come to know about the spread of gastroen-
teritis in different cities of Pakistan in the print and
electronic media. The number of patients suffering from
gastroenteritis has shown an aggravated growth in the
past few years. According to the guidelines for gastro-
enteritis by National Institute of Health, the infection is
mostly transmitted through the fecally contaminated
water, either by drinking or by the contaminated food
(World Health Organization and National Institute of
Health 2005). So, it is prudent to correlate the drinking
water quality with the gastroenteritis incidence (Rustam
et al. 2006).
In 1854, John Snow drew a map showing the ad-
dresses of cholera victims living near the hand pumps
providing water to them. The disease incidence maps
played a vital role in the disease representation and this
also led to the analysis of local dissimilarities in
public health. In the past few years, the use of
disease occurrence maps has raised many folds. Nowa-
days, modern geographic information system (GIS)
software is in use to produce maps that help in the
betterment of public health management. GIS has the
ability to generate thematic layers from the point data
available by interpolation. Many scientists have used
this facility to analyze the physiochemical parameters
of groundwater. Groundwater quality analysis is prac-
ticed worldwide on regular basis so as to make the
continued use of safe water certain. The mapping of
groundwater quality parameters must be done for each
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
city as it provides hints in the identification of those
areas where there is likelihood of possible environmen-
tal health problems in the future (Chatterjee et al. 2010).
Water quality index (WQI) is a helpful and efficient
technique to determine the quality of water and commu-
nicate the information on overall quality of water (Asadi
et al. 2007).
The greater part of the population of Pakistan takes
drinking water from the groundwater source. A study
conducted by National Institute of Health (NIH) con-
cluded that more than 80 % of water in Rawalpindi is
not fit for human intake (WWF 2007). As Rawalpindi
lies in the arid zone, the boosted water demand in
summer along with low precipitation and low water
table crafts severe shortage of water (The United
Nations System in Pakistan 2003). The water level
decreases when the groundwater extraction increases.
The situation is same at the Rawal Town is similar.
Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is responsible
for providing water to the people living in Rawal Town.
Although the electricity charges in Pakistan rise very
often, making groundwater exploitation relatively
dearer than taking water from a surface water source,
yet they take a lion’s share of water from the ground
water source. All of the 262 tubewells of the Rawal
Town are deep groundwater tubewells with their depths
ranging from about 75 m to around 180 m. Every
summer, a number of patients fall a victim of waterborne
diseases in the Rawal Town, e.g., gastroenteritis, due to
the increasing intake of bacteriological contaminant wa-
ter. WASA conducted a survey of all the 262 tube wells
in the Rawal Town to determine water quality there. The
water quality parameters like pH, conductivity, turbidity,
total dissolved solids (TDS), calcium, hardness, alkalin-
ity, chloride, temperature, and fecal coliform were test-
ed. So, there was a dire need for mapping the tubewells
and analyzing the spatial distribution of gastroenteritis
in the Rawal Town in order to assess the water quality in
the study area considering the physical, chemical, and
bacteriological parameters and to identify the areas hav-
ing poor water quality, so as to save the population
vulnerable to gastroenteritis in those areas. Furthermore,
gastroenteritis incidence was correlated with the socio-
economic conditions like toilet facility available in
households and literacy rate using GIS technology, at
union council level in the study area. Reduction in the
occurrence of gastroenteritis would go a long way in the
efforts to alleviate poverty as well. The objectives of the
this study were (a) to generate a water quality index map
7527
of Rawal Town and (b) identify the relationship between
fecal coliform and socio-economic indicators with gas-
troenteritis in the study area using GIS.
Materials and methods
Study area
Rawalpindi district lies in the northern part of the Punjab
Province and covers an area of 5,286 km2. It is admin-
istratively divided into eight tehsils or towns and Rawal
Town is one of them (Fig. 1). Town consists of 46 union
councils. The total population of Rawalpindi metropol-
itan was 782,000 persons in 1998. According to the
population census organization, the annual growth rate
of Rawal Town from 1981 to 1998 was 3.21 %. In terms
of climate, Rawalpindi falls in semi-arid to subtropical
continental region. The temperature varies here from 0
to 48 °C and the average annual rainfall is about
1,000 mm. The important hospitals of the Rawal Town
are the Benazir Bhutto Hospital, the Holy Family Hos-
pital, and the District Headquarters Hospital, Rawalpin-
di. All of them are teaching hospitals and have a capac-
ity of 1,050 beds in total (USAID 2005).
Data acquisition
In order to map the locations of 262 tube wells of Rawal
Town, a GPS survey was conducted using GARMIN
GPS receiver. The coordinates of these tubewells were
used to generate a feature class in file geodatabase. The
water quality parameters’ data was acquired from
WASA that was responsible to provide water to Rawal
Town. They provided the data of 262 tubewells related
to water quality parameters like color, odor, pH, con-
ductivity, turbidity, TDS, calcium, hardness, alkalinity,
chloride, temperature, and fecal coliform for the study
area. The fecal coliform count in each union council
could be seen in Fig. 2. Population Census Organization
provided the data about the population living in 46
union councils of Rawal Town. The literacy ratio at a
union council level was also acquired from the popula-
tion census organization. They estimated the literacy
rate in each union council (Fig. 3). The data about the
number of families that did not have toilet facility in
Rawal Town at union council level was acquired from
Federal Bureau of Statistics (Fig. 4). The primary data
about the gastroenteritis patients was collected from the
7528
Fig. 1 Study area map of Rawal Town
three important hospitals of Rawal town, namely the
Benazir Bhutto Hospital, the Holy Family Hospital,
and the District Headquarters Hospital Rawalpindi be-
cause these were the major hospitals in the study area
and patients from all over this region visit them. The
data about the patients’ addresses were collected from
there. The methodological flowchart of the study con-
ducted could be seen in Fig. 5.
Data preparation and data exploration
Geodatabase is a container for storing spatial and attri-
bute data that provides the advantages like relational
database security, scalability, higher quality as well as
more valuable data editing, its integrity and centraliza-
tion (ESRI 2005). In the ArcCatalog, a file geodatabase
was created to keep the data related to the research work.
The file geodatabase created had a feature dataset by the
name of “Rawal Town.” The feature classes
“wasa_tubewells” and “rawaltownucs” were imported
into the feature dataset. The attribute table of feature
class having union council boundary contained the at-
tribute information like union council (UC) name, UC
number, UC area, UC parameter, literacy ratio, UC
population of 1998, projected population for 2010,
shortage of toilets, number of gastro patients, number
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
of tubewells in a UC, etc. against each union council.
The attribute table of tubewells related feature class
contained the attribute information like x-coordinate, y-
coordinate, pH, conductivity, turbidity, TDS, calcium,
hardness, alkalinity, chloride, odor, UC number,
tubewell number, appearance, and fecal coliform count
against each tubewell. It is always better to explore the
spatial data before the analysis in order to use an appro-
priate tool on that data. In ArcGIS geostatistical analyst
extension, the normal QQ plots, histogram,
semivariograms, and voronoi maps of different param-
eters were analyzed to find the outliers in the data of
water quality parameters. It also helped in identifying
the mistakes in data entry. Data normalization was done
by removing the outliers from the data.
Data analysis
Geostatistical analysis
Every spatial interpolation technique works on some
assumptions. Inverse distance weighting technique
also presumes that the data is spatially auto-correlated.
The geostatistical interpolation methods also assume
the same. Spatial autocorrelation measures the distance
between two locations and plots the squared difference
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537 7529

Fig. 2 Fecal coliform count in each union council shown as map

between the values at the locations to generate a parameters. There are different types of spatial
semivariogram. The Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation interpolation techniques like kriging, cokriging, IDW,
was performed for the physiochemical water quality spline, etc. available in ArcGIS geostatistical analyst.

Fig. 3 Literacy ratio in each union council shown as map

7530 Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537

Fig. 4 Shortage of toilets (%) in each union council shown as map

They were used to generate the surfaces from points regularized spline, spline with tension, multiquadric,
for the water quality parameters. In radial basis function, inverse multiquadric, and thin plate spline were
all the kernel functions available like completely performed to identify the radial basis function

GPS SURVEY OF WATER PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION SOCIAL

TUBEWELLS QUALITY DATA FROM HOSPITALS INDICATIORS

UC BOUNDARY HYDROCHEMICAL F. COLIFORM GASTRO LITERACY RATIO

PATIENTS
DATA LACK OF TOILETS
POPULATION
DATA GEODATABASE
GEODATABASE BUFFER
ANALYSIS
DATA
NORMALIZATION SPATIAL
DISTRIBUTION MAPS RANDOM POINTS
GENERATIONS
SPATIAL
AUTOCORRELATION
ESTIMATION OF WATER
QUALITY INDEX POINT VALUES
EXTRACTION
GEOSTATISTICAL
ANALYSIS
GENERATION
OF WQI MAP WASA ZONE WISE
CLASSIFICATION
BEST SUITABLE
INTERPOLATION
PEARSON’S CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS
CONCENTRATION
MAPS

Fig. 5 Methodological flowchart

Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537 7531

method with the lowest root mean square error
(RMSE). Inverse distance weighted method was
carried out using the exponential powers from 1
to 4 for interpolation. For kriging and cokriging,
Pentaspherical, Stable, Gaussian, K-Bessel, J-
Bessel, Exponential, Circular, Tetraspherical,
spherical, Rational Quadratic, and Hole Effect
semivariogram models were executed with the in-
tention of finding out the model that shows the
least RMSE among them.
V standard = WHO standard of the water quality
parameter.
The ground water quality was then declared as ex-
cellent, good, poor, very poor, and unfit for human
consumption based on WQI values 0–25, 26–50, 51–
75, 76–100, and value >100, respectively (Asadi et al.
2007).
Correlation between gastroenteritis patients
and socio-economic data

Water quality index In order to find the correlation between different

layers, the format of the layers should be the same,
The WQI formula illustrated below was computed to i.e., point, line, or polygon. But in this case, the
evaluate the groundwater suitability for drinking, by tubewells’ locations were in point format whereas
using the water quality parameters’ values of 262 the literacy level, gastroenteritis patients and number
tubewells of Rawal town, of families without having the toilet facility in a
hXn i union council were in polygon format. The pub-
WQI ¼ Antilog n¼i
W i log 10 q i ð1Þ lished material did not have the solution for this
issue. So, a novel technique i.e., the buffer analysis
where along with random points’ generation by extracting
weightage factor (W) is computed by the following point values from the rasters (built from polygons),
equation: has helped in overcoming this limitation (Fig. 6).
The “create random points” tool in ArcGIS software
K
Wn ¼ ð2Þ creates a user-specified number of random points in
Sn
an extent, in the polygons of the feature class or
and K, proportionality constant, is derived from along the lines of a feature class. So, three random
points were generated in each of the buffered 262
1 tubewells of Rawal Town, making the total number
K ¼ X  ð3Þ
n 1 of random points to 786. The WASA personnel gave
n¼i S an expert opinion that the water distribution from a
i
particular tubewell in Rawal Town varies in different
where
directions. So keeping the expert’s opinion in view, a
Sn and Si are the WHO standard values of the water
buffer was applied to each tubewell at a radius of
quality parameter. almost 140 m so as to generate three random points
Quality rating (q) is calculated using the formula,
in that circle for finding the correlation between
ðV actual −V ideal Þ gastroenteritis and bacteriological water quality.
qni ¼  100 ð4Þ The rasters containing information about gastro-
ðV standard −V ideal Þ
enteritis patients, literacy rate, fecal coliform count,
where and number of families without washroom facility at
qni =quality rating of ith parameter for a total of n union council level were used to obtain values at
water quality parameters. random points. The total 786 point values in each
Vactual =value of the water quality parameter obtained attribute table were divided into four parts based on
from laboratory analysis. the classification of Rawal Town into four zones by
Videal =value of that water quality parameter can be WASA. Last but not the least, the correlation of
obtained from the standard tables. gastroenteritis patients with fecal coliform, literacy
Videal for pH=7 and for other parameters is equal to rate, and lack of toilet facility was calculated into
zero. MS EXCEL and checked for critical values at
7532
Fig. 6 Random points in WASA
zones shown as map
(P<0.05) level of significance in Pearson’s coeffi-
cient of correlation table.
Results and discussion
Spatial autocorrelation
The results of Moran’s I spatial autocorrelation for cal-
cium and hardness were positive but their values were
low, i.e., 0.1 at 0.05 level of significance. The Moran’s
coefficient for turbidity and alkalinity was from 0.15 to
0.16, respectively, at 0.01 significance level. The values
of calcium, hardness, and alkalinity infer that the spatial
variability in geology might have an impact on the
spatial variability of these parameters. Whereas, the
ph, chlorides, EC, and TDS showed moderate to strong
positive spatial autocorrelation as the value of Moran’s
coefficient ranges from 0.34 to 0.56 in the study
area. It showed that the nearby tubewells of Rawal
Town have similar level of water quality. The
results of statistical summary including minimum
value, maximum value, mean, median, skewness,
standard deviation, and kurtosis of the used water
quality parameters were provided in Table 1. The
mean values and the median values were close to
each other which were a characteristic of normal
distribution. Some of the interpolation techniques
work well on normally distributed data, so it was
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
important to evaluate the values statistically before
interpolation.
Spatial interpolation
The inverse distance weighted technique was used for
the exponential powers of 1 to 4 for pH, electrical
conductivity, TDS, calcium, hardness, alkalinity, and
chloride as the different powers of ten minimize the
effect of farther away points. The analysis showed that
the exponential power 1 was the most suitable for all of
the seven parameters. The detailed results could be seen
in Table 2. All of the five kernel functions available in
radial basis function were also carried out for each of the
seven parameters, but none of the methods was appro-
priate for all parameters. So different parameters were
interpolated using different kernel functions to find out
the suitable RBF method with the lowest RMSE. The
results of spline interpolation with least RMSE for each
parameter were given in Table 2.
In cokriging, such a parameter should be placed as an
auxiliary variable that has the strongest correlation with
the targeted variable. The semivariogram models like
Pentaspherical, Stable, Gaussian, K-Bessel, J-Bessel,
Exponential, Circular, Tetraspherical, spherical, Ratio-
nal Quadratic, and Hole Effect were also performed for
making the prediction maps using ordinary kriging and
cokriging to identify the model that shows the least
RMSE for the water quality parameters. No model
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537 7533

Table 1 Statistical evaluation of ground water quality parameters

Groundwater quality Count Minimum Maximum Mean Median SD Skewness Kurtosis

Chlorides (mg/l) 261 8 39 20.82 20 5.65 0.439 3.20

TDS (mg/l) 262 220 998 496.95 478 148.28 0.528 3.35
EC (μS/cm) 262 442 1,997 1,000.8 966.5 293.09 0.544 3.46
Alkalinity (mg/l) 260 148 540 336.36 340 56.42 −0.104 3.82
pH 262 7.12 9.25 8.38 8.49 0.456 −0.494 2.39
Calcium (mg/l) 262 38 161 80.75 80 17.51 −0.171 2.47
Hardness (mg/l) 262 136 440 288.67 287.5 53.10 0.061 3.27

showed the best results for all the water quality
parameters. Hence, separate models were executed for
different parameters. The RMSE values of kriging and
cokriging are available in Table 2. Nas and Berktay
(2010)) also used semivariogram models for ordinary
kriging interpolation technique for making the concen-
tration maps of water quality parameters.
Selection of interpolation method
While comparing the interpolation models, the best
model should have the least RMSE and average stan-
dard error (ESRI 2001). The radial basis function and
inverse distance weighted methods do not provide in-
formation about the average standard error, so RMSE
was the criterion for the selection of the best suitable
interpolation. After evaluating the different interpolation
methods, it was found that cokriging was the most
suitable interpolation method for electrical conductivity,
TDS, calcium, hardness, alkalinity, and chloride. On the
other hand, cokriging and radial basis function gave the
same RMSE for pH, i.e., 0.384. The comparison of all
the methods could be seen in Table 2. Hence, cokriging
was selected to make the spatial distribution maps of
water quality parameters.
Water quality parameter maps
The concentration map of pH in Fig. 7 indicated that the
pH concentration was above the WHO prescribed upper
limit of 8.5 in almost all the bordering areas of Rawal
Town. The ideal value for pH was 7. In the area of
Muslim Town in the east and in the central parts of the
study area, the concentration was below 8. The map
(Fig. 7) showing chloride ion concentration in the study
area showed that in the western parts of the study area
the concentration was relatively more than that of the
eastern part but it had not crossed 50 mg/l in the entire
Rawal Town. Whereas according to WHO guidelines
for drinking water quality, chlorides should not be more
than the allowed limit of 250 mg/l. It could be inferred
that there is not an issue regarding chlorides in the study
area. According to WHO, 5 NTU was the limit for
turbidity in drinking water. The concentration map of
turbidity revealed that in southern parts of Rawal Town,
i.e., Ratta Amral and Dhoke Khabba union councils,

Table 2 Best interpolation method based on RMSE

Groundwater quality Cokriging Kriging IDW exp 1 IDW exp 2 IDW exp 3 IDW exp 4 RBF

Chlorides 4.06 4.24 4.25 4.37 4.57 4.76 4.26

TDS 111.5 116.7 115.9 118 124.4 130.8 116.2
EC 224.1 234.6 233.2 237.5 250.7 263.7 233.6
Alkalinity 53.57 55.24 55.99 58.94 63.01 66.23 55.75
pH 0.384 0.386 0.387 0.387 0.402 0.402 0.384
Calcium 17.2 17.51 17.69 18.22 19.08 19.87 17.69
Hardness 49.97 50.63 52.17 56.5 60.56 63.36 50.98

IDW inverse distance weighting, RBF radial basis function

7534 Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537

Fig 7 Concentration maps of a

pH, b chlorides, c turbidity, d
alkalinity, e electrical
conductivity (EC), f TDS, g
calcium, and h hardness in Rawal
Town

there were some patches where turbid water was pro-
vided by the WASA tubewells. It was not a good sign
for the residents of the area as turbid water was consid-
ered as a safe haven for pathogens. The alkalinity con-
centration map revealed that it was beyond the limit of
120 mg/l in the whole Rawal Town. Majority of the
areas had alkalinity ranging from 300 to 350 mg/l.
However, its concentration was not dangerous for hu-
man health but the aesthetic issues might arise. The TDS
concentration map showed higher concentration in the
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
western half of Rawal Town, yet it had not crossed the
WHO upper limit of 1,000 mg/l. The case with electrical
conductivity was similar. Both of the maps along with
chlorides maps seemed alike. The reason being the more
the salts dissolved into the solution, the easier for elec-
trical current to pass through it. The last two maps, i.e.,
hardness and calcium concentration maps also looked
similar. The water hardness was measured in terms of
calcium carbonates. The maximum allowed limit for
calcium and hardness were 200 and 500 mg/l, respec-
tively. Their concentrations were more in the northern
and southern parts and some of the eastern parts of
Rawal Town. However, relatively more calcium con-
centrations also existed in the western parts as well, but
both of the parameters were within the limits.
Water quality index
The seven physiochemical parameters of water were
used to compute the water quality index for the Rawal
Town. It helped in understanding the overall drinking
water quality of the study area. For water quality index,
the relative weights for physiochemical parameters were
computed using Eqs. (2) and (3). The results for pH,
Fig. 8 Water quality index map of Rawal Town
7535
turbidity, hardness, TDS, calcium, alkalinity, and chlo-
rides were 0.39762, 0.67596, 0.00676, 0.00338,
0.01690, 0.02816, and 0.01352, respectively. According
to the results of WQI, out of 262 tubewells at Rawal
Town, the physiochemical quality of 19 tubewells was
excellent, 100 was good, 102 was poor, 24 was very
poor, and 17 was unfit for drinking. After the computa-
tion of WQI at tubewells, the point values were interpo-
lated to identify the area wise water quality (Fig. 8). The
union councils in the western part of Rawal Town, like
Dhoke Hassu (South), Dhoke Mangtal, Hazara Colony,
Ratta Amral, and Dhoke Ratta had very poor and unfit
for drinking water available for drinking. Khayaban e
Sir Syed (South) and parts of the Asghar Mall Scheme
and the Saidpur Scheme in the center of Rawal Town
were also having very poor drinking water quality. City,
Mohan Pura, Dhoke Khabba, and parts of Dhoke Far-
man Ali union councils in the south also had “unfit for
drinking” water. Generally, the water quality index
showed relatively “better” water quality in the southern
half except the bordering areas of Rawal Town and
“poor” water quality in the northern half. The eastern
parts like Muslim Town, Qayyumabad, were also hav-
ing “good” water available there. Ketata-Rokbani et al.
7536 Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537

Table 3 Results of Pearson’s coefficient of correlation of gastro- pipelines are in sordid conditions and have not been
enteritis with fecal coliform, literacy ratio, and shortage of toilets
repaired since they were laid down. So the mixing of
in Rawal Town
sewerage water with the drinking water underground
Zone number Random points Variables (r) cannot be ignored. This might be the reason of water-
borne diseases in those areas where tubewells are pro-
Zone 1 180 Fecal coliform 0.1274
viding bacteriologically safe drinking water. In the areas
Literacy ratio −0.4124**
where correlation between fecal coliform and gastroen-
Lack of toilets 0.1489*
teritis is negative, all of the patients may not have gone
Zone 2 177 Fecal coliform 0.1822* to these major hospitals because if the disease is not
Literacy ratio −0.3130** severe, the people, instead of going to a faraway hospi-
Lack of toilets 0.0020 tal, usually prefer to take their child to the nearby clinic
Zone 3 235 Fecal coliform 0.0517 to save their money and time. The person to person
Literacy ratio −0.2469** contact and contaminated food might be the major
Lack of toilets 0.2324** causes of spread of gastroenteritis there.
Zone 4 194 Fecal coliform −0.1003
Literacy ratio 0.1701*
Lack of toilets −0.1520* Conclusion
*P<0.05; **P<0.01 (significance level)
As the surface water provided in this area is already
contaminated, this study reveals that an alternative
(2011) and Latha and Rao (2010) also used similar source of drinking water (i.e., groundwater) is reason-
approaches to find out the water quality situation prev- ably better for some areas. It is directed to the people
alent in their study area. living in the epidemic-hit areas with uncontaminated
water of the tubewells to take water directly from
tubewells instead of the pipelines providing water to
Correlation of gastroenteritis with various water quality their homes.
parameters The WASA should concentrate more on areas with
significant correlation coefficient value, i.e., zone 2. Due
The 786 random points created in total were divided into to the ever increasing demand of water, if the WASA
four WASA zones. The results of correlation coefficient cannot seal the contaminated tubewells, they should, at
(r) between gastroenteritis and fecal coliform were pos- least, separate the tubewells for safe drinking water and
itive in zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3, but it was significant the water from contaminated tubewells that can be used
only in zone 2 at P<0.05 whereas the correlation was for washing clothes, cars, etc. During the survey of
negative in zone 4. The detailed results of correlation tubewells, it was revealed that a number of chlorinators
coefficient could be seen in Table 3. The results of installed at the tubewells were not functioning. So there
correlation between gastroenteritis and literacy ratio is a threat of acceleration in the spread of waterborne
were significant in zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3 at diseases in those areas in future. The chlorinators
P<0.01 that is very strong, whereas, it was negative in installed at the tubewells must be checked on a
zone 4. The correlation coefficient between gastroenter- regular basis and regular maintenance should be
itis and shortage of toilets was also significant in zone 1 focused on. In order to avoid gastroenteritis, if the
and zone 3 at P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively, and in long-term policy about raising literacy ratio is
zone 4, it was negative. adopted, it would aid in circumventing a notewor-
Although a large number of people take drinking thy loss as consequence of this disease. Moreover,
water from tubewells, yet these are not the only source the clean potable water facility to the masses may
of providing drinking water in Rawal Town. A huge also be helpful in this regard.
volume of water (that might be bacteriologically con- The use of random points’ generation is a useful and
taminated) comes from the Rawal Dam and is mixed novel technique to find values at points when data is
with the water drawn from tubewells in order to fulfill available in polygon format. The use of GIS in the form
the growing needs of the citizens. Most of the water of spatial distribution maps and water quality index, etc.,
Environ Monit Assess (2014) 186:7525–7537
can assist the environmental scientists and higher au-
thorities involved in water quality development and
public health management. It would help them to plan
well for the future as well.
Acknowledgments This study was conducted with the student
research fund of National University of Sciences and Technology
(NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan. The special acknowledgment is
paid to Water and Sanitation Authority (WASA), Rawalpindi, for
providing the relevant data.
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