Introduction to Criminology

Philippine Copyright 2013

by

Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.

and

ARMANDO A. ALVIOLA, PhD Crim., Educ. Mngt.

Author

JANNEL C. ALVIOLA, MEd

Editor
 All Rights Reserved

The text of this handbook, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise, without the prior written
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ISBN No. 978-971-9617-20-4

Chapter 4

CRIME CONCEPTS

Definition of Crime

Crime is any rational human conduct that violates a criminal law and is subject to
punishment (Adler, Mueller & Laufer, 1995).

Crime is defined as an act committed or omitted in violation of a public law

forbidding or commanding it and for which punishment is imposed upon conviction
(American Heritage Dictionary).
 Crime is an act or omission prohibited by law. It is also defined as an act that violates
the law of the nation (Inciardi, 2005).

Crime is a variation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by the criminal
law, which reflects public opinion, traditional values and the viewpoint of people presently
holding social and political power. Individuals who violate these rules are subject to
sanctions by state authority, social stigma, and loss of status (Siegel, 2007).

In legal terms, crime is an intentional violation of the criminal law or penal code,
committed without defense or excuse and penalized by the state.

Crime is an intentional act or omission in violation of criminal law (statutory and case
law), committed without defense or justification and sanctioned by the state as a felony or
misdemeanor (Reid, 1997).

Within the social context, crime is a behavior that violates the norms of society – or,
more simply, antisocial behavior or deviance.

A norm is any standard or rule regarding what human beings should or should not think,
say, or do under given circumstances (Bohm & Haley, 2002).

Deviance refers to conduct which the people of a group consider so dangerous or

embarrassing or irritating that they bring special sanctions to bear against the persons who
exhibit it. It should be noted though that not all deviant behavior is criminal behavior
(Inciardi, 2005).

Elements of Crime
 Technically and ideally, a crime has not been committed unless all of the following
elements are present:

1. Harm – For crime to occur, there must be an external consequence or harm. A

mental or emotional state is not enough. Thus, thinking about committing a crime or
being angry enough to commit a crime, without acting on the thought or the anger,
is not a crime. The harm maybe physical or verbal.

2. Legality – This has two aspects. First, the harm must be legally forbidden for a
behavior to be crime. Thus, violations of union rules, or any rules other than those of
a political jurisdiction may be “wrong,” but they are not crimes unless they are also
prohibited by criminal law.

Second, a criminal law must not be retroactive, or ex post facto law: (1) declares criminal
act that was not illegal when it was committed, (2) increases the punishment for a crime
after it is committed, or (3) alters the rules of evidence in a particular case after the crime is
committed.

3. Actus reus – This Latin term refers to criminal conduct – specifically, intentional or
criminally negligent (reckless) action or inaction that causes

harm. Crime involves not only things people do but also things they do not do. For example:
Parents who fail to provide their children with adequate food, clothing, and shelter, are
committing a crime.

4. Mens rea – The Latin term mens rea refers to a criminal intent or a guilty state of
mind.

Offenders who commit crimes with mens rea are to be held liable, except in the following
extenuating circumstances:

a. Acting under duress – e.g. committing robbery to save the life of a loved one
 b. Being underage – e.g. a six-year old child who picks up a gun and shoots his
or her parent
c. Insanity – A person is legally insane if, at the time of the commission of the
act, he or she (1) did not know the nature and quality of the act or (2) did not
know that the act was wrong.
d. Acted in a self-defense or in defense of a third party
e. Entrapment – It is the inducement of an individual to commit a crime not
contemplated by him or her, undertaken for the sole purpose of instituting a
criminal prosecution against the offender. Cases of entrapment occur when
police officers or civilians acting at their command, induce a person to
commit a crime that he or she would not have otherwise undertaken. For
example, a police officer convinces an individual to rob another and then
arrests the individual after the crime has been committed. The defense of
entrapment would be applied in this case.

f. Acting out of necessity – The necessity defense can be used when a crime has
been committed to prevent a greater or more serious crime. Interestingly, the
law does not recognize economic necessity as an excuse from criminal
responsibility. Thus, the unemployed and hungry thief who steals groceries
cannot employ the necessity defense.

5. Causation – This refers to the causal relationship between the legally forbidden harm
and the actus reus. In other words, the criminal act must lead directly to the harm
without a long delay.

6. Concurrence – This means that there should be a concurrence between the actus
reus and the mens rea. In other words, the criminal conduct and the criminal intent
must occur together. Suppose you call someone to repair your broken washing
machine, and that person comes to your home, fixes your washing machine, and on
the way out takes your television set. The repair person cannot be found guilty of
entering your home illegally (trespass) because that was not his or her initial intent.
However, the same person can be found guilty of stealing your television set.

7. Punishment – For a behavior to be considered a crime, there must be a statutory

provision for punishment or at least the threat of punishment. Without the threat of
 punishment, a law is unenforceable and is therefore not a criminal
law (Bohm & Haley). As the legal maxim goes, “nullum crimen, nulla
poena sine legis,” meaning, there is no crime where there is no law punishing it.

The Three Ingredients of Crime (Philippine National Police)

1. Motive or Desire – This is the driving force, the reason why the accused committed the
crime.

2. Opportunity – It refers to the time and place of the commission of the crime.

3. Instruments – These are tools employed by criminals.

Formula of crime occurrence:

Motive + Opportunity + Instrument/s = CRIME

When Does Crime Exist?

From the legal view point, crime exists when the person has been proven guilty by the
court. This view is based on the presumption of innocence as provided for by the 1987
Constitution that only after trial and the proof beyond reasonable doubt is established by
the prosecution that the accused has committed the crime.
 From the scientific point of view, crime exists when it is reported. This is more realistic,
but not all reported cases are with sound basis of true happening. Some of them are also
unfounded.

Distinction Between Crime and Sin

Crime is an act or omission against the penal law of a state while sin is an act or
omission against the spiritual or divine law.

Distinction Between Crime and Immorality

1. Crime is committed against the law of state, while immorality is committed against the
unwritten social norms in a locality.

2. Crime is fixed by statute, while immorality is not.

3. Crime is nationalistic, while immorality is regionalistic.

Why Must Members of Society Be Interested in Crimes?

1. Crime is pervasive.
 Almost all members of a free society have been a victim or an offender of a criminal
act. Crime as an associate of society affects almost all people regardless of age, sex, race,
nationality, religion, financial condition, education, and other circumstances.

2. Crime is expensive.

The government and private sector spend an enormous amount of money for crime
detection, prosecution, correction, and prevention.

It is said that peace and order is a condition to economic progress and development.
There can be no progress when there are chaos and disorders. In contrast, criminality
thrives when economy is growing. Crime rate is high in highly urbanized cities where
businesses operate. So, if the crime problems are not effectively addressed and prevented,
the economy of a certain country will suffer.

3. Crime is destructive.

Many lives have been lost because of crimes such as murder, homicide and other
violent crimes. Many properties have been lost or destroyed because of robbery, theft and
arson.

4. Crime is reflective.
 Crime rate or incidence in a given locality is reflective of the effectiveness of the social
defenses employed by the people, primarily by the police system.

5. Crime is progressive.

The marked increase in the volume of crimes is on account of the ever increasing
population. The ever increasing rate and their technique show the state of thinking of the
society and its advancement.

Advantages of the Existence of Crime

While it is true that crimes are disadvantageous most of the time, for experts crimes
also offer some benefits. The following are viewed advantages of crime occurrence:

1. It promotes solidarity among people.

Members of the community offer all their assistance to establish a strong front
against crime. Family ties become stronger; groups become more united and solidified to
fight criminality.

2. It prevents morality from going to the extremes.

Penal laws are the safeguard of our morality. When morality becomes low, they serve
as reminders to society that something has to be done at once to prevent morality from
going beyond its limits.

3. It is a notification of maladjustment.

Whenever a person violates criminal law, such is a proof that his action is not within
the accepted norms in a society. Crime is a symptom of social disorganization, just as fever
or pain is a sign that a person is sick.
CRIME TYPOLOGIES

A typology is an organizing device for categorizing large amounts of information into

mutually exclusive categories. A number of typologies are used in the field of criminology,
but to date no universally accepted typology of offenders or legal categories exist (Voigt,
Thornton, Barrile, & Seaman, 1994).

Simply put, crime typology refers to the type of a particular crime category.
Criminologists group criminal offenders and/or criminal behaviors into categories or
typologies so they may be more easily studied and understood. Crimes are usually classified
according to the degree or severity of the offense, the nature of the acts prohibited,
psychological characteristics of the offender, career patterns of the offender, or on some
other bases.

General Categories of Crime

1. Offense – In the Philippines, an offense is an act or omission that is punishable by special

laws such as:

a. Republic acts

b. Presidential decrees

c. Executive orders

d. Memorandum circulars

e. Ordinances

f. Rules and regulations

A special law is a statute enacted by congress, penal in character, which is not an

amendment of the Revised Penal Code.

2. Felony – It is a serious crime. This category includes murder, rape, aggravated assault,
robbery, arson, and so on. A felony is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revised
Penal Code.
3. Delinquency/Misdemeanor/Infraction – It is an act that is in violation of a simple rule
or regulation, a minor violation of the law. It usually refers to those committed by minor
offenders such as violations of city or municipal ordinances. Examples are jaywalking,
spitting on the sidewalk, littering, and certain traffic violations, including failure to wear a
seatbelt.

Crimes are also generally classified as follows: (Siegel, 2004; Cole & Smith, 2008)

1. Violent crimes include offenses where violence was applied. They are also called acts
or crimes against persons. Rape, assault, domestic violence, robbery, and murder belong to
this category.

2. Economic crimes are primarily committed to bring financial gain to the offender. The
most common ones are crimes against property such as burglary (housebreaking), theft,
carnapping motor vehicle theft, shoplifting, arson, and fencing.

Economic crimes may also be classified as:

a. White-collar crimes. They are violations of law committed by a person or a group of

persons in the course of an otherwise respected and legitimate occupation or business
enterprise. Offenses under this category are oftentimes in forms of fraud cases, such as
securities-related crimes, bank frauds, frauds committed against the government, consumer
fraud, computer crimes, insurance fraud, tax fraud, and other related cases involving deceit.

b. Organized crimes. They are generally characterized by the use of legitimate or

illegitimate business enterprise for illegal profit. This crime type involves thousands of
criminals working within structures as complex as those of any large corporation, subject to
laws more rigidly enforced than those of legitimate government. The behavior of the
organization is not impulsive but rather the result of intricate conspiracies carried on over
many years, and aimed at gaining control over whole fields of activities in order to have
profit.

Economics is the driving force behind organized crime. Organized crime is especially
active in the goods and services that are scarce and illegal but have a strong market
demand. Drugs, prostitution, gambling, racketeering, pornography, and other law violations
in the nature of an illegal business primarily focus on profit.

2. Public order crimes. They are unlawful acts that interfere with the normal operation of
society and the ability of people to function efficiently. Moreover, they are sometimes called
“victimless crimes” because there is no direct, tangible, and complaining victim.
However, some argue that secondary victims – family, friends, acquaintances, and society at
large – can be identified. Prostitution, pornography, drug addition, gambling, public
drunkenness, vandalism, and disorderly conduct are among behaviors that fall under this
category. Although the police treat them as minor offenses, some scholars argue that they
can lead to more serious crimes.

Legal Classification of Crimes (The Revised Penal Code/RPC)

A. According to the degree or severity of the offense

1. Felonies – These are acts and omissions punishable by law. Generally, a felony is a
relatively serious offense punishable by death, a fine or confinement in a national prison for
more than one year.

2. Misdemeanors – They are minor offenses that are punishable by no more than fine
and/or one year imprisonment, typically in a local jail.

B. According to the nature of the acts prohibited

1. Mala in se – The term means “evil in itself.” They are crimes that are “wrong in
themselves.” They are characterized by universality and timelessness, that is, they are
considered crimes everywhere and have been crimes at all times. For example: murder, rape
and robbery

If the acts are inherently immoral, they are mala in se, even though they are punished by
special laws, not by general criminal laws (People vs. Bayanes, CR-08735, January 23, 1991).

2. Mala prohibita – This means “wrong because it is prohibited.” They are

offenses that are illegal because laws define them as such. They lack
universality and timelessness. For example: gambling, trespassing,
prostitution, dynamite fishing, illegal logging, and illegal possession of
firearms

C. As to the manner crimes are committed

1. By means of dolo or deceit – when the act was done with deliberate intent (intentional
felony).

2. By means of culpa or fault – when the wrongful act results from imprudence,
negligence, lack of foresight, or lack of skill (culpable felony).

D. As to the stages in the commission of crime

1. Attempted crimes – when the offender commences the commission of a felony directly
by overt acts and does not perform all the acts of execution, which could produce the felony
by reason of some causes or accident other than his own spontaneous desistance.
2. Frustrated crimes – when the offender has performed all the acts of execution which will
produce the felony as a consequence but which, nevertheless, do not produce the felony by
reason of cause independent of the will of the perpetrator.

3. Consummated crimes – when all the elements necessary for execution and
accomplishment of the crime are present.

E. As to the plurality of crimes

1. Simple crimes – when a single act constitutes only one

offense. Examples: homicide, robbery, rape

2. Complex crimes – when a single act constitutes two or more grave felonies or when an
offense is a necessary means for committing the other. Example: robbery
with homicide.

In a complex crime, although two or more crimes are actually committed, they
constitute only one crime. When the offender executes various acts, he must have a single
purpose.

Other examples of complex crimes:

§ The single act of firing a shot causing the death of two persons who were standing on the
same line of the direction of the bullet

§ The single act of throwing a hand grenade producing murder and multiple attempted
murders
§ Placing a time bomb in a plane, which caused the latter to explode in mid-air, killing
thirteen persons therein, constitutes a complex crime of multiple murder and destruction of
property.

§ Several shots from Thompson sub-machinegun causing several deaths, although caused
by a single act of pressing the trigger, are considered several acts. Multiple homicides or
murders, which are grave felonies, are committed.

Note: Theft of firearm and illegal possession of same firearm do not form a complex
crime; they are two distinct crimes.

F. As to the gravity of penalty or offense

1. Grave felonies – those to which the law attaches the capital punishment or afflictive
penalties.

Afflictive penalties in accordance with Article 25 of the RPC include:

§ Reclusion perpetua

§ Reclusion temporal

§ Perpetual or temporary absolute disqualification

§ Perpetual or temporary special disqualification

§ Prision mayor

Note: If the fine imposed is over 6,000 pesos, it is afflictive penalty.

2. Less grave felonies – those which the law punishes with penalties which are correctional in
nature.
The following are correctional penalties:

§ Prision correccional

§ Arresto mayor

§ Suspension

§ Destierro

Note: It is a less grave felony if the amount of the fine imposed is more than 200 pesos but
not exceeding 6,000 pesos.

3. Light felonies – those infractions of law for the commission of which the penalty
of arresto menor or a fine not exceeding 200 pesos, or both, is imposed.

Examples of light felonies are:

§ Slight physical injuries (Article 266)

§ Theft (Article 309, pars. 7 & 8)

§ Alteration of boundaries or landmarks (Article 313)

§ Malicious mischief (Article 328, par. 3; Article 329, par. 3)

§ Intriguing against honor (Article 364)

G. As to the basis of criminal act

1. Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations

Examples: treason, espionage, piracy

2. Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State Examples:
arbitrary detention, violation of domicile

3. Crimes against Public Order Examples:

rebellion, sedition, coup d’etat

4. Crimes against Public Interest Examples:

forgery, falsification of documents, fraud

5. Crimes against Public Morals Examples:

gambling and betting; offenses against decency and good customs such as scandals,
obscenity, vagrancy, and prostitution

6. Crimes Committed by Public

Officers Examples: bribery,
corruption, malversation of public funds or property

7. Crimes against Persons Examples:

parricide, murder, homicide, physical injuries, infanticide, abortion

8. Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security

§ Crimes against Personal Liberty

Examples: kidnapping, illegal detention

§ Crimes against Security

Examples: abandonment of helpless persons or persons in danger, exploitation of

minors, trespass to dwelling, threats and coercion
9. Crimes against Property Examples:
robbery with violence or intimidation of persons; robbery by the use of force upon things;
brigandage; theft; occupation of real property or usurpation of real rights in property

10. Crimes against Chastity

Examples: adultery, concubinage, rape, acts of lasciviousness, seduction, corruption

of minors, white slave trade, abduction

11. Crimes against the Civil Status of Persons

Examples: bigamy and other illegal marriages

12. Crimes against Honor

Examples: libel (malicious accusation by writing), slander (oral defamation)

13. Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence

Examples: imprudence and negligence

Imprudence – indicates a deficiency of action; usually involves lack of skill.

If a person fails to take place the necessary precaution to avoid injury to person or
damaging to property, there is imprudence.

Negligence – indicates a deficiency of perception; usually involves lack of

foresight.
 If a person fails to pay proper attention and to use due diligence in foreseeing the
injury or damage impending to be caused, there is negligence.

Criminological Classification of Crimes

1. As to the result of crimes

a. Acquisitive crimes – when the offender acquires something as a consequence of his

criminal act.

b. Extinctive crimes – when the result of a criminal act is destructive.

2. As to the time or period committed

a. Seasonal crimes – those committed only during a certain period of the year like during
election period, Christmas season, etc.

b. Situational crimes – those committed only when given the situation conducive to their
commission.

3. As to the length of time committed

a. Instant crimes – those committed in the shortest possible time.

b. Episodic crimes – those committed by a series of acts in a lengthy space of time.

4. As to the location of the commission

a. Static crimes – those committed in only one place.

b. Continuing crimes – those committed in several places.

5. As to the use of mental faculties

a. Rational crimes – those committed with intention and offender is in full possession of
his sanity.

b. Irrational crimes – those committed by persons who do not know the nature and quality
of their acts on account of a mental disease.

6. As to the type of offenders

a. White-collar crimes – those committed by persons of respectability and of upper socio-

economic class in the course of their occupational activities; also referred to as corporate or
occupational crime.

Examples:

§ Tax evasion

§ Stocks manipulation

§ Plunder

§ Bribery, graft and corruption

§ Bankruptcy fraud

§ Fraud against the government

§ Computer crimes

§ Insurance fraud
§ Political fraud

b. Blue-collar crimes – those committed by ordinary professional criminals to maintain

their livelihood.

7. As to the standard of living of the criminals

a. Crimes of the upper world – e.g. falsification cases

b. Crimes of the underworld – e.g. bag snatching

Other Classes of Crimes

1. Crimes by Imitation – crimes committed by merely duplicating what was done by others;
based on the explanation of crime as a learned behavior.

2. Crimes of Passion – those committed at the height of great emotions.

3. Service Crimes – crimes committed through rendition of service to satisfy desire of

another.

4. Genocide – a crime committed by a government through mass destruction or

annihilation of human populations.

5. Transnational Crimes – violations of law that involve more than one country in their
planning, execution, e.g. drug trafficking, human trafficking (Albanese, 2010).

6. Environmental Crimes – acts that breach environmental legislation and cause significant
harm or risk to the environment and human health, e.g. illegal emission or discharge of
substances into air, water or soil; illegal trade in wildlife
(http://ec.europa.eu/environment/legal/crime/).

7. Cyber Crimes – crimes that involve computers and networks.

8. Political Crimes – criminal activities for ideological purposes; also serious violations of
laws that threaten the security or existence of the government, e.g. terrorism,
treason or sedition (Legal Dictionary).
9. Family-related Crimes – crimes within the family

10. Patriarchal Crimes – those committed against women and children in the name of
traditional male dominance.

Classification of Criminals

1. Acute criminals – They commit crimes due to impulses of the moment, fit of passion,
anger, or spell of extreme jealousy.

2. Chronic criminals – They are those who acted in consonance with deliberate thinking.

3. Normal criminals – Their psychic conditions resemble that of a normal individual, except
that they identify themselves with criminal prototypes.

4. Ordinary criminals – Considered to be the lowest form in the criminal career, ordinary
criminals engage only in conventional crimes that require limited skill. They lack
organization to help them avoid arrest and conviction.

5. Organized criminals – They have high degree of organization to enable them to commit
crimes without being detected, with specialized criminal activities operated in large scale.
Force, violence, intimidation, and bribery are used to gain and maintain control over
economic activities that include various forms of racketeering, gambling, prostitution, and
distribution of prohibited drugs.

6. Professional criminals – They are highly skilled and able to obtain considerable amount
of money without being detected due to organization and contact with professional
criminals. They are always able to escape conviction, and they specialize in crimes that
require skills.
7. Accidental criminals – They commit criminal acts as a result of unanticipated
circumstances.

8. Situational criminals – They are not actually criminals but commit crimes due to a given
situation; sometimes their criminal activities are intermixed with legitimate activities.

9. Habitual criminals – They continue to commit criminal acts for diverse reasons due to
deficiency of intelligence and lack of self-control.

10. Active-aggressive criminals – They commit crimes in impulsive manner usually due to
their aggressive behavior, as shown in crimes of passion, resentment, or revenge.

11. Passive-inadequate criminals – They commit crimes because they are pushed to do it, by
inducement, reward, or promise without considering the consequences. For this, they
are called “ulukan.”

12. Socialized criminals – They are normal in their behavior but mere inadequate and
defective in their socialization process. To this group belong the educated, respectable
members of society. They become criminals on the account of some situation they are
involved.

Classification of Criminals (The Revised Penal Code)

1. Recidivist – is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously
convicted by final judgment of another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised
Penal Code.

2. Quasi-recidivist – is one who commits another crime after having been convicted by
final judgment of a crime falling under either the Revised Penal Code or Special Law, before
beginning to serve such sentence or while serving the same.
3. Habitual Delinquent – is one who, within a period of ten (10) years from the date of his
release or last conviction of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery,
estafa, or falsification, is found guilty of any of the said crimes for the third time or oftener.

Measuring Crimes

The Philippine National Police (PNP), as the premier law enforcement agency,
acknowledges the important role of generating statistical crime data in the overall
assessment of crime trends in the country. Hence, the PNP Headquarters issued “Letter of
Instructions: Unit Crime Periodic Report (UCPER)” dated April 22, 2009. This directive
prescribes a uniform procedure in reporting and collecting crime data reported to the
different law enforcement agencies.

As described in the said directive:

“Crime statistics provide a mathematical measure of the level or amount of crime that is
prevalent in societies. The gathered crime data would help the law enforcement sector present
an accurate crime situation of the country.”

Some of the salient provisions of the UCPER are presented in the foregoing
discussion.

Two Mechanisms in Collecting Statistical Crime Data

1. The National Crime Reporting System (NCRS) – concerned more with the details of the
crime such as victim’s data, offender’s data, among others.

2. Police Regional Office Periodic Report (PROPER) – mainly concerned with what
happened, where, to whom, why, and the results of investigation.
Definition of Terms

a. Crimes – include felonies which are violations of the Revised Penal Code and offenses
which are violations of special laws.

b. Crime Volume – is the number of crime incidents committed in a given area over a
period of time which include the index and non-index crimes.

CV = Index Crimes + Non-Index Crimes

c. Population – is the number of inhabitants in a given area. The figure to be used is the
medium assumption as per the records from the National Statistics Office (NSO).

d. Crime Rate – is the number of crime incidents in a given period of time for every 100,000
inhabitants of an area.

Crime Volume

Crime Rate = --------------------------- Population/100,000

e. Index Crimes – are crimes which are serious in nature and which occur with sufficient
frequency and regularity such that they can serve as an index to the crime situation. Only
the crimes of murder, homicide, physical injury (serious and less serious), carnapping, cattle
rustling, robbery, theft and rape are considered as index crimes.

f. Solved Cases – NAPOLCOM M.C. No. 94-017 provides that:

A case shall be considered solved:

1) When the following elements occur: The offender has been identified; there is sufficient
evidence to charge him; the offender has been taken into custody; and the offender has
been charged before the prosecutor’s office or court of appropriate jurisdiction.

2) When some elements beyond police control prevent the arrest of the offender, such as
when the victim refuses to prosecute after the offender is identified or the offender dies or
absconds.

g.

Solved Cases CSE = --------------------------

- x 100% Crime Volume

Crime Solution Efficiency (CSE) – is the percentage of solved cases out of the total number of
crime incidents handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period of time.
h. Cleared Case – A case shall be considered cleared when at least one of the offenders has
been identified; there is sufficient evidence to charge him; and he has been charged before
the prosecutor’s office or any other court of appropriate jurisdiction. Included in this
category are solved cases.

i. Crime Clearance Efficiency (CCE) – is the percentage of cleared cases out of the total
number of crime incidents handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period of time.

CC CCE = --------------------------
- x 100% CV

Where:

CC = Cleared
Cases CV = Crime
Volume CCE = Case Clearance Efficiency

The Police Blotter shall serve as the main source of crime data for submission and
shall be the basis for preparing and accomplishing the Unit Periodic Report and NCRS Form.
The Chief of Police is primarily responsible for the maintenance of accurate crime data. He
must ensure that crime data are gathered from all sources, such as: Barangay, NBI, PDEA,
BFAR, DENR, DSWD, BUCUS, BI, and other agencies with law enforcement functions in the
locality. Accuracy and integrity of crime recording processes must be ensured by the Chief
of Investigation Section and Crime Registrar.