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The quality of cold‐smoked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) as affected by

salting method, time and temperature

Article  in  International Journal of Food Science & Technology · September 2005

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01030.x

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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976 963

Original article
The quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
as affected by salting method, time and temperature

Sveinung Birkeland1 & Bjørn Bjerkeng2*

1 NORCONSERV AS, Seafood Processing Research, Niels Juelsgate 50, PO Box 327, N-4002 Stavanger, Norway
2 AKVAFORSK, Institute of Aquaculture Research AS, N-6600 Sunndalsøra, Norway
(Received 23 December 2004; Accepted in revised form 16 March 2005)

Summary The effects of temperature (4 and 10–12
C) and time (6, 12 and 24 h) on colorimetric
parameters (Commission International de l’Eclairage (CIE) L*a*b*), carotenoid concen-
tration, salt content and yield were investigated in brine (saturated or 50% saturation) and
dry salted fillets of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Lightness (L*), yellowness
(b*), hue (Hab) and chroma (C*) values were lower at 10 than 4
C (P < 0.01), whereas
redness (a*) was unaffected. L* increased (P < 0.05) and a*, b*, Hab and C* values
dropped when salting time was increased (P < 0.001). Astaxanthin concentration of brine-
salted fillets decreased with increasing salting time (P < 0.05), but was unaffected by
salting temperature. Increasing salting time affected colour negatively. The salt content of
dry salted fillets increased with temperature and salting time. The process yield was
unaffected by temperature and decreased with salting time. In conclusion, the cold smoking
process is more important for variation in quality parameters than the salting process.
Keywords Astaxanthin, brining, cold smoking, dry matter, instrumental colour values, process yield, salt content.

unique sensory properties (taste, flavour, colour,

Introduction
High fish consumption is often associated with a
belief that this food is important for human health
(Trondsen et al., 2004). Atlantic salmon (Salmo
salar) is a popular seafood. The products of cold-
smoked Atlantic salmon offered on the European
market are plentiful and have varied sensory,
chemical and physical properties including colour,
pigment concentration, fatty acid profile, texture,
phenol content, intensity and characteristics of the
smoke note, amine note and salt content (Cardinal
et al., 2004; Espe et al., 2004). The development of
refrigeration and new packaging technologies has
reduced the necessity for high contents of salt and
smoke components for preservation, and may
render even healthier products. Thus, nowadays
cold smoking is principally used to obtain the
*Correspondent: Fax. +47 71695301;
e-mail: bjorn.bjerkeng@akvaforsk.no
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01030.x
 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
etc.) of these products.
Differences in quality characteristics have been
found in cold-smoked Atlantic salmon products of
different provenance (Montero et al., 2003; Espe
et al., 2004). This may partly reflect the fact that
different feeding, farming and handling practices
influence the raw material composition and con-
stitution of salmon used for cold smoking (cf.
Mørkøre et al., 2001; Rasmussen, 2001; Birkeland
et al., 2004a). However, substantial variation in
quality characteristics may also be due to the
considerable number of variables affecting cold
smoking of salmon (cf. Birkeland et al., 2003,
2004a). The primary processing steps are filleting,
salting, drying and smoking. These vary within
considerable ranges. For instance drying and
smoking are performed in the temperature range
of 20–30
C. These substantial variations may
have significant effects on the product quality,
such as texture and colour traits, salt content and
the processing yield of the product (Cardinal
964 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng
et al., 2001; Birkeland et al., 2004a,b; Hultmann
et al., 2004; Rørå et al., 2005).
Generally it is believed that the colour is among
the most important quality characteristics of
salmonids (cf. Sigurgisladottir et al., 1997). The
overall loss of the carotenoid pigment astaxanthin
(3,3¢-dihydroxy-b,b-carotene-4,4¢-dione), which
makes the main contribution to the attractive
pink colour of the flesh, is approximately 13%
during cold smoking of Atlantic salmon (Birk-
eland et al., 2004b). A greater change in overall
surface colour (DE) was observed for dry salted,
when compared with injection-salted fillets, and
for fillets smoked at 30
C compared with 20
C
(Birkeland et al., 2004b). Recently, we have shown
that astaxanthin bound to muscle proteins may be
extracted from the muscle tissue of Atlantic
salmon by using water or brine (Birkeland &
Bjerkeng, 2004). The reason for this is that
although astaxanthin is lipophilic it is bound
primarily to proteins in the muscle tissue (Henmi
et al., 1987, 1989). The greatest amounts of
protein and astaxanthin were extracted at pH
6–7 and 1–4 m NaCl concentrations. This loss may
constitute a quality problem when excessive
amounts of water or dilute brine are used during
prolonged processing time, as it may contribute
significantly to the changes in the colour of the
surface in salted and cold-smoked fillets.
It is important to increase knowledge about the
effects of processing parameters to enable optimi-
zation of a product’s quality. Salt curing is usually
performed by dry, brine, or injection salting or a
combination of the methods. The most common
techniques used by the industry have been dry and
brine salting. The uptake of salt in fish muscle
depends on the processing method and a number
of intrinsic factors in the muscle, such as fat
content, rigour state and temperature (Shenderyuk
& Bykowsky, 1990; Wang et al., 1998a,b, 2000;
Mørkøre et al., 2001; Jittinandana et al., 2002;
Birkeland et al., 2004a,b; Rørå et al., 2004, 2005).
The diffusion of salt is important during salting
and fat may constitute a physical barrier (Wang
et al., 1998a,b, 2000). The diffusion coefficients of
water and salt during brining of sardine sheets
depend on the salting temperature and brine
concentration (Corzo & Bracho, 2004). The brine
concentration and time of salting are reported to
affect the pH, protein solubility, water-holding
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
capacity, water activity and textural properties of
brine-salted rainbow trout fillets (Jittinandana
et al., 2002). Thus, fundamental parameters dur-
ing dry and brine salting of fish fillets are ambient
air or brine temperatures, salt concentration and
duration of the salting process.
The aim of the present study was to investigate
the effects of duration of the salting at two
temperatures on the colorimetric characteristics,
astaxanthin, salt and dry matter contents, and the
yield of the cold-smoked Atlantic salmon.
Material and methods
Raw material and experimental design
All Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) used in the
present experiments were from the Norsk Lak-
seavl (NLA) stock, which are offspring from a
family-based selective breeding programme (cf.
Gjedrem, 2000). Superior quality Atlantic salmon
(n ¼ 120) with mean whole body weight, body
length and condition factor [CF ¼ 100(whole fish
weight, g)(fish fork length, cm))3; a commonly
used measure of body mass index in fish] of
2700 g, 61 cm and 1.2 g cm)3, respectively, were
sampled from a single net-pen in November 2001,
at AKVAFORSKs sea-water station (Averøy,
Norway), and used for the brine salting experi-
ment. The salmon were fed a commercial salmon
feed (Skretting, Stavanger, Norway). The fish was
anaesthetized, bled, manually slaughtered, gutted
and pre-rigour filleted. The individual whole fish
and fillet weights were registered, and fish selected
that were as similar in weight as possible. The
fillets were stored in ice for 3 days to release rigour
contractions prior to further processing. Duplicate
experimental groups of five fillets each were
randomly sampled according to a full factorial
experiment (Table 1), to determine the effects of
the salting temperature (c. 4 or 10
C), time of
brining (6, 12 or 24 h), and the brine concentra-
tion (saturated or 50% of saturation).
For the dry salting experiment, superior quality
Atlantic salmon (n ¼ 240) with mean whole fish
weight, body length and CF of 3544 ± 42 g,
66 ± 0.3 cm and 1.2 ± 0.01 g cm)3, respectively,
were sampled in October 2003 at AKVAFORSKs
sea-water station. The salmon for the dry salting
experiment were from the NLA stock (cf. Gjedrem,
 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng 965

Table 1 Design table for the brine

salting experiment (n ¼ 240 fillets) Treatment (n ¼ 20) Temperature (°C) Time (h) Brine concentration (%)

1 4 6 100
2 4 6 50
3 4 12 100
4 4 12 50
5 4 24 100
6 4 24 50
7 10 6 100
8 10 6 50
9 10 12 100
10 10 12 50
11 10 24 100
12 10 24 50

2000), the eggs were hatched in January/February
2001, and the smolts stocked in sea water in May
2002, i.e. 1+ smolts. All the fish were raised in and
taken from the same net-pen. After transfer to the
sea water the fish were fed the Atlantic on-growth
diets from Skretting AS (Stavanger, Norway).
Weights were registered on whole fish before and
after removal of entrails and on individual raw,
salted and cold-smoked fillets. Only left side fillets
were used, the right side fillets being allotted to a
separate experiment. After the brine and dry
salting processes (15 October 2003) the fish were
cold stored at 4
C until subsequent cold smoking.
A full factorial design (Table 2) was designed to
investigate the effects of salting temperature (4 and
12
C) and salting time (6, 12 and 24 h).
Salting
Saturated brine was prepared by adding about
55 kg refined NaCl (Akzo Nobel, Fint Raffinert
Salt, minimum 99.8% NaCl; Dansk Salt A/S,
Mariager, Denmark) to 150 kg water. Brine with
approximately 50% saturation was prepared simi-
larly followed by dilution of the saturated brine
Table 2 Design table for the dry salting experiment (n ¼ 240
fillets)
Treatment Replicates Temperature
(n ¼ 20) (°C)
1 2 4 6
2 2 4 12
3 2 4 24
4 2 12
5 2 12
6 2 12
with an equal volume of water. Brine and dry
salting was done in expanded polyester trays. For
dry salting a weight ratio of approximately 6
(17%, w/w) for fish fillet and salt was used.
The experiments were designed to finish salting
of all groups (6, 12 and 24 h) simultaneously.
After dry salting, excessive salt was removed by
use of running tap water. The fillets were cold
stored at 4
C for approximately 12 h before cold
smoking.
Cold smoking
The cold smoking process was performed (16
October) in a commercial smokehouse used for
salmon (Edward Johnsen AS, Langøyneset, Nor-
way). The fillets were dried for 8 h with high
velocity air at a temperature of about 25
C. They
were cold smoked for 12–13 h (<26
C) by using
beech wood chips. The fillets were chilled at
approximately 4
C for 5 h before vacuum packa-
ging and then cold stored at approximately 4
C
for 14 days before weight registration, instrumen-
tal colour assessments and sampling. Astaxanthin,
dry matter and salt contents were determined in all
samples.
Sample preparation
Time
(h) The Norwegian Quality Cut (NQC) sample region
(NS9401, 1994) was used, five cold-smoked skin-
less fillets from each treatment were cut into pieces
and homogenized in an electric blender (Robot
6 Coupe – R5A; Robot Coupe S.A., Montceau en
12
Bourgogne, France) for approximately 1 min. In
24
addition 8–11 individual NQC samples were taken

 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
966 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng
from each treatment group and analysed indivi-
dually. Five pooled and homogenized fillets were
used from the brine salting experiment. The mince
was used for determination of astaxanthin, dry
matter and salt content. The aliquots were
vacuum-packaged (80% vacuum) in plastic bags
and stored frozen ()20
C) for approximately
30 days before determinations of astaxanthin
and dry matter content. The samples for deter-
mination of salt content were stored frozen at
)18
C until analysis.
Instrumental colour assessments
Colorimetric assessments (CIE 1994 L*a*b*) were
made by using raw, salted and smoked fillets. The
measurements were taken on the epaxial muscle
anterior to the dorsal fin, in the NQC region, and in
the tail on each fillet by using a Minolta Chroma
Meter CR-200 (Minolta, Osaka, Japan). Two
consecutive measurements were made at each point,
the second after rotating the measuring probe 90

counter-clockwise. Light-source D was used, and
measurements were made directly on the fillets in a
Salmon Colour Box (T. Skretting AS) to ensure
stable illumination during the measurements. L*
describes the lightness of the sample, a* intensity in
red (a* > 0) and b* intensity in yellow (b* > 0).
Furthermore, the hue angle (Hab) was calculated as
Hab ¼ tan)1(b*/a*), where Hab ¼ 0
for red hue
and Hab ¼ 90
for yellowish hue and chroma as:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C
¼ a
2 þ b
2 :
The colour changes (D) in the different parameters
after processing were calculated as described
below (CIE 1994), where L1a1b1 is the colour of
the raw fillets and L2a2b2 is the colour of the
processed fillets:
DL ¼ L1  L2 ;
Da ¼ a1  a2 ;
Db ¼ b1  b2 ;
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DHab ¼ Da2 þ Db2  DC2 ;
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DC ¼ ffiC1 ) C2, C1 ¼ a21 þ b21 and
whereqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
C2 ¼ a22 þ b22 . The colour differences (DE)
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
between the raw and the processed fillets were
calculated as follows:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DE ¼ S2L þ S2C þ S2H
where SL ¼ DL/2, SC ¼ DC/(1+0.048C1) and
SH ¼ DHab/(1+0.014C1). Mean values per fillet
were used for statistical analyses.
Dry matter and salt content
The dry matter content of the cold-smoked fillets
was determined as constant weight at 105
C after
drying for 24 h. The salt content was determined
conductivimetrically using a Dicromat 11–6 Salt
Analyser (PCL Control Instrumentation Ltd,
Leicester, UK). The mince (20.0 g) was accurately
weighed in a chopping beaker, and 200 mL
deionized water added. The solution was homo-
genized using an electric blender (1 min) and
added, through a strainer, to a plastic beaker
(250 mL). The NaCl content was measured twice
in the filtered solution. Mean values were used for
statistical analyses of the data.
Determination of astaxanthin
The astaxanthin content was determined in pooled
samples made from five homogenized fillets from
the brine salting experiment or in five samples of
the NQC region from the dry salting experiment
for each treatment. The carotenoids were extrac-
ted from minced muscle using a 1:1:3 mixture of
distilled water, methanol (containing 500 mg L)1
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)), and chloroform
according to Bjerkeng et al. (1997). The samples
were dissolved in the mobile phase (acetone/
n-hexane/methanol 20:80:0.1), filtered through a
0.45 lm filter (Minisart SRP 15, Göttingen, Ger-
many) and analysed isocratically by HPLC (Shim-
adzu, Kyoto, Japan) according to Bjerkeng et al.
(1997). The HPLC system consisted of an LC10
AS pump connected to an SPD M6A photodiode
array detector with a detection wavelength of
470 nm and an SIL 10 An auto-injector (Shim-
adzu). All chromatograms were re-integrated
using the LC Workstation Class-LC10 software
(Shimadzu). Concentrations of carotenoids were
calculated. This calculation was based on peak
areas compared with those of an external standard
 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng 967

made from crystalline astaxanthin (Hoffmann-La
Roche, Basel, Switzerland). The carotenoids were
separated on a H3PO4-modified silica gel column
(Hibar, LiChrosorb Si 60, 5 lm particles; internal
diameter 4 mm, length 125 mm; Merck, Darms-
tadt, Germany) as described by Vecchi et al.
(1987). The mobile phase was 14% (v/v) acetone
in n-hexane or 5% (v/v), and the flow rate was
1.2 mL min)1 (pressure c. 3600 kPa). The retent-
ion time (RT) of astaxanthin was approximately
8.0 min. All analyses were in duplicate.
Statistical analysis
The CF of the fish was calculated as 100 · (whole
fish weight, g) · (fish fork length, cm))3. The
coefficient of variation (CV) was calculated as
CV ¼ 100 · (standard deviation of set)/(mean
value of set). Data, given as percentages, were
tested for homoscedasticity of the variance by
examination of the residuals. No transformations
of the data were performed before further statis-
tical analysis. Analysis of variance (GLM) and
regression analysis were performed using the
MINITABTM Statistical Software (Release 14,
Minitab Inc., College Station, PA, USA) with a
confidence level of 95%. In Tables 3–8 GLM were
used to determine the main effects of brine
concentration, salting time and temperature.
Mean values were ranked by Tukey’s or Fisher’s
comparison tests or Duncan’s multiple range test.
Results
Brine salting
Increased salting temperature caused significant
lower L*, b*, Hab and C* values of the cold-
smoked Atlantic salmon fillets (P < 0.01). The a*
value however, was not significantly affected by
the salting temperature.
By increasing the time of salting the a*, b*, Hab
and C* values decreased significantly (P < 0.001)
in the fillets (Table 3). The major part of the total
decrease in the colorimetric parameters (70–90%)
was found from 6–12 h of salting. However, the
L* value of the fillets increased slightly (P < 0.05)
with increasing time of salting. When increasing
the brine concentration the a* (P < 0.01) and C*
(P < 0.05) values were slightly but significantly
reduced, respectively, whereas the other colori-
metric parameters were insignificantly changed.
A drop of about 11% in the total amount of
carotenoids in the fillets was found by increasing
the time of brining to 24 h (P < 0.05), whereas
the salting temperature and brine concentration

Table 3 The effects of brining temperature (
C), time of brining (h) and brine concentration (% saturation) on the surface
colour parameters of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon fillets

L* a* b* Hab C*

Brining temperature (n ¼ 120)

4 50.9 ± 2.0 9.3 ± 1.5 21.1 ± 2.7 66.2 ± 2.4 23.2 ± 3.0
10 49.8 ± 1.7 9.1 ± 1.4 19.8 ± 2.9 65.1 ± 2.7 21.9 ± 3.0
Effect† *** n.s. *** ** ***
Brining time (n ¼ 80)
6 50.0 ± 1.9b 9.7 ± 1.5a 22.4 ± 2.8a 66.5 ± 2.3a 24.4 ± 3.0a
12 50.3 ± 1.8ab 9.1 ± 1.3b 19.5 ± 2.3b 64.9 ± 2.5b 21.6 ± 2.5b
24 50.8 ± 2.1a 8.8 ± 1.5b 19.5 ± 2.4b 65.7 ± 2.7ab 21.5 ± 2.7b
Effect† * *** *** *** ***
Brine concentration (n ¼ 120)
50% saturation 50.3 ± 2.0 9.5 ± 1.4 20.8 ± 2.9 65.4 ± 2.4 22.9 ± 3.1
100% saturation 50.5 ± 1.9 9.0 ± 1.5 20.2 ± 2.8 66.0 ± 2.7 22.1 ± 3.0
Effect† n.s. ** n.s. n.s. *
Interactions†
Temp · time n.s. * n.s. n.s. n.s.
Temp · conc n.s. n.s. ** n.s. **

Mean values (±SD) with different superscript letters in each column are significantly different (P < 0.05) by one-way ANOVA and
Tukey’s pairwise comparison test.
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not significant (n.s.).

 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
968 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng

Table 4 The effects of brine

Total carotenoids Astaxanthin Dry matter concentration (%) and time of
(mg kg)1) (mg kg)1) (%) brining (h) on the carotenoid
concentration (mg kg)1) and dry
Brine concentration (n ¼ 12)
matter content (%) in cold-smoked
50% saturation 6.3 ± 0.6 6.2 ± 0.5 34.3 ± 0.9
Atlantic salmon fillets
100% saturation 6.2 ± 0.6 6.1 ± 0.6 35.1 ± 0.9
Effect† n.s. n.s. **
Brining time (n ¼ 8)
6 6.6 ± 0.5a 6.5 ± 0.4a 34.7 ± 0.7ab
12 6.3 ± 0.4ab 6.2 ± 0.4ab 34.1 ± 0.7b
24 5.9 ± 0.7b 5.8 ± 0.8b 35.2 ± 1.1a
Effect† * * *
Interactions†
Temp · time * * n.s.

Mean values (±SD) with different letters superscript letters in each column are
significantly different (P < 0.05) by one-way ANOVA and Fisher’s pairwise comparison
test.
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not
significant (n.s.).

had no significant effects (Table 4). The dry matter
content was affected significantly (P < 0.05) by
the time of brining and apparently it was at a
minimum after 12 h. The dry matter was 0.8%
units higher in the fillets after salting with
saturated brine compared with a 50% saturated
brine concentration (Table 4). The brining tem-
perature did not have any influence on the dry
matter content of the cold-smoked fillets
(P > 0.05). No significant differences in colour
values were observed between duplicate runs.
Dry salting
The mean L*, a*, b*, Hab and C* values of the
raw fillets were 39.0 ± 0.13, 10.4 ± 0.07, 15.4 ±
0.10, 56.0 ± 0.13 and 18.5 ± 0.11 respectively.
The observed CV in colorimetric parameters
ranged from 3.5 to 10.6%, and the highest vari-
ation was found in redness (10.6%) and yellow-
ness (10.0%). No significant differences were
found between different treatment groups of the
raw material.
The temperature used during salting had signifi-
cant effects on the weight loss from the fillets and the
salt concentration of the smoked fillets (Table 5).
The weight loss of the fillets was significantly higher
at 12 than 4
C (P < 0.001). The salt content was
slightly but significantly higher when the fillets were
salt cured at 12
C rather than at 4
C (P < 0.001),
however the processing yield and dry matter
contents were not significantly affected by the
salting temperature (P > 0.05).
The salting time also had significant effects on
the weight loss, salt and dry matter contents and
processing yield of the cold-smoked fillets
(Table 5). The weight loss increased significantly
from 2.9 to 6.1% when the time of salting was
increased from 6 to 24 h (P < 0.001). The
processing yield apparently reached the maximal
value of 86.5% after 12 h of curing. The contents
of salt and dry matter of the cold-smoked fillets
were increased significantly by increasing the time
of salting (P < 0.001). Fillets salted for 24 h had
50 and 12% higher salt and dry matter content,
respectively, than fillets salted for 6 h.
A significant interaction effect (P < 0.001)
between salting temperature and salting time was
observed when processing yield was calculated
(Table 5). A relatively high correlation was found
between dry matter and salt content of the fillets
(R2 ¼ 0.80). An ancova with salt content as a
dependent variable, salting temperature and dur-
ation as fixed factors and dry matter content as a
covariate did not alter the conclusions.
Dry salting caused a general reduction in the L*,
a*, b*, Hab and C* values of the fillets when
compared with the raw fillets (Table 6). Salting
temperature and duration of salting affected the
colorimetric characteristics of the salt-cured fillets.
Salt curing caused significantly higher (P < 0.001)
reductions in a*, b*, Hab and C* values and overall

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976  2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng 969

Table 5 Mean values of weight loss

after salting (%), contents of salt Weight loss Salt content Processing yield
and dry matter of cold-smoked (%) (%) Dry matter (%) (%)
fillets (%) and smoke-processing
Salting temperature n ¼ 120 n ¼ 24 n ¼ 24 n ¼ 120
yield (%) of Atlantic salmon fillets
4 3.7 ± 1.6 3.4 ± 0.6 36.1 ± 2.2 84.6 ± 2.7
dry salted for either 6, 12 or 24 h at
12 5.2 ± 1.7 3.8 ± 0.8 36.5 ± 2.0 84.9 ± 2.4
temperatures of 4 or 12
C
Effect† *** *** n.s. n.s.
Salting time n ¼ 80 n ¼ 16 n ¼ 16 n ¼ 80
6 2.9 ± 1.1a 3.0 ± 0.2a 34.7 ± 1.0a 85.4 ± 1.9b
12 4.3 ± 1.1b 3.4 ± 0.3b 35.3 ± 0.8b 86.5 ± 1.8c
24 6.1 ± 1.4c 4.5 ± 0.4c 38.9 ± 1.0c 82.4 ± 1.9a
Effect† *** *** *** ***
Interactions†
Temp · time n.s. n.s. n.s. ***

Mean values (±SD) with different superscript letters in each column are significantly
different (P < 0.05). Main effects were determined by a two-way ANOVA with salting
temperature and time as fixed factors. Mean values were ranked using Tukey’s pairwise
comparison test. Determinations of salt and dry matter contents were made on pooled
samples of five fillets per replicate (n ¼ 24 for salting temperature, n ¼ 16 for duration
of salting).
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not
significant (n.s.).

colour change (DE, 12% units) of the cured fillets
at 12
C when compared with those held at 4
C.
The L* value of the salt-cured fillets decreased
significantly (P < 0.001) after salt curing at low
temperature (D ¼ 0.7) and increased slightly after
curing at high temperature (D ¼ )0.2). When the
duration of salting increased from 6 to 24 h,
significant reductions in a*, b* and C* values, and
an increased DE value were observed (P < 0.001).
In general, the greatest colour changes were
observed from 12 to 24 h salting time.
The dry salted and cold smoke processed fillets
had decreased a*, b*, Hab, and C* values and
increased L* value when compared with the raw
fillets (Table 7). Significant effects of salting tem-
perature and duration of salting were observed
when the colorimetric characteristics of the cold-
smoked fillets were measured. Increasing the

Table 6 Mean values† for differ-

ences in surface colour parameters Colour difference
of Atlantic salmon fillets dry salted
DL* Da* Db* DHab DC* DE
for either 6, 12 or 24 h at temper-
atures of 4 or 12
C and fresh Salting temperature (n ¼ 120)
untreated fillets (positive difference 4 0.7 ± 2.1 3.3 ± 1.0 3.1 ± 1.6 1.2 ± 0.6 4.4 ± 1.7 2.8 ± 0.8
value indicates a decrease) 12 )0.2 ± 1.6 4.2 ± 1.1 3.8 ± 1.6 1.6 ± 0.6 5.5 ± 1.8 3.3 ± 0.8
Effect† *** *** *** *** *** ***
Salting time (n ¼ 80)
6 0.6 ± 1.5a 3.0 ± 0.9a 2.3 ± 1.2a 1.4 ± 0.6 3.5 ± 1.3a 2.4 ± 0.5a
12 0.9 ± 2.0a 3.6 ± 0.8b 3.3 ± 1.3b 1.3 ± 0.6 4.7 ± 1.4b 2.9 ± 0.6b
24 )0.8 ± 1.8b 4.7 ± 0.8c 4.8 ± 1.2c 1.5 ± 0.5 6.6 ± 1.3c 3.8 ± 0.6c
Effect† *** *** *** n.s. *** ***
Interactions†
Temp · time† * n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.

Mean values (±SD) with different superscript letters in each column are significant
different (P < 0.05) by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s pairwise comparison test.
Differences in colorimetric parameters were taken between unprocessed raw fillets
and processed fillets.
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not
significant (n.s.).

 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
970 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng

Table 7 Mean values for differ-

Colour difference ences in surface colour parameters
between dry salted for either 6, 12
DL* Da* Db* DHab DC DE
or 24 h at temperatures of 4 or
Salting temperature (n ¼ 120) 12
C and cold-smoked and fresh
4 )4.6 ± 2.3 4.7 ± 1.5 0.4 ± 2.6 4.0 ± 1.6 2.5 ± 2.6 4.5 ± 1.2 untreated Atlantic salmon fillets
12 )5.8 ± 2.3 5.5 ± 1.4 1.3 ± 1.8 4.3 ± 1.2 3.6 ± 2.0 5.1 ± 1.1
Effect† *** *** *** n.s. *** ***
Salting time (n ¼ 80)
6 )6.0 ± 1.7b 4.8 ± 1.7a 1.5 ± 2.2a 3.5 ± 1.7a 3.5 ± 2.3b 4.8 ± 1.4ab
12 )5.8 ± 2.3b 5.9 ± 1.2b
1.7 ± 1.5a 4.5 ± 1.2b 4.1 ± 1.6b 5.2 ± 1.1b
24 )3.9 ± 2.1a 4.6 ± 1.1a )0.7 ± 2.3b 4.4 ± 1.0b 1.5 ± 2.4a 4.3 ± 0.8a
Effect† *** *** *** *** *** ***
Interactions†
Temp · timeb * ** ** * ** **

Mean values with different superscript letters in each column are significantly different
(P < 0.05) by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s pairwise comparison test. Differences in
colorimetric parameters were taken between unprocessed raw and dry salted and cold-
smoked fillets.
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not
significant (n.s.).

salting temperature from 4 to 12
C caused a We calculated the mean of coefficients of

decrease in a*, b* and C* values, and increased L*
value (26% units) and DE of the cold-smoked
fillets. Significant increases of b* and C* values
and a significant decrease of the L* and Hab values
were found in cold-smoked fillets after salt curing
for 24 h when compared with salt curing for 6 and
12 h. The largest overall colour difference (DE)
was found in cold-smoked fillets dry salted for
12 h.
variation (CV) for L*, a*, b*, Hab and C* values
in the raw, dry salted, and dry salted + cold-
smoked fillets to illustrate changes in the variation
in colorimetric parameters (Table 8). The mean
CVs were similar for the raw and dry salted fillets,
except for a slightly lower CV for DL* (P < 0.01),
whereas there was a considerably higher CV for
Da* and DHab* (c. 2.5 fold; P < 0.001) and a
slightly higher CV for DC* (P < 0.05) of dry

Table 8 Mean values for coeffi-

CV cients of variation (CV) for color-
imetric parameters of raw, dry
DL* Da* Db* DHab DC
salted, and dry salted and cold-
Process stage (n ¼ 12) smoked fillets of Atlantic salmon
Raw 3.8 ± 0.7a 10.2 ± 1.9b 9.8 ± 2.1 2.8 ± 0.6b 9.5 ± 2.1b (process stage) dry salted for either
Dry salted 2.9 ± 0.6b 12.0 ± 2.1b 9.6 ± 2.1 2.5 ± 0.7b 9.8 ± 1.9b 6, 12 or 24 h at temperatures of 4
Dry salted and cold smoked 3.3 ± 0.7ab 27.2 ± 7.2a 11.0 ± 1.3 6.4 ± 2.1a 11.5 ± 1.5a or 12
C and fresh untreated
Effect† ** *** n.s. *** * salmon fillets
Salting time (n ¼ 8)
6 3.0 ± 0.8 21.8 ± 12.6b 10.1 ± 2.5 5.4 ± 3.6a 10.6 ± 2.7
12 2.9 ± 0.6 20.4 ± 9.9b 10.3 ± 1.8 4.5 ± 2.3a 10.6 ± 1.7
24 3.4 ± 0.6 16.5 ± 3.5a 10.6 ± 1.3 3.6 ± 1.1b 10.8 ± 1.1
Effect† n.s. * n.s. ** n.s.
Salting temperature (n ¼ 12)
4 3.3 ± 0.5 18.7 ± 9.0 10.3 ± 1.5 4.6 ± 2.7 10.4 ± 1.4
12 2.9 ± 0.7 20.5 ± 10.0 10.3 ± 2.2 4.4 ± 2.4 10.9 ± 2.3
Effect† n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.

Mean values with different superscript letters in each column are significantly different
(P < 0.05) by two-way ANOVA and Duncan multiple range test. Determinations were
based on means of five fishes per replicate.
†Effect of process. Levels of significance: *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, and not
significant (n.s.).

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976  2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng 971

(a) Table 9 Regression coefficients (b), intercepts, coefficients of

Total carotenoids in smoked fillets (mg kg–1)

11 determination (R2) and levels of significance for the regres-

10 sion (P) for surface colour parameters of salt-cured and
9
cold-smoked Atlantic and fresh untreated salmon fillets
8
7
(n ¼ 240)
6 y = 0.6x + 3.6846
5 R2 = 0.6442 a b R2 P value
4
3 L* 33.5 0.2755 0.08 <0.001
2 a* )1.1 0.6151 0.19 <0.001
1 b* 10.0 0.2946 0.05 0.001
0 C* 8.4 0.3847 0.09 <0.001

(b)
16
14
The linear coefficients of determination (R2)
a*-value in raw fillets

12
10
8 y = 0.3067x + 8.7248
6 R2 = 0.1886
4
2
0
0 1
Figure 1 Regression lines for (a) total carotenoids in
smoked fillets and (b) a* value in raw fillets using a* value in
smoked fillets as regressor for dry salted fillets of Atlantic
salmon. Regression lines are given and R2 represent
coefficients of determination.
salted + cold-smoked fillets when compared with
either raw or only dry salted fillets. Thus, a poor
correlation (R2 ¼ 0.19) between a* values of
individual raw and dry salted and cold-smoked
fillets was observed (Fig. 1). Salting time had only
slight effects on CV; it was slightly lower for Da*
and DHab* after 24 h dry salting when compared
with 6 and 12 h. Salting temperature did not have
any significant effect on CV.
The concentrations of total carotenoids of the
pooled fillet samples were not affected by salting
temperature or duration of salt curing, and were
on average 7.5 mg kg)1. Astaxanthin, lutein and
zeaxanthin constituted 7.1, 0.2 and 0.2 mg kg)1
respectively. There was a relatively good correla-
tion (R2 ¼ 0.64) between a* values and total
carotenoid content of the smoked fillets (Fig. 1).
The geometrical Z-isomers of astaxanthin com-
prised <10% and the all-E-astaxanthin isomer
more than 90% of the total astaxanthin.
The ability to predict colour parameters in
processed cold-smoked fillets was tested by corre-
lating values obtained for the unprocessed fillets
with those obtained after processing (Table 9).
obtained for L*, a*, b*, C* and Hab values were
poor and ranged between 0.01 and 0.19. Predict-
ability was not much improved by comparing
values obtained within treatment groups.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Discussion
a*-value in smoked fillets
The appearance of food products is of major
importance to the consumers, both from an
acceptability and preferential point of view
(Francis, 1995). Dietary carotenoids (e.g. astaxan-
thin) deposited in the muscle give fillets of Atlantic
salmon their characteristic and attractive pink
colour. Thus, colour is an important quality
parameter of both raw and processed products
of salmonid fishes (Sigurgisladottir et al., 1997).
However, the astaxanthin concentration and col-
our have only marginal effects on other sensory
properties of the fillets (Østerlie et al., 2001). It is
well established that red chromaticity, as assessed
by sensory analysis, can be highly correlated with
intensity in the redness a* value (r ¼ 0.93) and,
with a multivariate model, the sensory score can
be predicted with a standard error of prediction of
0.5 (Skrede et al., 1990). In this way the consumers
may easily discern relatively small differences,
detected by instrumental colour values. The
experiments described here have demonstrated
that external factors, such as ambient temperature
and time of salting, have considerable impact on
the coloration of cold-smoked fillets of Atlantic
salmon. If the consumer dislikes the colour of the
product then the quality parameters such as
flavour and texture may not be judged at all
(Francis, 1995). Hence, an aim for processors of
cold-smoked salmon should be to manufacture
products with uniform colour intensity and

 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
972 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng
optimal texture, muscle gaping, liquid-holding
capacity, salt and phenol contents and food safety.
Pre-rigour filleting has become a popular prac-
tice in the industry. The rigour state may influence
coloration (cf. Skjervold et al., 2001a,b). It has a
substantial effect on salt uptake, and pre-rigour
fillets only have about 50–70% of the salt content
found in post-rigour salted fillets (Wang et al.,
1998a, 2000; Rørå et al., 2005). In the present
experiments we used post-rigour fillets to avoid
effects from muscle tension. After salting, the
fillets became less red (a*) and yellow (b*) and had
a lower hue (Hab) and colour saturation (C*) when
compared with raw unprocessed fillets. A similar
reduction was observed after subsequent cold
smoking when compared with raw fillets, although
the decrease in redness and hue was larger and the
decrease in yellowness and colour saturation was
less. The total change (DE) in colour was larger
after smoking than after salting the fillets. This
shows that both salt curing and cold smoking
contribute to the change in the colorimetric
characteristics of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon
fillets and that the changes found in the a*, b*, Hab
and C* values after salt curing are conserved in the
cold-smoked products. This is in line with a
previous experiment in which we found that the
salt-curing step is quantitatively more important
with respect to the loss of astaxanthin during
processing of Atlantic salmon fillets than the cold-
smoking step (Birkeland et al., 2004a).
Occasionally, severe discoloration of commer-
cially smoked salmon is observed, possibly caused
by detrimental processing conditions, as indicated
by its almost exclusive occurrence in the surface
layer (Bjerkeng, 2004). Even though the carote-
noids are lipophilic, they are predominantly
associated with the muscle protein (i.e. actomyo-
sin) fraction in the muscle of salmonid fishes
(Henmi et al., 1987, 1989). We have previously
found that substantial amounts of astaxanthin
may be extracted from the muscle of Atlantic
salmon by brining (Birkeland & Bjerkeng, 2004).
In this work, there was a strong increase in
lightness (L*) upon cold smoking (DL* range: c.
6.0–3.9) of the dry salted fillets (DL* range: c. 0.8–
0.9). Usually, salt curing and cold smoking of
Atlantic salmon leads to a decreased lightness of
the fillets when compared with raw unprocessed
fillets (Choubert et al., 1992; Rørå et al., 1998;
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
Cardinal et al., 2001; Mørkøre et al., 2001; Birk-
eland et al., 2004a,b). The substantial increase in
lightness upon cold smoking of the fillets, as
confirmed by visual inspection, showed that the
considerable loss of pigmentation was caused by
salt curing. The process for both brine and dry
salting involved rinsing of the surface by running
tap water, before the fillets were stored (4
C) for
approximately 12 h and subjected to cold smo-
king. Thus, the washing out of astaxanthin
protein complexes is likely to have contributed
considerably to the increase in L* and reduction
in a* values of the cold-smoked products (Birk-
eland & Bjerkeng, 2004; Bjerkeng, 2004). Fur-
thermore, colorimetric measurements are sensitive
to alterations of surface structure and composi-
tion that may influence light scattering (Little
et al., 1979; Robb, 2001). Muscle fibre densities
have been shown to correlate positively with red
colour (Johnston et al., 2000). Changes in light
scattering properties because of factors that alter
the muscle structure were probably more import-
ant during the dry salting experiments than the
brine salting experiments. The drying cycle inclu-
ded 8 h drying with an air fan providing a lot of
relatively high velocity air and with a relatively
high temperature (c. 25
C). Additionally, an
extensive smoking cycle (12–13 h; <26
C) was
used. Thus, subsequent to salt curing, the fillets
were freely exposed for a long period of time to
the oxygen in the air, light, increased temperatures
and the water which remained after rinsing away
surplus salt. As carotenoids are labile compounds,
they may undergo oxidation and, colour loss may
be a result (cf. Christophersen et al., 1991, 1992;
Bjerkeng & Johnsen, 1995). Recent evidence
shows that dry salting of Atlantic salmon fillets
cause a reduction in the oxidative stability of the
lipids when compared with unsalted fillets (Guil-
lén & Ruiz, 2004). This may also cause the
changes in surface colour that were observed
during cold smoke processing of Atlantic salmon.
In an investigation of the effects of cold
smoking temperature on quality characteristics
of Atlantic salmon fillets we found weak and
insignificant regressions between colour para-
meters and temperature (Rørå et al., 2005).
However, the initial colour of the raw fillets was
not taken into account and colour differences were
thus not recorded. In another study, we found that
 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund

colorimetric parameters were less affected by cold
smoking at 30 than at 20
C (Birkeland et al.,
2004b). In these experiments we found that the
temperature during both brine and dry salting had
significant effects on colorimetric parameters and
that the effects were largest at the highest tem-
perature (dry salting). The reduction in the a*
value was accompanied by a significant drop in the
total carotenoid concentration. Similarly, the drop
in the a* value was highest when the most
concentrated brine was used. This may indicate
that astaxanthin was extracted from the fillets by
brine salting (cf. Birkeland & Bjerkeng, 2004).
During the dry salting experiment, the effect of
time on colorimetric parameters was more com-
plex. The changes in a*, b*, Hab, C*, and overall
colour change (DE) were maximal after 12 h of
salting, whereas the change in the L* value
diminished during salting. These differences might
be related to the different dynamics of in- and
effluxes of salt and fluids during the brine and dry
salting processes. During the former process, the
fillets are immersed in brine and fluxes of salt and
fluid balance such that fillets more or less retain
their original weight. During dry salting the salt
diffuses into the fillets and causes an efflux of fluid
that is drained off, which explains the weight loss
of about 15% compared with the raw fillet.
Although, considerable changes in colorimetric
parameters were found during dry salting, no
significant effects of time or temperature on total
carotenoid concentration were found.
We have previously shown that the amount of
cold smoking can be correlated to the variation in
the colorimetric parameters of the final product
(Birkeland et al., 2004a). Thus, there were consid-
erably higher variations in dry salted, when
compared with injection salted, cold-smoked fillets
and in fillets cold smoked at 30
C compared with
20
C. In line with this we found that the final
cold-smoked fillets had higher CVs, especially for
the Da* and DHab values, than the raw fillets or
fillets that were only dry salted. The longest period
of salting caused a slight drop in the CVs of the
Da* and DHab values, whereas temperature had
no significant effect. The handling of fillets after
salting and the cold smoking step seems to affect
variations in the quality traits of the surface.
This also serves to explain the poor correlation
between a* values in individual raw and cold-
 2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng 973
smoked fillets (cf. Fig. 1b). However, a fair corre-
lation was found between the a* values of
individual cold-smoked fillets and the concen-
tration of carotenoids, the main component of
colour in salmon muscle (Fig. 1a), cf. Bjerkeng
(2000).
During dry salting the salt ions (Na+ and Cl))
diffuse through the muscle tissue by osmotic forces
between the surrounding brine and the muscle
tissue (Horner, 1992). A substantial shrinkage of
the muscle fibres during dry and brine salting of
Atlantic salmon fillets has been reported (Sigurg-
isladottir et al., 2000b, 2001). The rate of salt
diffusion is temperature dependent and it increases
with increasing temperature (4–40
C) (Diaz et al.,
1993; Corzo & Bracho, 2004). The salt diffusivity
during curing of salmon fillets is strongly concen-
tration (Wang et al., 1998a), and temperature
dependent (Chiralt et al., 2001). Thus, the signifi-
cantly higher weight loss during salting observed
at 12
C compared with 4
C may be related to an
increased diffusion coefficient for NaCl, with a
subsequent increased exosmosis of water, at the
highest temperature. This is supported by the
significantly higher salt content in the salted and
smoked fillets at the highest salting temperature.
Mass transport by diffusion is assisted by concen-
tration gradients and molecular (NaCl) motion,
and continues until equilibrium has been reached.
Thus, increased salting time causes increased
transport of water out of and salt into the fillets,
until equilibrium is reached. Jittinandana et al.
(2002) found that increased brining time of rain-
bow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets caused
increased fillet dehydration and salt content. This
was confirmed by the significantly increased water
loss and salt content in the fillets with increasing
time of salting in our experiment.
Optimizing processing of cold-smoked salmon
so as to produce an increased processing yield, is of
vital importance to economic success in the salmon
industry. The choice of salting method affects the
processing yield significantly, and injection salting
results in a 15% higher yield than for dry salting,
brine salting being intermediate (Cardinal et al.,
2001; Birkeland et al., 2003, 2004a,b). Processing
yields in the range of 82–89% are reported for dry
salting (Sigurgisladottir et al., 2000a,b; Cardinal
et al., 2001; Birkeland et al., 2004a,b; Rørå et al.,
2004). The observed processing yields in our
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
974 Quality of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon S. Birkeland and B. Bjerkeng
experiment (82–87%) are similar to those previ-
ously reported for dry salted and cold-smoked
fillets of Atlantic salmon. The processing yields
were not affected by the temperature during dry
salting and no significant differences in weight loss
were found in the fillets after cold smoking. We
have previously reported that differences in quality
characteristics, such as colour, texture, gaping
scores and total liquid loss were not retained
consistently after cold smoking of Atlantic salmon
fillets (Birkeland et al., 2004a). The duration of salt
curing caused significant differences in processing
yields and higher processing yields were observed
after 6 h of salting than after 24 h. This is in
accordance with the weight losses observed at
the corresponding salting times. The dry matter
content in the smoked fillets increased with
increasing weight loss, increasing salt content and
decreasing processing yield during salting. This
was expected on the basis of the fluxes of salt and
fluids, mainly water, that occur during processing
and not on large-scale alterations in protein and fat
contents.
Conclusions
The major findings of these experiments were that
the salting temperature and the time of brine or
dry salting have substantial effects on the colori-
metric characteristics of cold-smoked fillets of
Atlantic salmon. Optimizing these fundamental
parameters is therefore important to obtain com-
plete quality control during production of cold-
smoked salmon. Cold smoking had a significant
effect on variation in the colour values. Focus
should therefore be on the handling of fillets after
salting and the cold smoking step. The processing
temperature, humidity and air velocity should be
investigated as to their effects on quality traits as a
means to reduce the variation in colour of the
smoked salmon fillets.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the grant 140733/130
financed by The Research Council of Norway. We
thank Torstein Skåra, Norconserv AS, for valu-
able discussions. The assistance of the technical
staff at AKVAFORSK (Ekkilsøy and Sunn-
dalsøra) is gratefully acknowledged.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2005, 40, 963–976  2005 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund

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