MPC-001 : COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, LEARNING AND MEMORY

Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)

Course Code: MPC-001
Assignment Code: MPC-001/ASST/TMA/2019-20
Marks: 100
NOTE: All questions are compulsory.
SECTION – A
Answer the following questions in 1000 words each. 3 x 15 = 45 marks
1. Define creativity. Critically discuss the Investment and Confluence theory of creativity.
Answer- ​Creativity - is a phenomenon whereby something new and somehow valuable is
formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical
composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a literary work, or a painting).

Scholarly interest in creativity is found in a number of disciplines, primarily psychology, business

studies, and cognitive science, but also education, technology, engineering, philosophy
(particularly philosophy of science), theology, sociology, linguistics, and economics, covering
the relations between creativity and general intelligence, personality type, mental and
neurological processes, mental health, or artificial intelligence; the potential for fostering
creativity through education and training; the fostering of creativity for national economic benefit,
and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than
others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the
four Ps" — process, product, person, and place (according to Mel Rhodes). A focus on process
is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for
creative thinking. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford),
or those 8describing the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories
of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure
creativity (psychometrics, see below) and in creative ideas framed as successful memes. The
psychometric approach to creativity reveals that it also involves the ability to produce more. A
focus on the nature of the creative person considers more general intellectual habits, such as
openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory behavior, and so on. A focus on
place considers the circumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy,
access to resources, and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by
nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.

Investment Theory of Creativity -

The investment theory of creativity, proposed in collaboration with Todd Lubart, holds that
creativity is in large part a decision. In particular, it is a decision to buy low and sell high in the
world of ideas. Creative people, like good investors, generate ideas that, at the time are viewed
as novel and perhaps slightly ridiculous. The creative individuals are metaphorically “buying
low.“ Then, once their ideas have gained some acceptance, the creative individuals “sell high,“
reaping the profits of their good idea and moving on to the next unpopular idea.

Creative individuals, by their nature, tend to defy the crowd. They resist merely thinking or
doing what others are thinking or doing. Rather, they tend to go off in their own direction,
seeking to propose ideas that are both novel and useful in some way. The greatest obstacle to
creativity, therefore, often is not exactly strictures from others, but rather the limitations one
places on one’s own thinking. Such limitations, however, may derive from processes of
enculturation and socialization, so that it often is not clear whether restrictions on creativity are
internal or, down the line, externally imposed.

Creativity is a decision in the same way investing is. People are not born creative or uncreative.
Rather, they develop a set of attitudes toward life that characterize those who are willing to go
their own way. Examples of such attitudes toward life are willingness to (a) redefine problems in
novel ways, (b) take sensible risks, (c) “sell” ideas that others might not initially accept, (d)
persevere in the face of obstacles, and (e) examine whether their own preconceptions are
interfering with their creative process. Such attitudes are teachable and can be ingrained in
students through instruction that encourages students to think for themselves.

Creativity comprises several different aspects: (a) abilities, (b) knowledge, (c) styles of thinking,
(d) personality attributes, (e) motivation, and especially intrinsic motivation, and (f) environment.
A person can have the creative ability that would allow for creativity, for example, but without a
willingness to take sensible risks or an environment that provides at least minimal support for
creativity, that individual’s potential creativity may be suppressed. It is thus crucially important,
especially in schools, to provide an environment that allows creativity to flourish—not just in
word, but also in deed. At the same time, an individual can have a creative attitude but without
the skills of creativity—such as looking for reconciliation of opposing ideas and dialectical
thinking—may not reach his or her full creative potential.

Confluence approaches to the study of creativity- ​Creativity is hypothesized to involve more

than a simple sum of a person’s attained level of functioning on each component. First, there
may be thresholds for some components (e.g. knowledge) below which creativity is not
possible, regardless of the levels attained on other components, Second, partial compensation
may occur in which a strength on one component (e.g. motivation) counteracts a weakness on
another component (e.g. environment). Third, interactions may also occur between
components, such as intelligence and motivation, in which high levels on both could
multiplicatively enhance creativity.

Recently theorists have begun to develop confluence approaches to creativity which suggests
that multiple components must converge for creativity (Amabile 1983, Gardner 1993, Sternberg
& Lubart 1995). At the level of explicit theories, Amabile (1983) describes creativity as the
confluence of intrinsic motivation, domain-related knowledge and abilities, creativity relevant
skills. The creativity-relevant skills include:
(1) cognitive style that involves coping with complexities and breaking one’s mental set during
problem solving,
(2) knowledge of heuristics for generating novel ideas and
(3) a work style characterized by concentrated effort, an ability to set aside problems, and high
energy.

Another perspective emphasized by the confluence approach is the interaction of individual,

domain, and field. An individual draws upon information in a domain and transforms it via
cognitive processes, personality traits and motivation. Gardner (1993) conducted case studies
which suggest that the development of creative projects may stem from anomaly within a
system (e.g. tension between competing critics in a field) or moderate asynchronies between
the individual, domains, and field (e.g. unusual individual talent for a domain).

A final confluence theory was given by Sternberg and Lubart (1995) called the “Investment
Theory” of Creativity. According to this theory, creative people are the ones who are willing and
are able to “buy low and sell high” in the realm of ideas. Buying low means pursuing ideas that
are unknown or out of favour but that have growth potential often when these ideas are
presented first, they encounter resistance. The creative individual persists in the face of this
resistance and eventually sells high, moving on to the next new or unpopular idea. some
environmental support, creativity may not have been displayed. Thus, the confluence theory of
creativity offers the possibility of accounting for divergent aspects of creativity (Lubart 1994).

2. Differentiate speech disorders from language disorders. Describe various speech

disorders in terms of their characteristic features and causes.
Answer- Speech - ‘Speech’ refers to the sounds we make when we are talking. We put strings
of sounds together to create words. For example, ‘Cat’ is made up of 3 sounds – C, A and T.
The number of sounds in a word does not necessarily correspond to the number of letters when
spelling the word. For example, ‘Fright’ is made up of the sounds F, R, I and T (the ‘I’ would be
pronounced like ‘eye’).

Different sounds develop at different ages, for example, ‘m’ is typically acquired at around 3
years old, whereas ‘v’ is not typically acquired until 6 years, and ‘th’ until 8 years (Kilminster &
Laird, 1978). Children initially will not be able to produce certain sounds, or produce all the
sounds in a longer word and so employ phonological processes e.g. saying ‘lectic’ for ‘electric’
or always producing ‘k’ as ‘t’. For more information on phonological processes used in typical
development, see here: LINK. All children employ phonological processes up to a certain age.

Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) is an umbrella term referring to slow development of, or a
difficulty with, speech development. An SSD could include articulation disorder, phonological
disorder, childhood apraxia of speech and motor-speech disorders. If a child has a speech
sound disorder, they may have difficulty producing certain sounds past the age at which those
sounds would typically have been acquired. They may use a pattern of sound errors
(phonological processes) past the age at which this may be typical. A child may be unable to
coordinate the sounds needed to make up words, or have a structural or neurological reason
that they cannot produce all of the sounds we use when we are talking.

A child may also have difficulty processing certain sounds; this will inevitably lead to difficulty
producing that sound. This could have different causes e.g. glue ear, or an Auditory Processing
Disorder.

A Speech and Language Therapist will assess your child’s ability to process and produce a full
range of speech sounds to identify how to best target any difficulties in therapy. They may use a
formal assessment such as the Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Phonology (DEAP)
(Dodd et. al., 2002). For further information on the DEAP, see here: LINK.

Language
Language refers to the meaning of the words we use. When we talk, we string words together
into sentences to convey meaning. We also listen to other people’s sentences to understand
what they are telling us. Children move through language development milestones, however
there will of course be some variation between them. Norms for language development can be
found here: LINK

Children may have a language delay if they do not achieve language norms within the expected
time-frame. Children may also be diagnosed with ‘Specific Language Impairment’; this is where
language is below the expected level in relation to a child’s academic abilities in the absence of
general learning difficulty, hearing impairment, autism spectrum condition or anything else that
could explain their language difficulty.

A Speech and Language Therapist will assess your child for language impairment. They may
use a formal assessment such as the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)
(Semel et. al., 2006), along with speaking to the child’s parents and teachers. They may also
observe the child in different settings. They will use the information gained in assessment to
inform their therapy plan.

Characteristics and Types of Speech Impairments - ​There are three types of speech
impairments, each with their own set of characteristics. The three types are:

Articulation disorders
Fluency disorders
Voice disorders
Articulation disorders are characterized by the distortion or absence of speech sounds. An
example of an articulation disorder is trouble pronouncing blended sounds, such as 'sp.' A child
who has trouble with this may incorrectly pronounce 'spaghetti' as 'thaghetti.'

Fluency disorders, also known as disfluency, are characterized by an interruption or break in the
normal flow of speech, such as stuttering. Another example is the false start, which is when you
say something, but stop in the middle of your sentence and restart with a new idea, for example,
'I really liked, it is so cold outside.'

Voice disorders are characterized by impairments in the voice, including loudness, vocal quality,
and pitch. For example, throat cancer can decrease the quality and pitch of your voice and
make it difficult for others to understand you.

Speech disorders affect the vocal cords, muscles, nerves, and other structures within the throat.

Causes​ may include:

vocal cord damage

brain damage
muscle weakness
respiratory weakness
strokes
polyps or nodules on the vocal cords
vocal cord paralysis
People who have certain medical or developmental conditions may also have speech disorders.
Common conditions that can lead to speech disorders are:

autism
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
strokes
oral cancer
laryngeal cancer
Huntington’s disease
dementia
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease
Speech disorders may be hereditary, and they can develop over time.

3. Discuss the emotional and intellectual blocks to problem solving. Explain the teaching
and learning strategies to enhance problem solving.
Answer- Emotional blocks are the things that we feel that stop us to problem solve accurately.
This could be not suggesting an idea because it may sound stupid, and make us appear silly.
Another example, is fear of change, or feeling guilty that the problem occurred in the first place.

Intellectual blocks - Intellectual barriers can be caused by not having the training, skills or
knowledge to solve a problem. For example, it could be a lack of skills in evaluation or research
etc.

Teaching and learning strategies to enhance problem solving - ​Many instructors in

engineering, math and science have students solve “problems”. But are their students solving
true problems or mere exercises? The former stresses critical thinking and decision​making skills
whereas the latter requires only the application of previously learned procedures. True problem
solving is the process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is
subject to a specific set of conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, in order
to obtain a satisfactory solution.

Below you will find some basic principles for teaching problem solving and one model to
implement in your classroom teaching.

Principles for teaching problem solving -

Model a useful problem-solving method. Problem solving can be difficult and sometimes
tedious. Show students by your example how to be patient and persistent and how to follow a
structured method, such as Woods’ model described here. Articulate your method as you use it
so students see the connections.

Teach within a specific context. Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which they will be
used (e.g., mole fraction calculations in a chemistry course). Use real-life problems in
explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach problem solving as an independent, abstract
skill.

Help students understand the problem. In order to solve problems, students need to define the
end goal. This step is crucial to successful learning of problem-solving skills. If you succeed at
helping students answer the questions “what?” and “why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be
easier.

Take enough time. When planning a lecture/tutorial, budget enough time for: understanding the
problem and defining the goal, both individually and as a class; dealing with questions from you
and your students; making, finding, and fixing mistakes; and solving entire problems in a single
session.
Ask questions and make suggestions. Ask students to predict “what would happen if …” or
explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and deductive
thinking skills. Also, ask questions and make suggestions about strategies to encourage
students to reflect on the problem-solving strategies that they use.

Link errors to misconceptions. Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not carelessness or

random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct it, then teach
students to do this by themselves. We can all learn from mistakes.

SECTION – B
Answer the following questions in 400 words each. 5 x 5 = 25 marks
4. Explain Thurstone’s theory of intelligence.
Answer- Louis Leon Thurstone (29 May 1887 – 30 September 1955) was a U.S. pioneer in the
fields of psychometrics and psychophysics. He conceived the approach to measurement known
as the law of comparative judgment, and is well known for his contributions to factor analysis.

Background and history

Louis Leon Thurstone was born in Chicago, Illinois to Swedish immigrant parents. Thurstone
originally received a masters in Mechanical Engineering from Cornell University in 1912.
Thurstone was offered a brief assistantship in the laboratory of Thomas Edison. In 1914, after
two years as an instructor of geometry and drafting at the University of Minnesota, he enrolled
as a graduate student in psychology at the University of Chicago (PhD. 1917). He later returned
to the University of Chicago (1924–1952) where he taught and conducted research. In 1952, he
established the L. L. Thurstone Psychometric Laboratory at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill.

Factor analysis and work on intelligence

Thurstone was responsible for the standardized mean and standard deviation of IQ scores used
today, as opposed to the Intelligence Test system originally used by Alfred Binet. He is also
known for the development of the Thurstone scale.

Thurstone’s work in factor analysis led him to formulate a model of intelligence center around
“Primary Mental Abilities” (PMAs), which were independent group factors of intelligence that
different individuals possessed in varying degrees. He opposed the notion of a singular general
intelligence that factored into the scores of all psychometric tests and was expressed as a
mental age. In 1935 Thurstone, together with EL Thorndike and JP Guilford founded the journal
Psychometrika and also the Psychometric Society, going on to become the society’s first
President in 1936. Thurstone’s contributions to methods of factor analysis have proved
invaluable in establishing and verifying later psychometric factor structures, and has influenced
the hierarchical models of intelligence in use in intelligence tests such as WAIS and the modern
Stanford-Binet IQ test.

The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone (1938) proposed a theory of primary mental abilities. Although this theory is not
widely used today, the theory forms the basis of many contemporary theories, including two
contemporary theories discussed later, those of Gardner (1983) and Carroll (1993). It is also the
basis for many contemporary group tests of intelligence.

Thurstone (1938) analyzed the data from 56 different tests of mental abilities and concluded that
to the extent that there is a general factor of intelligence, it is unimportant and possibly
epiphenomenal. From this point of view there are seven primary mental abilities:

Verbal comprehension. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal material. It is
measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading comprehension.

Verbal fluency. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences, and other verbal
material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many
words as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of time.

Number. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in solving simple arithmetic
word problems.

Perceptual speed. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and
numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string
of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to
the picture at the left.

Inductive reasoning. This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the specific to the
general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word classifications,
in which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong with the others.

Spatial visualization. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how
pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the presentation of a geometric
form followed by several other geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the first is either
the same rotated by some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the first form in rotation.
The examinee has to indicate which of the forms at the right is a rotated version of the form at
the left, rather than a mirror image.
Today, Thurstone’s theory is not used as often in its original form, but it has served as a basis
for many subsequent theories of intelligence, including hierarchical theories and modern
theories such as Gardner’s (1983). Thus, to the extent that a theory is judged by its heuristic
value, Thurstone’s has been one of the most important in the field.

5. Describe Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales.

Answer- The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an IQ test designed to measure
intelligence and cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents. The original WAIS (Form I)
was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler–Bellevue
Intelligence Scale, released in 1939. It is currently in its fourth edition (WAIS-IV) released in
2008 by Pearson, and is the most widely used IQ test, for both adults and older adolescents, in
the world. Data collection for the next version (WAIS 5) began in 2016 and is expected to end in
spring 2020. The test is projected to publish in 2021.

The WAIS is founded on Wechsler's definition of intelligence, which he defined as "... the global
capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
environment." He believed that intelligence was made up of specific elements that could be
isolated, defined, and subsequently measured. However, these individual elements were not
entirely independent, but were all interrelated. His argument, in other words, is that general
intelligence is composed of various specific and interrelated functions or elements that can be
individually measured.

This theory differed greatly from the Binet scale which, in Wechsler's day, was generally
considered the supreme authority with regard to intelligence testing. A drastically revised new
version of the Binet scale, released in 1937, received a great deal of criticism from David
Wechsler (after whom the original Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence scale and the modern
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV are named).

Wechsler was a very influential advocate for the concept of non-intellective factors, and he felt
that the 1937 Binet scale did not do a good job of incorporating these factors into the scale
(non-intellective factors are variables that contribute to the overall score in intelligence, but are
not made up of intelligence-related items. These include things such as lack of confidence, fear
of failure, attitudes, etc.).

Wechsler did not agree with the idea of a single score that the Binet test gave. Wechsler argued
that the Binet scale items were not valid for adult test-takers because the items were chosen
specifically for use with children.

The "Binet scale's emphasis on speed, with timed tasks scattered throughout the scale, tended
to unduly handicap older adults." Wechsler believed that "mental age norms clearly did not
apply to adults."
Wechsler criticized the then existing Binet scale because "it did not consider that intellectual
performance could deteriorate as a person grew older."

These criticisms of the 1937 Binet test helped produce the Wechsler–Bellevue scale, released
in 1939. While this scale has been revised (resulting in the present day WAIS-IV), many of the
original concepts Wechsler argued for, have become standards in psychological testing,
including the point-scale concept and the performance-scale concept.

6. Describe the stages of creativity.

Answer- According to Kaufman, if you're still relying on old standbys like left-brain and
right-brain, your idea of the creative process could use some updating. Turns out, more parts of
our brain are involved in innovation than you probably realize, and more stages are needed to
go from a blank page to a fully executed creative idea. Here are the basic four stages, according
to Kaufman:

Stage 1: Preparation
You might think creativity starts with an idea, but the truth is that ideas don't arise in an
intellectual vacuum. If you want your brain to come up with innovative notions, you need to feed
it materials to work with. This essential but under-celebrated stage of the process is simply
called preparation and involves trying to learn lots of things. At this point, rather than searching
for magic leaps of understanding, your brain is using attention, reasoning, and planning to
gather information.

Stage 2: Incubation
"Then there is this important stage where you let it go," Kaufman explains, stressing that "it's
really important." This stage is the one where you might actually want to climb into the bathtub
or go for a walk and stop consciously thinking about the problem you're trying to solve.
Research shows that letting your mind wander in this way leads to greater creativity.

Stage 3: Illumination
This is the scientific name for that classic "eureka!" moment when "connections automatically,
subconsciously collide and then reach the threshold of consciousness," says Kaufman's words.
"You're like 'oh my God! That's the idea!'"

Stage 4: Verification
Laypeople may understand creativity as pretty much ending with the thrilling light-bulb moment
of the illumination stage, but Kaufman insists that at that point "you're not done." For creativity to
reach others and accomplish anything, you need to once again use those critical thinking skills
to think about your audience and craft your message or idea. "Some of the greatest creative
ideas of all time can easily be lost because they're not packaged in the right way or
consumable," Kaufman warns.

7. Explain the second language acquisition process.

Answer- Proponents of second language acquisition theories, including Oliveri and Judie
Haynes, another ESL teacher with 28 years of experience, identify five distinct stages of second
language acquisition as originally espoused by linguist Stephen Krashen. These include the
following:

1. Silent/receptive
This stage may last from several hours to several months, depending on the individual learner.
During this time, new language learners typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice
pronouncing new words. While they may engage in self-talk, they don’t normally speak the
language with any fluency or real understanding.

This stage is controversial among language educators. Ana Lomba disagrees that second
language learners are totally silent while they are in this first learning stage. Instead, Lomba
states that “speech is fundamental in language acquisition” and learners excel in language
acquisition when they apply what they learn as they learn it.

2. Early production
This stage may last about six months, during which language learners typically acquire an
understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also learn to speak some words and begin
forming short phrases, even though they may not be grammatically correct.

3. Speech emergence
By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up to 3,000 words, and learn to
communicate by putting the words in short phrases, sentences, and questions. Again, they may
not be grammatically correct, but this is an important stage during which learners gain greater
comprehension and begin reading and writing in their second language.

4. Intermediate fluency
At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech emergence, learners typically have
a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They usually acquire the ability to communicate in
writing and speech using more complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners
begin actually thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in
speaking it.

5. Continued language development/advanced fluency

It takes most learners at least two years to reach this stage, and then up to 10 years to achieve
full mastery of the second language in all its complexities and nuances. Second language
learners need ongoing opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their
new language, in order to maintain fluency in it.

The key to learning a new language and developing proficiency in speaking and writing that
language is consistency and practice. A student must converse with others in the new language
on a regular basis in order to grow their fluency and confidence. In addition, Haynes says it’s
important for students to continue to work with a classroom teacher on a specific content area
related to the new language such as history, social studies or writing.

8. Discuss the biology of language acquisition.

Answer- Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to
perceive and comprehend language (in other words, gain the ability to be aware of the language
and to understand it), as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.

Language acquisition involves structures, rules and representation. The capacity to successfully
use language requires one to acquire a range of tools including phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, and an extensive vocabulary. Language can be vocalized as in speech, or manual
as in sign. Human language capacity is represented in the brain. Even though human language
capacity is finite, one can say and understand an infinite number of sentences, which is based
on a syntactic principle called recursion. Evidence suggests that every individual has three
recursive mechanisms that allow sentences to go indeterminately. These three mechanisms
are: relativization, complementation and coordination.

There are two main guiding principles in first-language acquisition: speech perception always
precedes speech production and the gradually evolving system by which a child learns a
language is built up one step at a time, beginning with the distinction between individual
phonemes.

Linguists who are interested in child language acquisition for many years question how
language is acquired, Lidz et al. states "The question of how these structures are acquired,
then, is more properly understood as the question of how a learner takes the surface forms in
the input and converts them into abstract linguistic rules and representations."

Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants'

acquisition of their native language, whether that be spoken language or signed language as a
result of prelingual deafness, though it can also refer to bilingual first language acquisition
(BFLA), which refers to an infant's simultaneous acquisition of two native languages. This is
distinguished from second-language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both
children and adults) of additional languages. In addition to speech, reading and writing a
language with an entirely different script compounds the complexities of true foreign language
literacy. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because non-humans
do not communicate by using language.
SECTION – C
Answer the following questions in 50 words each. 10 x 3 = 30 marks

9. Musical intelligence
Answer- People with Musical intelligence recognize sounds and tones with ease. They
appreciate music and rhythm. They have a “good ear” for music and can easily learn songs and
melodies. They notice when someone is singing off-key. People with musical intelligence are
good at imitating sounds or other people’s voice or intonation.

Rhythm and music can be a way for them to memorize concepts. Some people with musical
intelligence are especially gifted at composing, singing or playing an instrument. They often
have a song running through their head. They often learn well through lectures since they are
highly auditory. Musical is one of several Multiple Intelligences.

Musical Characteristics

● Highly auditory
● Can memorize songs
● Has good rhythm
● Notices off-key notes
● Enjoys different sounds
● Likes to sing
● Whistles or taps foot
● Talented with instruments
● Gifted at composing
● Sensitive to noise

10. Concept of IQ
Answer- The term intelligence quotient or IQ relates to a mathematical formula that is has been
developed to measure a person’s intelligence. In the beginning, it was defined as the ratio of
mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100.

Loading...
IQ = MA/CA x 100
Coined in the early twentieth century by a German psychologist named William Stern,
intelligence testing has become a widely used tool that has led to the development of many
other tests of skill and aptitude. However, it has evoked debates and controversies regarding
over the use of intelligence tests, cultural biases, influences on intelligence. Today, even the
way we define intelligence has been questioned.
11. Problem space
Answer- Problem Space refers to the entire range of components that exist in the process of
finding a solution to a problem. This range starts with “defining the problem,” then proceeds to
the intermediate stage of “identifying and testing possible solutions” and ends with the final
stage of “choosing and implementing a solution”. Plus, it includes all of the smaller steps that
exist between these identified stages.

A simple example of this might be realizing that you don’t have the right clothes for a social
event, identifying what you need and where to go to buy the appropriate clothes and then
buying those clothes and bringing them home. In between these stages you also have to take
into consideration other associated concerns like "what can I afford? What stores carry what I
want to buy?" and then "how do I find the time to shop for what I'm looking for?"

12. Well-defined and Ill-defined problems

Answer- The term problem solving means slightly different things depending on the discipline.
For instance, it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in computer
science. There are two different types of problems, ill-defined and well-defined: different
approaches are used for each. Well-defined problems have specific goals and clear expected
solutions, while ill-defined problems do not. Well-defined problems allow for more initial planning
than ill-defined problems. Solving problems sometimes involves dealing with pragmatics, the
way that context contributes to meaning, and semantics, the interpretation of the problem. The
ability to understand what the goal of the problem is, and what rules could be applied,
represents the key to solving the problem. Sometimes the problem requires abstract thinking or
coming up with a creative solution.

13. Means-ends analysis

Answer- A mixture of the two directions is appropriate for solving a complex and large problem.
Such a mixed strategy, make it possible that first to solve the major part of a problem and then
go back and solve the small problems arise during combining the big parts of the problem. Such
a technique is called Means-Ends Analysis.

Means-Ends Analysis is problem-solving techniques used in Artificial intelligence for limiting

search in AI programs.

It is a mixture of Backward and forward search technique.

The MEA technique was first introduced in 1961 by Allen Newell, and Herbert A. Simon in their
problem-solving computer program, which was named as General Problem Solver (GPS). The
MEA analysis process centered on the evaluation of the difference between the current state
and goal state.

How means-ends analysis Works:

The means-ends analysis process can be applied recursively for a problem. It is a strategy to
control search in problem-solving. Following are the main Steps which describes the working of
MEA technique for solving a problem.

● First, evaluate the difference between Initial State and final State.

● Select the various operators which can be applied for each difference.

● Apply the operator at each difference, which reduces the difference between the current
state and goal state.

14. Additive and subtractive bilingualism

Answer- Subtractive bilingualism means to subtract some part of a language from their
vocabulary. On the other side of that is additive bilingualism which means to add a language.
Additive language learners tend to have very balanced languages.

Losing a native language may seem impossible, but is a very real possibility if the language
learner completely immerses themselves in the culture of the second language. That second
language will become the dominant one in the learner’s brain, taking over out of necessity. This
happens because the brain is able to quickly adapt to its surroundings by automatically doing
the following: organizing, compiling and ridding itself of what isn’t needed. While it may not
seem like it, it’s actually quite common to hear that learning a language when it’s needed is
much easier to do otherwise.

According to A World of Languages blog for ESL, some ways to prevent a subtractive language,
and gain more access to additive languages, are to read and watch what’s available online, chat
and ensure there are connections in your language that you create or hold onto. Just like a
learner of a new language, maintaining a language requires practice and desire.

15. Hippocampus and memory

Answer- The hippocampus is a part of the brain. It is found in the inner folds of the bottom
middle section of the brain, known as the temporal lobe. Humans have known about the
hippocampus for more than 4 centuries. It is one of the most studied parts of the brain.
The name comes from the Greek words hippo, meaning horse, and kampo, meaning monster,
as its shape resembles that of a seahorse. Its main functions involve human learning and
memory. Knowing about the hippocampus has helped researchers understand how memory
works.

Function

● The hippocampus is important for learning and memory.

● The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, which is associated with the functions of
feeling and reacting.

● The limbic system is situated on the edge of the cortex, and it includes the hypothalamus
and the amygdala.

● These structures help control different bodily functions, such as the endocrine system
and what is commonly known as the "fight or flight" reaction.

16. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain

Answer- Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or
recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental
levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. A description of the six levels as
well as verb examples that represent intellectual activity are listed here.

Knowledge is defined as remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the
recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required
is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of
learning outcomes in the cognitive domain.

Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown
by translating material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material
(explaining or summarizing), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or
effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and
represent the lowest level of understanding.

Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may
include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and
theories. Learning outcomes in this area require a higher level of understanding than those
under comprehension.
Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of the parts,
analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the organizational principles
involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher intellectual level than comprehension and
application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of
the material.

Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the
production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research
proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes
in this area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns or
structures.

Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem,
research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These
may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the
student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest
in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus
conscious value judgements based on clearly defined criteria.

17. Short term memory

Answer- Short-term memory (STM) is the second stage of the multi-store memory model
proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin. The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30
seconds, and the capacity about 7 items.

Short term memory has three key aspects:

1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)

2. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage
of time)

3. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).

There are two ways in which capacity is tested, one being span, the other being recency effect.
The Magic number 7 (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term
memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. This idea
was put forward by Miller (1956) and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short term
memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” in
which items could be stored.

However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if
we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more information in our short term
memory.

Miller’s theory is supported by evidence from various studies, such as Jacobs (1887). He used
the digit span test with every letter in the alphabet and numbers apart from “w” and “7” because
they had two syllables. He found out that people find it easier to recall numbers rather than
letters. The average span for letters was 7.3 and for numbers it was 9.3.

The duration of short term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971).

18. Nature versus nurture

Answer- The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which particular aspects of
behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e., genetic) or acquired (i.e., learned) influences.

Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other
biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after
conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences and learning on an individual.

The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that both influences make
to human behavior, such as personality, cognitive traits, temperament and psychopathology.