Bridge Engineering

CE-6109
Investigtion for Bridges
Content

● Need for investigation

● Selection of bridge site
● Preliminary data to be collected
● Preliminary drawings
● Design discharge
● Linear waterway
● Economic span
● Location of piers and abutments
● Vertical clearance
● Scour depth and
● Sub-soil investigation
Need for investigation

● Before a bridge can be built at a particular site, it is

essential to consider many factors, such as the need
for a bridge, the present and future traffic, stream
characteristics, subsoil conditions, alternative sites
aesthetics and cost.
● The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable
bridge site at which a bridge can be built
economically, at the same time satisfying the
demands of traffic, the stream, safety and aesthetics.
● The investigation for a major bridge project should
cover studies on technical feasibility and economic
considerations and should result in an investigation
report.
 Selection of bridge site

The characteristics of an ideal bridge site for a bridge across a

river are:
● A straight reach of the river;
● Steady river flow without serious whirls and cross currents;
● A narrow channel with firm banks;
● Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side;
● Rock or other inerodible strata close to the river bed level;
● Economical approaches having not too long or very high;
● Proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be connected;
● Absence of sharp curves in the approaches;
● Absence of expensive river training work;
● Avoidance of excessive underwater constructions.
 Preliminary data to be collected

Following information should be collected during the

investigation:
● Name of the stream, road and identification mark allotted to
the crossing and location of the crossing;
● Location of the nearest GTS benchmark with its reduced
level;
● Present and anticipated future volume and nature of traffic
on the road at the bridge site;
● Hydraulic data pertaining to the river, such as HFL, OFL and
LWL, size, shape, slope and nature of the
catchment,possibility of subsequent changes in the
catchment, frequency of rainfall in the catchment, etc;
● Navigation requirement, if any,for the stream;
 Preliminary data to be collected (contd)

Following information should be collected during the

investigation:
● Need for large scale river training works;
● Liability of the site to earthquake disturbance and geological
study of the bridge site; Site specific ground response
analysis;
● Availability, quality and location of the nearest quarries of
construction materials;
● Means of transport for materials;
● Availability of skilled/unskilled workforces and their facilities
required during construction;
● Availability of electric power and details of utilities and
services to be provided, etc.
 Preliminary drawings

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● An index map drawn to a suitable scale showing the
proposed location of the bridge, the alternative sites, the
existing communications, the general topography of the area
and the important town, etc., in the vicinity.
● A contour survey plan of the stream showing all
topographical features for a sufficient distance on either side
of the site for a clear indication of the features that would
influence the location and design of the bridge and its
approaches;All sites worth considering should be indicated
on the plan.
 Preliminary drawings

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● A site plan to a suitable scale showing the details of the
proposed bridge site and the steam of sufficient distance in
the upstream and the downstream of the proposed site. The
plan should include the followings:
• Name of the stream, road and nearest distance marker;
• Approximate outlines of the banks and channels at high
water level and low water level;
• Direction of flow;
• The alignment of existing approaches and the proposed
crossing with its approaches;
• The angles and direction of skew;
 Preliminary drawings (contd)

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● A site plan to a suitable scale showing the details of the
proposed bridge site and the steam of sufficient distance in
the upstream and the downstream of the proposed site. The
plan should include the followings:
• The name of the nearest inhabited identifiable locality
at either end of the crossing on the roads leading to the
site;
• Location and reduced level of the benchmark used as
datum
• Location of the longitudinal section and cross-sections
of road stream taken within the area of the plan;
●
 Preliminary drawings (contd)

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● A site plan to a suitable scale showing the details of the
proposed bridge site and the steam of sufficient distance in
the upstream and the downstream of the proposed site. The
plan should include the followings:
• The locations of trial pits and borings with identification
numbers;
• The locations of buildings, wells, outcrops of rocks and
other possible obstructions to road alignment.
 Preliminary drawings (contd)

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● A cross section of the river at the proposed bridge site to a
suitable scale should include the followings:
• The name of the stream, road and chainage;
• The river bed line with banks up to a level above the
highest flood level;
• The nature of the surface soil in bed, bank and
approaches;
• The low water level, ordinary flood level and the highest
flood level;
• The mean sea level, the lowest and highest tidal level,
is the stream is tidal;
 Preliminary drawings (contd)

Following drawings should be prepared at the time of

investigation:
● A longitudinal section of the stream showing the sire of the
bridge with HFL, OFL and LWL, and the bel levels at suitably
spaced intervals along the approximate center line of the
deep water channel.
● Additional cross-section of the stream at suitable distance
both upstream and downstream of the bridge site.
● Catchment area map for the river at the proposed bridge site
is to be prepared by tracking the line of the ridge of the
watershed from the topographical map of the country.
● Soil profile should be determined by sub-soil exploration
along each of the probable bridge alignments.
 Design discharge

The maximum discharge for which a bridge across a natural

stream is to be designed to pass should be estimated by at
least two of the following methods:

● Empirical formula
● Rational formula
● Area-velocity method
● Unit hydrograph method
● Estimation from flood marks

The design discharge should be at least of 100 years return

period.
 Linear waterway

The linear waterway of a river should be properly estimated. In

general, when the water course to be crossed is an artificial
channel for irrigation or navigation or when the banks are well
defined for natural streams, the linear waterway should be full
width of the channel or stream;

The Lacey’s formula can be used to estimate the linear

waterway for a large alluvial stream with undefined banks;

The effective linear waterway is the total width of the waterway

of the bridge minus the mean submerged width of the piers
and their foundation down to the mean scour level.
 Economic span

Considering only the variable items, for a given linear waterway,

the total cost of the superstructure increases and the total cost of
substructure decreases with increase in the span length.

The most economic span length is that for which the cost of
superstructure equals the cost of substructure of a single span;

The cost of railing and flooring, etc. is proportional to the total

length of the bridge.

The span length for a riive bridge would be influenced by the

hydraulic considerations, subsoil profile affecting foundation
requirements, height of piers, floating debris expected during
flood, etc.
 Economic span

The cost of a bridge is affected by the following factors:

. The length of span
. Nature of waterway or river to be bridged or crossed
. The conditions under which the structure is to be constructed
. Nature of the available construction materials for the bridge
. Availability of the skilled labour in the locality

The total cost of a bridge is comprised of the following elements:

. Approaches on both sides
. Superstructures lying above the pier top including flooring,
roadway, parapet or railing.
.Substructures consisting of abutments, piers including
foundations, dewatering, excavation and diversion of streams,
etc.
 Location of piers and abutments

Piers and abutments should be so located as to make the best

use of the foundation conditions available;

The number of spans should be kept low, as piers obstruct

water flow causing high probability of debris flow and
sedimentation;

The alignment of piers and abutments should be, as far as

possible, parallel to the mean direction of flow in the stream;
 Vertical clearance above HFL

keeping vertical clearance above HFL is required to allow for

any possible error in the estimation of teh HFL and the design
discharge;

It allows floating debris to pass under the bridge without

damaging the structure;

For high level bridges, a vertical clearance should be allowed

between the HFL and the lowest point of the superstructure;

The difference between the freeboard and vertical clearance

should be clearly understood.
 Subsoil exploration

The determination of a reasonably accurate soil profile at each

of the proposed bridge site is essential for correctly deciding
the location and type of foundation;

Availability of correct and reliable data would enable the

construction contractors to estimate their costs correctly and
plan their work intelligently;

Defects in bridge structures attributable to serious errors in

subsoil exploration cannot be easily corrected later on;

Subsoil exploration should be done at suitable intervals

including the probable locations of piers and abutments.
 Scour depth

Scour depth of the river bed should be accurately estimated for

for a given bridge site;

Scour of stream bed occurs during the passage of a flood

discharge, when the velocity of the stream exceeds the limiting
velocity that can be withstood by the particles of the bed
materials;

The scour is aggravated at the nose of the piers and at bends;

The maximum depth of scour should be measured with

reference to existing structures near the proposed bridge site,
if possible, and due allowance should be made.
 Traffic projection

The future traffic volume at the proposed bridge site should be

properly estimated;

The estimated future traffic volume should be assessed

reasonably, taking into consideration of the socio-economic
conditions in the region and likely further development;

This kind of information is necessary to compute the benefits

from the construction of bridge.
 Choice of bridge type

The choice of an appropriate type of bridge and planning of its

basic features usually constitute a crucial decision to be taken
by bridge engineer. Some of the factors affecting the choice of
the bridge type are as follows:

● The need to economise on the overall construction cost to

the community by combining the railway and highway
requirements a road-cum-rail bridge in two ties across a
very wide rive, e.g. the padma bridge;

● Large navigational clearances required may dictate the use

of particular types such as arhces, cantilever bridges, cable
stayed construction or suspension bridges, etc.;
●
 Choice of bridge type (contd)

The choice of an appropriate type of bridge and planning of its

basic features usually constitute a crucial decision to be taken
by bridge engineer. Some of the factors affecting the choice of
the bridge type are as follows:

● Long and high approaches may be too costly at a plain

coastal area;
● A high level structure with uninterrupted traffic as on a
National highway and the need to reduce the number of
piers may necessitate a cantilever bridge or cable stayed
bridge or series of simply supported trusses, etc.;
● The climatic and environmental conditions may preclude the
use of some types and require some others;
 Choice of bridge type (contd)

The choice of an appropriate type of bridge and planning of its

basic features usually constitute a crucial decision to be taken
by bridge engineer. Some of the factors affecting the choice of
the bridge type are as follows:

● Deck bridges are sometimes preferred to through bridges for

highway traffic because of the better view of the surrounding
scenery, e.g., Rainbow bridge near Niagara waterfalls.;
● The topographic and soil conditions at a site may limit the
choice to a few general possibilities;
● Weak subsoil conditions may lead to the use of simply
supported bridges, instead of continuous bridges;
 Choice of bridge type (contd)

The choice of an appropriate type of bridge and planning of its

basic features usually constitute a crucial decision to be taken
by bridge engineer. Some of the factors affecting the choice of
the bridge type are as follows:

● Shortage of funds may limit the choice of bridge types;

● The type of traffic may restrict the choice of bridge type. For
example, the steel trusses or steel cantilever types are
preferred to suspension bridge, for railway traffic;
● The personal preferences or company specialization of the
designer/ construction firm may dictate the type of bridge
finally adopted.
 Importance of proper investigation

● The importance of careful investigation for a bridge cannot

be overemphasized;

● Expensive errors can be eliminated if the engineer in-charge

of investigation acts diligently;

● Project reports based on inadequate input data on the

bridge site, soil exploration, soil particulars, hydraulic
characteristics, traffic potential, and assumed design
parameters invariably changes during execution, leading to
cost and time over-run.
Any Question?