GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. MATERIALS:Every student must have the Laboratory Manual in addition to the

required textbook in the lecture. You must also have drawing instruments like pencil,
ruler, protractor, triangles, and other drawing instruments. You must also have
calculator, borrowing of calculator is not allowed.

2. APPARATUS: Let your laboratory assistant to prepare the necessary apparatus before
the laboratory time. Check the readiness and conditions of all the equipment before
starting the experiment. Wait for your instructor to give necessary instruction and
precaution before performing any experiment.

3. PROCEDURE: Be sure to read the laboratory manual, textbook and references before
coming to class so that you will have an idea of the experiment to be performed. Your
instructor will discuss the nature and purpose of the experiment to be performed and
the procedures to be followed. You have to listen carefully to the instructions given so
that you can finish the experiment in the allotted time. Record using pencil the observed
data in the data sheets provided in the laboratory manual. All computations and other
statistical analysis must be written at the back page of the manual sheets. Observations,
data interpretation, illustrations, conclusion, and recommendations should be written in
the space provided in the manual.

4. REPORTS: Final reports of the experiments performed are to be submitted on the date
and time specified by your instructor. The report should be written neatly and clearly.
Full credit cannot be given for experiment not submitted on time. A complete laboratory
report should contain the following in their respective order:
a) Original data sheets
b) Computation sheets
c) Illustrations and graphs
d) Interpretation and analysis
e) General observation regarding the experiment.
f) Conclusion and Recommendations

5. LABORATORY GRADE: Your final report will be graded based on accuracy,

completeness, interpretation and analysis of data, reasoning and neatness of work. Your
instructor will give examinations to test your comprehension and understanding of the
experiment. You have to get a passing mark for your report and your examinations in
order to pass the subject.

6. ATTENDANCE: Try not to be absent in the laboratory class. The class meets only once
a week and may not have a chance to make-up for the experiment you will miss. If you
missed an experiment or an examination, you should contact your instructor at once,
explain your and find out if and when you can make up.

7. DICIPLINE: During the performance of the experiments, maintain discipline in your

group. Do not create too much noise which might disturb other groups. Maintain
orderliness in the laboratory room.

1
 EXPERIMENT No. 1

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS

I- INTRODUCTION:

The specific gravity or relative density of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid
to the density of water. This property of fluids is very important in the study of hydraulics.
There are various methods of determining the specific gravity of liquid. One method is
to determine the density (mass per unit volume) of the liquid sample by measuring its mass and
volume of the liquid. The specific gravity is determined by dividing its density by the density
of water which is equal to 1000 kg/m3. Another method is by using an open U – Tube
Manometer. Knowing the density of one liquid, the specific gravity of the other can be
determined. The problem is best solved by writing the equation of heads in millimeter of the
liquid of known specific gravity, from atmospheric surface to the other. Specific gravity of
liquid can also be determine using a device called hydrometer which is design to measure
directly the densities of different liquids.
This experiment will investigate the accuracy of the determined specific gravity taken
from the different methods.

II- OBJECTIVES:
1. To determine the relative density of the liquid samples using a manometer, density
determination, and Hydrometer.
2. To compare the experimental values of the relative density of the different liquid
samples determined using the manometer, density determination, and hydrometer.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS:

1. What are the computed values of the specific gravity of the different liquid samples
taken using the hydrometer?
2. What are the observed values of the specific gravity of the different liquid samples
taken using the U – Tube manometer?
3. What are the computed values of the specific gravity of the different liquid samples
using the ratio of the density of liquid sample to the density of water?
4. Is there a significant difference between the observed specific gravity from the
hydrometer and the accepted valuesof their specific gravity?
5. Is there a significant difference between the computed specific gravity of the
different samples using the U – tube manometer and the accepted values of their
specific gravity?
6. Is there a significant difference between the computed specific gravity from density
determination of the different samples and the accepted values of their specific
gravity?

2
IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:
1. There is no significant difference between the different liquid samples using the
ratio of the density of liquid sample to the density of water.
2. There is no significant difference between the observed specific gravity from the
hydrometer and the accepted valuesof their specific gravity.
3. There is no significant difference between the computed specific gravity from
density determination of the different samples and the accepted values of their
specific gravity.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Hydrometer ● U – Tube Manometer
● Graduated cylinder ● Beam Balance
● Meter stick ● Funnel
● Five (5) kinds of liquid samples

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

A. Determination of Specific gravity using the hydrometer.

1. Place the liquid sample on a convenient container and let the hydrometer floating on it.
2. Read directly the specific gravity, the specific gravity is equal to the reading that
corresponds to the level of the liquid surface.
3. Record the reading in Data Table 1-A.
4. Repeat procedures 1 to 3 for the other liquid samples including water.
5. Determine the accepted densities of the different liquid samples from any books of fluid
mechanics or hydraulics.
6. Compare the observed values to the accepted values by computing their percentage
error.

B. Determination of Specific gravity using the density of liquid samples

andwater.

1. Measure the volume of the liquid sample using the graduated cylinder and record in
Data Table 1-B.
2. Measure the mass of the empty container using the beam balance and record in Data
Table 1-B.
3. Place the liquid sample in the container. Measure the mass of the container with liquid
sample using the beam balance and record in Data Table 1-B.
4. Determine the mass of the liquid sample from the difference between the mass of the
container with liquid and the mass of the empty container and record in Data Table 1-
B.
5. Compute the density, of the liquid sample using the equation,
ρ = mass/volume
Record the computed density in Data Table 1-B
6. Compute the specific gravity of the liquid sample using the equation,

3
 SL = Density of liquid / density of water.
Use Density of water of 1000 kg/m3.
Record the computed specific gravity in Data Table 1-B.
7. Compare the computed specific gravity to the accepted specific gravity by determining
their percentage error.
8. Repeat procedures 1 to 7 to each of the other liquid samples.

C. Determination of Specific gravity using Open U-Tube Manometer.

1. Set the Open U-Tube manometer on its stand.
2. Pour in water at a desired level at one open end of the U-Tube manometer.
3. Pour in the liquid sample at the other end for a certain height.
4. Mark the level of the interface between the water and liquid sample.
5. Using a meter stick or ruler, measure the height of the liquid sample column exposed to
the atmosphere, YL, from the interface level of the two (2) liquids and record in Data
Table 1-C.
6. Measure also the liquid water column exposed to the atmosphere, Yw, from the interface
level of the two (2) liquids and record in Data table 1-C.
7. Compute the specific gravity using the equation,
SL= YL / Yw
Record the computed specific gravity in Data Table 1-C.
8. Compare the computed specific gravity to the accepted specific gravity by
determining their percentage error. Record the percentage difference in Data
Table 1-C
9. Repeat procedures 1 to 8 to each of the other liquid samples.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

DATA Table 1-A.

Determination of Specific gravity using the hydrometer.

Liquid Sample Obs. Specific Accepted Specific % Error

Gravity Gravity

DATA Table 1-B

4
Determination of Specific gravity using the density of liquid samples and water.

Liquid Sample Mass Volume Computed Accepted % Error

Specific Specific
gravity Gravity

DATA Table 1-C

Determination of Specific gravity using Open U-Tube Manometer

Liquid Sample Head “h” Computed Accepted % Error

specific Specific
Gravity gravity

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION:

IX- INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA:

5
X – GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI – CONCLUSIONS:

XII – RECOMMENDATIONS:

6
 EXPERIMENT No. 2

MANOMETER

I- INTRODUCTION:

A manometer is a tube, usually bent in the form of a U, containing a liquid of known

specific gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to changes of pressure.
Manometers are: 1) open type, with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of
measuring gage pressures; and 2) differential type, without an atmospheric surface and
capable of measuring only differences of pressure.
Piezometer is the simplest form of open manometer. It is a tube tapped into the wall of
the container or at the top, side, or bottom of a conduit for the purpose of measuring the
pressure. When the pressure is large where piezometer is not convenience to use, a tube
which is bent to contain one or more fluids of different specific gravities from that in which
the pressure is desired is used.
In hydraulic problems where in the difference in pressure at two points is desired rather
than actual pressure, a differential manometer is convenient to use. Monometer problems
can be solve by writing the equation of head from one end to the other end of the
manometer.

II- OBJECTIVES: 1. To determine the pressure inside the pipe using a Piezometer and
Open manometer and compare it with the gage pressure.

2. To determine the pressure difference between the two points in

the pipe system using differential manometer and compare it with
the pressure difference obtained from pressure gage readings.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

1. Is there a significant difference between the computed pressure inside the pipe using
piezometer readings and the pressure obtained from the pressure gage?
2. Is there a significant difference between the computed pressure inside the pipe using
open manometer and the pressure obtained from the pressure gage?
3. Is there a significant difference between the computed pressure difference of the
two points in the pipe system and the pressure difference obtained using the pressure
gage.

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

1. There is no significant difference between the computed pressure inside the pipe
usingpiezometer readings and the pressure obtained from the pressure gage.

7
 2. There is no significant difference between the computed pressure inside the pipe
using open manometer and the pressure obtained from the pressure gage.
3. There is no significant difference between the computed pressure difference of the
two points in the pipe system and the pressure difference obtained using the pressure
gage.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Hydraulic facilities (pipe system) ● Differential manometer
● Piezometer ● Ruler or meter stick
● Open manometer ● Pressure gage

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

A. Determination of pressure using Piezometer and Open manometer.

1. Attached the piezometer to the pipe system and open the gate valve so that water will
flow.
2. When the flow is steady, read and record in data Table 2-A the height “h” of water level
exposed to the atmosphere from the center of the pipe.
3. Write the head equation and compute the pressure inside the pipe. Record the computed
value in data Table 2-A.
4. Attach the pressure gage at the same point in the pipe system where the piezometer
attached. Read and record in data Table 2A the gage pressure.
5. Compare the computed pressure using the piezometer reading and the gage pressure by
computing their percentage difference. Consider the gage pressure as the true or
accepted value.
6. Remove the piezometer and replaced it with an open manometer with mercury inside
of it.
7. Measure the height “h” of the level of mercury exposed to the atmosphere from the
interface level of the two liquid. Record the measured value in data Table 2-A.
8. Write the equation of head and compute the pressure inside the pipe. Record the
computed value in data Table 2-A.
9. Compare the computed value of the pressure inside the pipe from the gage pressure by
computing their percentage error.
10. Pour in additional volume of mercury in the open end of the manometer for another
observation.
11. Repeat procedures 7 to 10 for another two (2) observations, then close the gate valve.

9
B)Determination of pressure using differential manometer.

1. Prepare the differential manometer using mercury as the determining liquid.

2. Attach to the pipe system and open the gate valve so that water will flow in the pipe
system.
3. When the flow is steady, read and record the in data Table 2-B the vertical distance “h”
between the interface levels of the liquids.

8
 4. Write the equation of heads and compute the pressure difference between the two points
in the pipe.
5. Attach the pressure gage at each of the two points where the differential manometer
attached.
6. Read and record in data Table 2-B the pressure gage readings.
7. Compare the computed pressure difference from the differential manometer
observations to the pressure difference obtained from pressure gages by computing their
percentage error.
8. Close the gate valve and remove the attachment of the manometer in the pipe.
9. Vary the volume of mercury inside the manometer for another observation.
10. Repeat procedures 2 to 9 for two more observations.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Use specific gravity of Hg = 13.6

Table 2-A. Piezometer & Open manometer

Manometer Head “h” Computed Gage pressure % Error

pressure
Piezometer

Open
manometer

Open
manometer

Open
manometer

Table 2-B. Differential manometer

No. Head “h” Computed pressure Gage pressure % Error

Obs. Diff. Diff.
1

9
VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION:

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

10
XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

11
 EXPERIMENT No. 3

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

I -INTRODUCTION:

The principle of Archimedes states that “A body wholly or partially submerged in liquid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object”

Buoyant force, Fb = Weight of fluid displaced, Wd

This upward forced,Fb can also be determine by applying the equilibrium equation, the
sum of the upward forces is zero.

∑Fv = 0

II- OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the validity of Archimedes Principle by comparing the buoyant force
computed using the equilibrium equation to the weight of the fluid displaced.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is there a significant difference between the buoyant force, Fb, computed from the
equilibrium equation and the buoyant force computed using Archimedes principle.

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

There is no significant difference between the buoyant force computed from the equilibrium
equation and the buoyant force computed using Archimedes principle.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:

● Scale Balance ● Triple Beam Balance

● 5 pcs – Floating Materials ● 5 pcs – Un-float Materials
● Water container with spout ● Catch Basin
● Knot String

12
VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:
A) FLOATING MATERIALS

1. Weigh each of the floating materials with the scale balance and record their weights in
Table 3-A. Applying equilibrium equation to the each observed material, Fb = Wm.
2. Full the water container with water.
3. Weigh and record the weight of the empty catch basin.
4. Place one of the floating materials in the container. Collect the overflowing water at the
spout with a catch basin.
5. Weigh and record the weight of the catch basin with water.
6. Compute and record the weight of the displaced volume, Wd, of water which is equal
to the weight of the catch basin with water minus the weight of the empty catch basin.
7. Compare the buoyant force computed using the equilibrium equation (weight of the
material) to the weight of buoyant force computed using the Archimedes principle
(weight of the water displaced) by determining the percentage difference. Record all
observed data in Table 3-A.
8. Remove the water in the catch basin and repeat procedures 2 to 6 until all the floating
materials are observed.

B) UN – FLOAT MATERIALS

1. Full the water container with water.

2. Using the knot string, hung one of the un–float material in the triple beam balance and
observe its weight in air, Wa. Record the observed weight in Table 3-B.
3. Place the hanging material in the container and collect the overflowing water with the
catch basin.
4. Read the weight in water of the submerged material. Record the observed weight in
Table 3-B.
5. Measure the weight of the catch basin with water.
6. Compute the weight of the displaced water (collected water in the catch basin) which
is equal to the weight of the catch basin with water minus the weight of the empty
container.
7. Record the computed weight of the displaced water, Wd, in Table 3-B.
8. Compute the buoyant force, Fb which is equal to the weight of the material, Wm, in air
minus the weight of the material in water. Record the computed value in Table 3-B.
9. Compare the computed buoyant force using the equilibrium equation to the computed
buoyant force using Archimedes principle (weight of displaced water) by computing
their percentage difference.
10. Remove the water in the catch basin and repeat procedures 1 to 9 until all the un-float
materials are observed.

13
VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Weight of the empty catch basin = ___________

Table 3-A. FLOATING MATERIALS

Floating Weight of material Weight of water % Difference

material displaced

Table 3-B.UN-FLOAT MATERIALS

Un-float Weight of Weight Fb = weight

material material of Fb = Wa - Ww of volume %
in air. Wa material displaced. Difference
in water.
Ww

14
VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

15
X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

16
 EXPERIMENT No. 4

CENTER OF PRESSURE

I -INTRODUCTION:
The resultant of the hydrostatic pressure acting on a plane is given by the equation:
P = γYc A sinθ = γ hc A 4-1

Where:
P = resultant of the hydrostatic pressure
γ = unit weight of the liquid
Yc = distance from the center of the plane area to the water
surface measured along the plane of the area
hc = Ycsinθ = depth of the center of the area
A = Area of the plane surface

The point on the surface at which the resultant force, P, acts is called the center of
pressure. The position of the horizontal line containing the center of pressure of a plane surface
subject to hydrostatic pressure may be determined by taking moments of all the forces acting
at the surface about some horizontal axis in its plane. If Yp is the distance to the center of
pressure from the axis of moments (water surface), then, Yp can be computed using the
equation: Yp= Is/Ss= Yc + e

Where: Is = moment of inertia of the plane with respect to the water surface.
Ss = statical moment of the moment of area with respect to the water
surface.
E = Ig/Ss
Ig = centroidal moment of inertia of the plane surface

Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss

II- OBJECTIVE:

To verify the validity of the equation for the location of the center of pressure,
Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss using the center of pressure apparatus.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is there a significant difference between the computed value of the location of pressure
using the equation Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss and the value Yp computed using the equation of equilibrium.

17
IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

There is no significant difference between the computed value of the location of

pressure using the equation Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss and the value Yp computed using the equation of
equilibrium.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Center of pressure apparatus ● Set of weights
● Spirit level ● Ruler
● Protractor

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

1. Measure the dimensions of the plane area.

2. Compute and record the area and centroidal moment of inertia of the plane area.
3. Place the apparatus on the hydraulic bench .
4. Level the apparatus by adjusting the level screw and check it with the spirit level.
5. Attached the spirit level to the counter beam and adjust the counter weight to balance
the beam. Move the counter weight until the beam is level.
6. Place a mass of 50 gms in the balance weight holder.
7. Pour water slowly into the tank until the balance arm is horizontal as indicated by the
level.
8. Read the height of water level on the scale of the torroid.
9. Compute and record the distance of the center of the plane area, Yc from the water
surface measured along the plane.
10. Compute the moment of area of the plane about the water surface.
11. Compute and record Yp using the equation, Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss
12. Compute and record Yp using the equation of equilibrium.
13. Compare the results in procedures 12 and 13 by computing the percentage difference.
14. Repeat procedures 6 to 13 for 100 gms, and 150 grms.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Dimension of the plane area = ____________________

Area of the plane = _________________________

Moment of Inertia, Ig = _________________________

Mass Yc Ss Yp = Yc + Ig/Ss Yp computed % Difference

(gms) from
equilibrium eqn.
50

100

150

18
VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

19
XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

20
 EXPERIMENT No. 5

METACENTRIC HEIGHT

I -INTRODUCTION:
Any floating body is subjected to two system of parallel forces: the gravitational force
acting on each of the particles that goes to make up the body, and the buoyant force of their
liquid acting upward on the various elements of the submerge surface.
In order that the body is in equilibrium, the resultant of these two systems of forces
must be collinear, equal, and opposite. Hence, the center of buoyancy and the center of
gravity of the floating body must lie in the same vertical line. If, from any disturbance, the
body is made to heel through an angle θ, the center of gravity of the object remain
unchanged but the center of buoyancy shifts to a new position. The weight of the object
and buoyant force constitute a couple which resist further overturning and tends to restore
the object to its original upright position.
If the vertical line through the center of buoyancy intersects the inclined axis of
symmetry at point M (metacenter) above the center of gravity, G are the two points where
the forces of the couple will act and the distance MG along the axis of symmetry is called
metacentric height. The metacentric height is a measure of the statistical stability of the
object. The distance from original center of buoyancy, Bo to the metacenter M is MBo and
the distance from the center of gravity to the original center of buoyancy Bo is GBo.

Metacentric height, MG = MBo - GBo.

MBo= I/V

For scow of rectangular section

MBo= (b/12D)(1 + ½ tanθ)

Where: I = centroidal moment of inertia of the area at water line

V = volume of submergence
b = base of the scow under consideration
D = draft or depth of flotation
Θ = angle of tilt

MBo= (b/12D)(1 + ½ tanθ) + GBo -------------------------------------- eqn.5 - 1

Metacentric height can also be solve from equilibrium equation, taking moments at point M
and the equation of GM is derived:

GM = (load/weight of scow)(load dist. From center) cosθ/sinθ -------- eqn.5- 2

21
II- OBJECTIVE:

To determine the metacentric height of a floating body using the equation

MG = MBO +- GBO and compare it with the metacentric height computed using the equation
of equilibrium, sum of moment of forces about M is zero.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is there a significant difference between the computed value of the metacentric height
using the equation MG = MBO +- GBO and computed value using the equation of equilibrium?

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

There is no significant difference between the computed value of the metacentric height
using the equation MG = MBO +- GBO and computed value using the equation of equilibrium.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Metacentric height apparatus ● sets of weights
● Water container ● Meter stick or ruler
● Scale balance

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

1. Measure and read the dimensions of the scow (metacentric height apparatus).
2. Measure and record the weight of the scow.
3. Full the container with water. Place the scow into the water and observed the angle
indicator reading with the scow in upright position.
4. Measure the draft of the scow in water.
5. Place a 100 grams load at the center and measure the draft of the scow in water.
6. Move the 100 grams load to half the distance from the center to the edge of the scow.
Observed and record the angle of tilt.
7. Compute and record the metacentric height MG1 using equation 5-1.
8. Compute and record the metacentric height MG2 using equation 5-2.
9. Compare the computed metacentric height MG1 to the computed metacentric height
MG2 by computing the percentage difference.
10. Repeat procedures 6 to 10 using 200 grams and 300 grams value of the load.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Base of scow = _________________ Weight of scow = ______________

Length of scow = _______________ Height of scow = ______________

Table 5

22
 Load Draft, D θ MG1 Load dist. MG2 % Diff.
gms. mm Fr. center

100

200

300

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

23
X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

EXPERIMENT No. 6

24
 VISCOSITY OF LIQUID
(FALLING SPHERE METHOD)

I -INTRODUCTION:

Viscosity, η, is internal friction in fluid. It is defined as the ratio of the shear stress, F/A,
to the rate of change of shear strain, v/L.

Shear stress F/A FL

η = ----------------------------------- = --------- = -------
Rate of change in shear strain v/L Av

One more useful relation in viscous fluid flow is the expression for the force, F, exerted on a
sphere of radius, r, moving with a speed, v, through a fluid with viscosity, η. When the flow is
laminar, the relationship is

F = 6πηrV

A sphere falling in a viscous fluid reaches a terminal speed Vt for which th total force
including the weight of the sphere, the viscous retarding force, and the buoyant force, is zero.
Let ρ be the density of the sphere and ρ’ the density of the fluid. The weight of the sphere is
then (4/3)πr3ρg and the buoyant force is (4/3)πr3ρ’g, at terminal velocity.

(4/3)πr3ρ’g + 6πηrV - (4/3)πr3ρg = 0

η = (2/9)(r2g/Vt)(ρ - ρ’) Eqn. 6-1

We can determine the viscosity of fluid from the above equation of measuring the
terminal velocity of a sphere of known radius and density. Conversely, if we know the
viscosity, we can determine the radius of the sphere by measuring the terminal velocity.

II- OBJECTIVE:
To determine the viscosity of water using Falling Sphere Method.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is there a significant difference between the experimental value of the viscosity of water
to the accepted value?

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

25
 There is no significant difference between the experimental value of the viscosity of
water to the accepted value.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Transparent cylinder ● Stop watch
● Spherical ball ● Meter stick
● Micrometer caliper ● Rubber band

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

1. Full the transparent cylinder with water.
2. Measure the diameter of the metal ball using the micrometer caliper.
3. Mark every cm distance from top of the transparent cylinder by a rubber band and
prepare the stop watches.
4. Measure and record the temperature of the water by the thermometer.
5. Assign a student to observed the time for the metal ball to travel from initial point to
each of the marked in the transparent cylinder.
6. Release the metal ball from the surface of the liquid and the assigned student will
observe the time of travel for the metal ball to reach each of the marks. Record each of
the observed time in Table 6.
7. Repeat procedure 6 for at least 6 trials.
8. Compute the average time of travel for the ball to reach each of the marked distances,
y.
9. Graph the distance, y, versus time, t.
10. Determine the terminal velocity Vtfrom the graph. (Select the portion of the graph
where the graph is a straight line, at this portion the velocity is constant which is the
terminal velocity.)
11. Determine and record the density of the metal ball by volumetric method.
12. Determine the density of the liquid by volumetric method.
13. Compute the viscosity of the liquid using equation 6-1.
14. Determine the accepted viscosity of the liquid in the table for standard viscosity.
15. Compare the computed value of the viscosity to accepted value by their percentage
difference.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Table 6
Time (s)
Y (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tave.

Radius of metal ball, r = ____________________

26
 Density of metal ball, ρ = ____________________

Density of the liquid, ρ’= ____________________

Viscosity of the liquid, η = ___________________

Accepted viscosity of liquid = _________________

Percentage Error = _________________________

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:
27
XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

EXPERIMENT No. 7

28
 REYNOLDS NUMBER

I -INTRODUCTION:

Reynolds established a criterion applicable to all fluids for determining the type of flow
occurring under stated condition. The numerical value of the expression is called Reynolds
Number and is given by the equation:

NR = DVρ/η = DV/γ ------------------------------------------ 7-1

Where: D = diameter of the pipe

V = velocity of the fluid
ρ = density of fluid
η = viscosity of fluid
γ = η/ρ = kinematic viscosity

Reynold’s Number is a dimensionless whose value is independent of the system of units

employed. For commercial pipe of circular cross-section, when Reynold’s Number is less than
about 2,100 the flow will be laminar and when greater than 3,000 expect the flow to be
turbulent.

II- OBJECTIVE:
To verifyReynold’s experiment that in a close conduit when Reynold’s Number is less
than 2,100, the flow is laminar and for greater than 3,000, the flow is turbulent.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is the experimental result of the Reynold’s Number for a laminar flow is less than
2,100?

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

The experimental result of the Reynold’s Number for a laminar flow is less than 2,100.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Reynold’s Number Apparatus ● Thermometer
● Stop watch ● Dropper
● Vernier Caliper ● Colored water
●Meter stick

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

29
 1. Prepare the Reynold’s Number apparatus and measure the inner diameter of the pipes.
Connect hose from faucet to theReynold’s Number apparatus and allow water to flow.
Maintain the level of the water during the observation.
2. Determine the temperature of the water using the thermometer.
3. Slowly open the cock of the glass pipe and by means of a dropper, release a drop of
colored water at the entrance of the pipe.
4. Observed the time of the colored water to travel a certain distance. Measure this
distance and compute the velocity of the colored water traveling into the pipe.
5. Observed also the kind of the flow if it is laminar or turbulent.
6. Determine the accepted viscosity of the water from table of standard viscosity.
7. Compute the Reynold’s Number using equation 7-1.
8. Repeat procedures 3 to 7 for another observation for at least five (5) observations.
Regulate the cock of the glass pipe to vary the velocity of water flowing in the glass
pipe.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Diameter of glass pipe = ___________ Temperature = _______________

Accepted viscosity = ___________ Density of water = ____________

Observation Dist., x Time (s) Velocity, NR Types of flow

(cm) cm/s
1

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

30
X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

EXPERIMENT No. 8

31
 BERNOULLI’S ENERGY
EQUATION

I -INTRODUCTION:

Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem states that “Neglecting friction, the total head, or the total
amount of energy per unit weight, is the same at every point in the path of flow.” In
mathematical equation:

𝑃1 𝑉12
+ + 𝑍1 = constant
γ 2𝑔

or
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 ---------------------------------------- 8-1
γ 2𝑔 γ 2𝑔

When head loss is significant, Bernoulli’s Energy Equation stated as “With continuous, steady
flow, the total head at any point in a stream is equal to the total head at any downstream point
plus the head loss of head between the two points.”

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 8-2
γ 2𝑔 γ 2𝑔

II- OBJECTIVE:
To verify Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem to a case where head loss is insignificant.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is the total amount of energy per unit weight constant?

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

The total amount of energy per unit weight is constant.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Pipe system ● Catch basin
● Pressure gage or Manometer ● Stop watch
● Meter stick
VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

32
 1. Attach the pressure gage at point 1 and point 2 in the pipe.
2. Open the gate valve. Maintain the water surface elevation of the water reservoir and
allow the flow of water through the pipe to become steady.
3. When the flow becomes steady observe and record the pressure gage reading.
4. Close the outlet of the catch basin and collect the discharge water for a certain period
of time, t. Q = Volume of collected water/elapse time
5. Determine the cross – sectional area of the pipe at point 1 and 2.
6. Compute the velocity at point 1 and at point 2.
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1= 𝐴 𝑉2 = 𝐴
1
7. Measure the elevation head at point 1 and at point 2.
8. Record all observations in Table 8
9. Compute the total energy head at point 1 and also at point 2.
10. Compare the computed value of the total energy head at point 1 to the computed value
of the total energy head at point 2 by computing their percentage difference.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Volume of water collected
Q = -------------------------------------- = ________________
Time elapse

V1 = Q/A1 = _________________ V2 = Q/A2 = _________________

Head Point 1 Point 2

P/γ

V2 / 2g

Total

% Diff.

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

33
IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

34
 EXPERIMENT No. 9

VENTURIMETER

I -INTRODUCTION:

VENTURIMETER is an instrument to measure discharge through pipes. It consists of

a short converging tube connected to the approach pipe at the inlet end and ending in a
cylindrical section called the throat. The angle of divergence is kept small to reduce the loss of
head caused by turbulence as the velocity reduced. The discharge can be solve by using the
continuity equation and Bernoulli’s Energy equation.
Writing the Bernoulli’s Energy equation from the inlet (point 1) to the throat (point 2),
the resulting equation is:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 ----------------------------------------------- 9 -1
γ 2𝑔 γ 2𝑔

Another useful relation is:

𝑉22 𝐷 𝑉2
= ( 𝐷1)4 (2𝑔
1
) ------------------------------------------------ 9-2
2𝑔 2

Combining equation 9-1 and 9-2, V1 and V2 can be computed. With the area known, Qt, can
be computed.
This Qt, is the “theoretical” discharge computed by neglecting the loss of head between
the inlet and throat. In the practical use of the Venturimeter, this loss of head, though small
should not be neglected. It causes the actual flow to be less than the theoretical flow Qt. The
correction is usually made by applying a factor less than unity (1) to the theoretical flow. This
factor is called the meter coefficient, C.

Q = CQt
or
actual discharge
C = Q / Qt = ----------------------------- ----------------------- 9-3
Theoretical discharge
Meter coefficient has a fairly constant value from 0.96 to 0.98.

II- OBJECTIVE:
To determine experimentally the meter coefficient in a pipe system with
venturimeter..

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is the experimental value of the meter coefficient within the range from 0.96 to 0.98?

35
IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:
The experimental value of the meter coefficient is within the range from 0.96 to 0.98.

V- EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Pipe system with venturemeter ● Catch basin
● Pressure gage or Manometer ● Stop watch
● Meter stick ● Vernier caliper

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

1. Determine the inside diameter of the inlet and throat of the venturimeter.
2. Open the gate valve. Maintain the water surface elevation of the water reservoir and
allow the flow of water through the pipe to become steady.
3. When the flow becomes steady, observe and record the pressure gage reading.
4. Close the outlet of the catch basin and collect the discharge water for a certain period
of time, t.
5. Compute the actual discharge using the equation:

Q = Volume of collected water / time elapse

6. Measure the difference in elevation between point 1 and point 2.

7. Compute the velocity at point 1 and at point 2 using equation 9-1 and 9-2.
8. Compute the theoretical discharge, using the equation: Qt = A2V2.
9. Compute the meter coefficient using equation 9-3.
10. Compare the result to the accepted value which is ranging from 0.96 to 0.98.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Head Inlet (Point 1) Throat (Point 2)

P/γ

V2 / 2g

Qt

Accepted C= 0.97

% Diff.

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

36
IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

EXPERIMENT No. 10

37
HEAD LOSS (FRICTION LOSS)

I -INTRODUCTION:

Head loss in a straight length of pipe is due to dissipation of energy caused by the
resistance of the pipe wall. In the case of laminar flow, which generally occurs with the
Reynold’s Number less than 2,000, the head loss is all due to viscous resistance. The head loss
is a function of the first power of the velocity. If the flow is turbulent, the head loss is related
to the dissipation of the kinetic energy of turbulence, which produces a more complicated
relationship between head loss and velocity. If the conduit is rough, still more variables
involving the characteristics of roughness are needed to define the head loss.
The head loss for laminar flow is given by:

HL = 32 η LV / γ D2 ----------------------- eqn. 10-1

Where: η = viscosity of the fluid L = length of pipe

γ = specific weight V = Velocity of the fluid
D = diameter of the pipe
The head loss for turbulent flow is given by the Darcy – Weisbach formula as:

Hf = f (L/D) (V2 / 2g) --------------------- eqn. 10-2

Where : f = friction coefficient V = Velocity of fluid

L length of pipe D = Diameter of pipe

Other head losses called minor losses are due to various transition and fittings. The head loss
due to this is given by the equation:

hL = K (V2 / 2g)

These losses are tabulated below:

Description K Description of coefficient

Pipe entrance Ke Entrance coefficient
Contraction Kc Contaction coefficient
Expansion KE Expansion Coefficient
Bend Kb Bent coefficient

The total head loss, HL is the sum of all the losses occurs in the pipe in question and is given
by the equation:

HL = hf + he + hc + hE + hb ------------------------ eqn 10-3

Other useful empirical formulas for friction loss are:

1. Hazen – Williams formula H = (6.78 L / D1.165)(V/C)1.85

38
 2. Manning’s formula H = (n / 0.397)2 (LV2 / D4/3)

or V = (0.397 / n) D2/3(H / L)1/2

where: C = Hazen Williams friction coefficient

n = roughness coefficient

This experiment is limited to the determination of head loss due to friction using Darcy –
Weisbach formula.

II- OBJECTIVE:
To investigate Darcy – Weisbach formula for determining head loss due to friction.

III- STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Is there a significant difference between the computed head loss using darcy –
Weisbach formula and the computed value using the Bernoulli’s energy equation?

IV- TESTING HYPOTHESIS:

There is no significant difference between the computed head loss using darcy –
Weisbach formula and the computed value using the Bernoulli’s energy equation.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
● Pipe system ● Vernier caliper
● Pressure gage or Manometer ● Stop watch
● Meter stick ● Catch basin

VI- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:

1. Prepare the pipe system and place the pressure gage or manometer at two (2)
convenient points on the pipe systems. The pipe between these two points must be
straight and with constant cross – section.
2. Measure and record the length of the pipe. (The distance between the two points)
3. Measure and record the diameter of the pipe.
4. Open the gate valve. Maintain the water surface elevation of the water reservoir and
allow the flow of water through the pipe to become steady.
5. When the flow becomes steady observed and record the pressure gage reading.
6. Close the outlet of the catch basin and collect the discharge water for a certain period
of time, t.
7. Compute the actual discharge using the equation:
Q = Volume of collected water / elapse time
8. Compute the velocity at points 1 and 2. using the equation Q = AV.
9. Determine the value of the friction coefficient in the table for friction coefficient.
10. Compute the friction head loss using Darcy – Weisbach formula.

39
 11. Compute the friction head loss using Bernoullis Energy equation.
12. Compare the computed values of the friction head loss in procedures 10 and 11 by
determining the percentage difference.

VII- PRESENTATION OF DATA:

Using Darcy – Weisbach formula:

f = ____________
L = ____________
V = ___________ hf= ________________

Using Bernoullis Equation:

Head Point 1 Point 2

P/γ

V2 / 2g

hf from Bernoullis
Eqn.
hf from Dacrcy-
Weisbach
% Difference

VIII – SKETCH AND ILLUSTRATION

IX - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA:

40
X- GENERAL OBSERVATIONS:

XI- CONCLUSION:

XII – RECOMMENDATIOS:

41