THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOs) IN

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
BY

Gambo Shehu Nababa, Ph.D.

Department of Mass Communication
Bayero University, Kano
Email: gsnababa.mac@buk.edu.ng

Introduction:

This chapter explores the role Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play in resolving
conflicts especially in Africa by analyzing the type of activities they engaged in. The position
NGOs occupy in managing conflicts was said to have made them more acceptable among or
between warring parties in conflict situations than other government agencies thereby opening
the way for them to work towards conflict resolution. Towards the end of the 20th century, in
order to contribute for better tools for managing world conflicts, NGOs are playing a vital role
most notably in seeking to defuse emerging conflicts in the African continent. Addressing more
concretely human rights violations and post conflict reconstruction, Wainaina (2006) said the
NGOs voice and influence has increasingly gained recognition.

Defining NGOs:

Martens (2002) described the term NGO as a post-World War II expression which was initially
coined by the United Nations (UN). When the UN Charter was adopted in 1945, it was stipulated
in Article 71 that NGOs could be accredited to the UN for consulting purposes. However, since
the 1980s, the term NGO has become popular for societal actors of all sorts engaged outside the
UN framework, internationally and nationally, and has indeed been increasingly adopted more
broadly by academics as well as by activists themselves. According to the UN Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC), the purpose of having a relationship with NGOs was to secure expert
information or advice from organizations having particular competence, and to enable
international, regional, sub-regional and national organizations that represent important elements
of public opinion to express their views, (Breen, 2003).

Despite the increasing interest and the growing literature on the issue, NGOs have not yet
sufficiently been defined though academic work is increasing on the subject. NGO has become a
commonly accepted phrase within the academic world, but it is unclear what this phrase actually
encompasses. Martens also argued that many studies fail to offer any definition of the term NGO
as if the components and the understanding of the phrase are common knowledge. “A more
detailed look at the current body of NGO works, however, reveals the diverse and sometimes

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even contradicting interpretations of the term. Either way, it makes comparisons of single NGO
studies difficult, if not impossible,” (Martens, 2002, p. 272).

Archer (1983) as cited in Martens (2002, p. 274) noted that the term NGOs remains:

An awkwardly negative title coined by the United Nations to describe a vast range of
international and national citizens organizations, trade unions, voluntary associations,
research institutes, public policy centers, private government agencies, business and trade
associations, foundations, and charitable endeavors.

The term NGO carries different connotations in different circumstances and for that reason there
is no generally accepted definition of the term. Willetts (2002, p. 3) defined an NGO as “an
independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis, for some
common purpose, other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities”.
NGOs are also defined as “one form of non-profit organizations that has been noted for
providing much needed service among deprived and high need communities through the use of
funds which have sourced for the sole purpose of supporting such and other needy communities,
groups and individuals,” (Umar, 2006, p. 87).

Broadly defined, NGOs are private, voluntary, non-profit organizations whose members
combine their skills, means and energies in the service of shared ideals and objectives.
NGOs vary in scope, resource base and influence as well as in functional ideological
orientation. They may be local, national or international, and include service groups,
prominent foundations professional or other membership organizations. (Mawlawi,
1993, p. 392)

Mawlawi further posited that NGOs are generally dependent on private resources, but in several
countries they receive government support as well. In some cases, government funding may
compromise an NGO's independence; nevertheless, as they become an integral part of
international politics, NGOs enjoy growing autonomy with respect to governmental decision
makers.

Willetts (2002, p. 4) indicated that there are some fundamental features or characteristics set
aside by the United Nations (UN) for bodies to be considered as NGOs by the UN. They are:

1. An NGO must be independent from the direct control of any government

2. It will not be constituted as a political party
3. It will be non-profit making
4. It will not be a criminal group, in particular, it will be non-violent

NGOs are vast and have been subject to rich academic debates related to global governance,
democratization and development. Diversity has become an NGO trademark and it is a nearly
impossible task to enumerate the various NGO characteristics when it comes to their aims,
strategies, resources, target groups, tools, effectiveness, impact and sustainability, (Ulleberg,
2009).

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Types of NGOs’ Activities:

The most common distinction of NGOs’ activities is between operational and campaigning or
advocacy NGOs. Willetts (2002) argued that this may be interpreted as the choice between
small-scale change achieved directly through projects and large-scale change promoted indirectly
through influence on the political system.

Operational NGOs, on one hand, have to mobilize resources, in the form of financial donations,
materials or volunteer labor, in order to sustain their projects and programs. This process may
require quite complex organization. Charity shops, staffed by volunteers, in premises provided at
nominal rents and selling donated goods, end up providing finance to the national headquarters.
Thus, operational NGOs need to possess an efficient headquarters bureaucracy, in addition to a
staff in the field.

NGOs that focus on humanitarian relief or the operational NGOs have traditionally maintained a
strict policy of neutrality in their activities. They provide aid to the destitute or services to
antagonists regardless of their political, ethnic, or religious affiliation, (Aall, 1996).

Campaigning NGOs, on the other hand, are expected to carry out much the same functions, but
with a different balance between them. Fund-raising is still necessary, but on a smaller scale and
it can serve the symbolic function of strengthening the donors' identification with the cause.
Persuading people to donate their time is necessary, but, in addition to a small number of people
giving a great deal of time, it is also necessary to be able to mobilize large numbers for brief
periods, (Willetts, 2002).

Therefore, despite their differences, both operational and campaigning NGOs need to engage in
fund-raising, mobilization of work by supporters, organizing special events, cultivating the
media and administering a headquarters. Only the defining activities – implementing projects or
holding demonstrations – serve to differentiate them.

Conflict:

Conflict is defined as “a perceived condition that exists between parties (individuals, groups,
societies, nations et cetera) in which one or more of the parties perceive goal incompatibility and
some opportunity for interfering with goal accomplishment of others,” (Schmidt & Kochan 1972
cited in Bambale, 2006, p. 48). Conflict is also defined as “an extreme form of communication,”
(Puddephatt, 2006, p. 11). The term conflict means contest or dispute involving two or more
interests or parties (Edeani, 1994).

Consequently, conflict itself, should not be assumed as wrong or can be avoided in any soceity.
The clash of ineterests, needs and desires balanced against the allocation of scarce resources
means that conflict itself is inevitable in a society. Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, argues that
apart from basic needs that ensure survival, people are also driven to fulfil certain needs that are

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considered to be at a higher level than survival needs. “These include the fundamental human
needs for security, safety, love, a sense of belonging to a group, self-esteem and the ability to
attains one’s goals. Individuals are only satisfied if they are able to achieve these higher level
needs,” (Maslow, 1954 in Umar, 2006, p. 74).

However, Darby (1995) cited in Umar (2006) considered conflict as niether good nor bad, but
intrinsic in every social relationship from marriage to international diplomacy. Whenever two or
more people gathered, there is conflict or potential for it. Darby said the real issue should not be
the existence of conflict but how it is handled. Therefore with the escalation of conflicts at
various levels, the need for conflict management or resolution has become more urgent than ever
before.

There are numerous factors that can bring about conflict in a relationship; Umar (2006, pp. 73-
75) categorized them into into five:

1. Denial of identity
2. Denial of human “other needs”
3. Domination conflict
4. Resource allocation conflict and
5. Value differences conflict

Consequently has been realization among governments, international organizations and non-
governmental organizations that more resources and time need to be set apart for managing
conflicts and that the work for peace has to take place by harnessing the cooperation of several
agencies at different levels. Also as part of a 'privatizing' of world politics and the emergence of
a global civil society, Gordenker and Weiss (1997) said bilateral and multilateral organizations
are increasingly relying upon NGOs for conflict resolution.

Governments by their virtue of their rigid structure very often fail to address adequately
questions related to conflicts of a delicate and complex nature. Also, failed agencies and
resources available with governments have been found inadequate in this respect. The
latest tendency is to search for other tracks of conflict resolution and also to tap resources
to compliment government effort. (Joseph, 2003, p. 1).

The nature of conflict, especially in Africa, has changed substantially in the post–Cold War era.
Instead of wars among nation-states, conflict most often appears now as struggles for power and
dominance within states, putting ethnic group against ethnic group, religion against religion, and
neighbor against neighbor.

This type of virulent subnational conflict typically results in waves of refugees who fall
prey to a deadly combination of starvation, epidemics, and despair that spirals out of
control since governments and the services they provide are on the verge of collapse
during such crises. Moreover, these refugee crises typically draw neighboring countries
into the conflict as well, and threaten to turn a subnational conflict into a regional and
international conflagration. (Aall, 1996, p. v)

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NGOs focusing on conflict resolution respond to major failures on the part of governments and
the international community to deal effectively with global problems and the activities engaged
in by NGOs made them more acceptable in conflict situations than other government agencies
thereby opening the way for them to work towards conflict resolution, (Wainaina, 2006; Umar,
2006).

Prerequisites for Role of the NGOs in Conflict Resolution:

To work effectively in a conflicting situation NGOs should preserve their own identities and
neutrality and should appear to be impartial. Unofficial status of of NGOs provides more access
to conflicting parties, which helps in the process of negotiation. The long term cimmitment of
NGOs is a crucial factor in establishing trust among the people and to attend the long lasting
peace.

Unofficial mediation attempts to bring disputing parties to some mutually acceptable

middle ground. This role is a delicate one: It is of paramount importance that the
mediator not give the conflicting parties any reason to question his or her impartiality and
trustworthiness. This impartiality is critical to the mediator's attempts to understand the
conflicting viewpoints, and to isolate openmindedly the concrete issues from those
caused by misperceptions and misunderstanding. (Mawlawi, 1993, p. 399)

However, Wohlgemuth (2005) indicated that when properly organised, NGOs can be extremely
useful in conflict resolution because of the following reasons:

1. Openness and preparedness for flexible solutions

2. Position as neutral and informal actors
3. Speedy reactions to changes and opportunities
4. Implementation capacity which official structures such as bilaterals or UN organizations,
although desired, might not possess; and
5. Capacity to act as a go-between

Vivian Lowery Derryck cited in Aall (1996) prescribes four conditions for NGOs more directly
engaging in conflict resolution activities:

1. The NGO must be very familiar with the country, issues and participants in the conflict
2. The NGO should have indigenous partners
3. NGO staff must be well grounded in conflict resolution skills and knowledge, and
4. NGO workers must understand and accept the personal risk they run in attempting to
intervene directly in the conflict.

Role of the NGOs:

NGOs constitute an essential part of civil society and they have the potential to play key roles in
resolving conflicts and restoring civil society. NGOs can support to form well knit local
infrastructures or peace constituencies comprising of people from different sectors of civil

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society whose aim is to attain sustainable peace and whose activites are based on long term
commitment. NGOs can invest resources for capacity building activities at different levels. It
invoves the training of its own staff, identifying indigenous partners, local leaders and so on.
They can act as mediators to bring consensus among different conflicting groups with the help of
local peace constititeunts.

Aall (1996) pointed out that while NGOs cannot be expected to solve all the problems associated
with humanitarian crises, the new environment in which these organizations operate suggests the
following four fundamental roles: early warning functions, human rights monitoring, relief and
rehabilitation,and conflict resolution activities. “Yet it may be detrimental for NGOs to assume
all these roles simultaneously,” (Aall, 1996, p. 4).

The scope and extent of NGOs activities are very diverse ranging from reconciliation of small
scale family conflict to communal/ethnic conflict to much wider conflict situations. “NGOs have
been recorded offering help in refugee camps, resettling victims of conflict situation and even
facilitating dialogue between warring factions in a civil war or national conflict,” (Umar, 2006,
p. 88).

Niyonzima (1999) argued that the struggle to achieve the rule of law requires the introduction of
number of strategies. In order to be effective, NGOs specialize either in defending human rights
or in educating the population in the universal values of peaceful coexistence. The means
employed are training seminars, small community-development projects and information, but
also direct mediation between warring parties.

Niyonzima (1999, pp. 4-5) further identified the following ways in which NGOs can adopt to
address conflicts:

1. Popular education:‘Man does not live by bread alone.’ Humanity’s worst enemy is
ignorance. Much of the time, if basic rights are flouted with impunity, it is because those
who should enjoy them are unaware of the fact through ignorance. In Africa, the
Association of Senegalese Jurists endeavours to disseminate awareness of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights in
order that the citizen may have an idea of his or her place, and that of his or her
neighbour, in society. Many examples could be cited where NGOs have developed a
wide range of conflict prevention and resolution activities including monitoring conflict
and providing early warning of new violence, (Wainaina, 2006).

2. Action in relation to the authorities: In this type of work - educating for the freedom
and equality of people - the religious institutions play a most important role by reason not
only of their structures, which are sound and well organized, but also and especially of
the fact that, as a moral landmark for people, they exert an influence on minds. As such,
they have played a leading part in the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa and

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 contributed to the rise of a pluralist multiracial regime which accords civic rights to all
South Africans.

Religious and spiritually oriented NGOs have been among the earliest and most
prominent actors in conflict mediation and resolution. Mawlawi argued that religious
beliefs, rooted in spiritual values, motivate these groups to undertake the difficult and
often frustrating task of mediation. “These NGOs' presence at the grassroots level in
many countries also gives them a relative advantage in mediating certain disputes, often
making it easier for parties in conflict to accept NGOs' role and to make subsequent
concessions with their urging,” (Mawlawi, 1993, p. 395).

3. Legal assistance: The world is inhabited by human beings who are naturally different
from one another. The difference between human beings may be due to their colour, sex,
culture, political allegiance, religious creed, geographical origin or language. It is
sometimes the function of the legal NGOs to refresh memories on this point. For
example, the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) has always intervened in countries
where the rights of detainees were flouted, by providing them with legal assistance or by
calling on the authorities to show greater respect for the principles of sound justice.

Local, national, regional and international NGOs are also playing a vital role addressing
more concretely human rights violations and post conflict reconstruction. Their voice and
influence have increasingly gained recognition towards the end of 20th century,
(Wainaina, 2006).

In Nigeria, Okafor (2004) indicated that NGOs were able to exert a modest measure of
influence on legislation and legislative action. Laws were repealed or modified by
various military regimes in part as a result of sustained campaigns launched by many
NGOs. The legislative process itself was also positively affected. NGOs have also been
able to achieve the same modest measure of success during the period of civilian rule
from 1999 to date.

4. Choosing negotiation over violence: Experience has shown that few conflicts are
resolved once and for all by force. Even where the balance of forces is clearly unequal,
the illusory victory of the stronger side only postpones the conflict.

A lasting solution to a conflict is one that attacks the evil at its root. This necessarily
implies that the protagonists agree to dialogue and negotiation in order to try to clarify
their differences, reconcile their positions and moderate their antagonisms. Negotiation
presupposes tolerance and mutual respect, which find expression in patience, in listening
to the other side and in willingness to make concessions with the aim of reaching a

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 solution which neither injures nor humbles the adversary. Hence there is proliferation of
independent, ‘honest broker’ agencies like the Carter Center in the United States, the
Nyerere Foundation in the United Republic of Tanzania, the Centre for Conflict
Resolution (CCR) and the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes
(ACCORD) in South Africa, etc., the purpose of which is to prevent and resolve
conflicts, while seeking to promote the idea of ‘a space for all’.

NGOs facilitate up to date extensive fact-finding missions, engage in dialogue with a

wide range of groups involved in conflicts, map out strategies for defusing conflict and
galvanise action by national governments and international organisations to help stabilise
tense situations. Situations in Burundi, Northern Uganda, Southern Sudan, Darfur, DRC
and Rwanda provide examples of where NGOs have played a decisive role in heading off
major conflicts, (Wohlgemuth, 2005; Wainaina, 2006).

In view of the above, Irrera (2011) summed up roles of NGOs as actors in peace operations and
humanitarian intervention into three. The three specific roles are: the knowledge-provider role
which pertains to the NGOs' contribution to diffusing information and common practices in
humanitarian actions. Then the peace-facilitator role which refers to the NGOs' support of UN
and international organization peace missions but also to the increasing task of mediation. And
lastly the voice-articulator role applies to NGOs' commitment to amplifying the local actors'
expectations for social, political and practical needs.

Challenges Facing NGOs in Conflict Resolution:

Because of absence of governmental identity and support, Mawlawi (1993) identified three
challenges of NGOs seeking to mediate conflicts. First, NGOs lack the influence to exact a firm
commitment from one side in exchange for a compromise from the opposing party because they
cannot use the threat of economic, military or political sanctions to ensure that a commitment is
honored.

Second, non governmental mediators may also lack the diplomatic experience and skill
possessed by their official counterparts. Many NGOs find their mediating efforts further
undermined by inadequate physical resources, including the necessary administrative
infrastructure, at their disposal — rarely a concern to governments intergovernmental bodies.

Third, non-governmental actors subject themselves to personal risk and aggravation as they
increase their mediation roles, for they usually lack the diplomatic immunity and privileges
granted to the representatives of governments or intergovernmental institutions.

Other challenge identified by scholars is in the area of humanitarian assistance. It usually

become more difficult for NGOs in internal state conflicts often characterized by a high number
of civilian casualties and the destruction of civilian infrastructure and the national economy.

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“Recognizing how the provision of food and medicine can change the political landscape,
warring parties often make it difficult for NGOs to operate relief programs,” (Mawlawi, 1993, p.
406).

Another challenge is the limitation of international law. NGOs have not yet been recognized by
states as having a legal international personality. Despite several attempts since the beginning of
the twentieth century to define NGOs and to codify their legal status, there is as yet no widely
adopted international convention on the nature and law of NGOs, (Martens, 2002). “Although
international law recognizes the neutrality of humanitarian assistance, many NGOs feel an
expansion of the law is needed to include the right of interference — making it possible for them
to go wherever aid is needed, no matter what the conflict situation,” (Mawlawi, 1993, pp. 407-
408).

Conclusion:

As positions in this article indicate, NGOs are well qualified to contribute in conflict resolution.
Their non-governmental nature especially the wide range of activities undertaken in
humanitarian assistance, mediation, human rights, and information exchange are all crucial to
achieving settlements. The growing participation of NGOs in conflict management and
humanitarian interventions have become part of their struggle for effective resolution of
conflicts. Therefore, it is important to ensure the working relationship between NGOs and
national governments is being strengthen as governments place increased emphasis on collective
approaches towards addressing security challenges.

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