MMW Module 1

Module 1
The Nature of Mathematics
Mathematics in Our World
Mathematics in the Modern World

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Overview
In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical Thinking”,

American mathematician Jordan Ellenberg wrote: “I think we need more
math majors who don't become mathematicians. More math major
doctors, more math major high school teachers, more math major CEOs, more math
major senators. But we won't get there unless we dump the stereotype that math is only
worthwhile for kid geniuses.”
Do you agree with Ellenberg? Do you think the world will be a better place if most
of us were math majors, and yet not necessarily mathematicians? What does it mean
to be a math major yet not a mathematician?
A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics
in his or her work, typically to solve mathematical problems. A math major on the other
hand is someone who learns math skills like logic, analysis, abstract reasoning, and
problem solving, which are valuable skills to his or her future employment.
In this module, we shall learn some math skills that a math major has to acquire.
Our topics include the nature of math, the patterns that we see in nature and in the
world in general. We shall also learn logical patterns, numerical patterns, and isometries.
Learning Outcomes
After completing the study of this module, you should be able to:
Grasp the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;
Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;
Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;
Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-designed

patterns;
Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.
Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)
✓ What is mathematics?
✓ How do you describe mathematics?
Mathematics has been called the greatest and most original invention of the
human mind and is one of the great social institutions built up by cooperation during
the long history of civilization. It is a mode of thinking that is necessary for the evolution
of the human race. It relies on both logic and creativity, and it is pursued both for a
variety of practical purposes and for its intrinsic interest.
Those who study mathematics for intrinsic interest believe that the essence of
mathematics lies in its beauty and its intellectual challenge. As a theoretical discipline,
mathematics explores the possible relationships among abstractions without concern
for whether those abstractions have counterparts in the real world. This kind of
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mathematicians, called pure mathematicians are interested only in finding a pattern or

proving that there is none, but not in what use such knowledge might have.
Those who study mathematics for practical purposes believe that the chief value
of mathematics is how it applies to a person’s own work, like the scientists, engineers,
economists, etc. Mathematicians of this kind focus their attention on solving problems
that originate in the world of experience.
Sometimes, it takes decades or centuries before a practical mathematician
discovers the usefulness of a certain mathematical concept or theory that a pure
mathematician had introduced. Nevertheless, the discoveries of theoretical
mathematicians frequently turn out to have unanticipated practical value and the
results of theoretical and applied mathematics often influence each other. It is the pure
mathematicians who set up the framework, the structure, and the pattern that describe
the tangible objects which the scientists (or practical mathematicians) study.
Let us now look at how mathematics developed from the beginning until now.
Prehistoric Mathematics
Mathematics was used for counting and

tallying. In Central Africa they use Ishango
bones as early as about 20,000 years ago to
record counts and tally.
Geometric designs were used in artifacts, not as the

systematic treatment of figures, patterns, forms, and
quantities. Pre- dynastic Egyptians and Sumerians,
as well as Europeans, decorated their places with
geometric designs as early as the 5th and 3rd
millenium BC.
Mathematics proper was developed when

civilization settled and as a response to the
need to develop agriculuture in
Mesopotamia, particularly Sumeria and
Babylonia.
The use of 60 and 360 in the circle

measurements is arguably exhibited in
Stonehenge monument in England, which
dates back to 2300 BC.
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Sumerian/ Babylonian Mathematics
Mathematics was used for developing agriculture

(measurement of plots of land) and for
beaurucratic needs (taxation of individuals)
possibly as early as the 6th millennium BC.
Starting as early as the 4th millennium BC, large

numbers were described using symbols to
chart the course of day and night sky which
they needed in order to develop their
sophisticated lunar calendar.
The Sumerian and Babylonian Number System: Base 60

was developed.
A circle character for zero was used.
Meteorology, multiplication and reciprocal tables, tables of
squares, square roots and cube roots, geometrical
exercises and division problems existedfrom around 2600
BC onwards.
From about 1800 to 1600 BC, some Babylonian tablets
cover topics on fractions, algebra, linear, quadratic, and
cubic equations.
The Babylonians used geometric shapes in their buildings

and designs and in dice, which they used for their leisure
games like backgammon. They already calculated areas of
triangles, rectangles, and trapezoids, as well as volumes of
simple shapes like bricks and cylinders.
Pythagorean triangles were already discussed as

early as 1800 BC as evidenced by the Plimpton 322
clay tablet which shows 15 perfect Pytahgorean
triples.
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Egyptian Mathematics
Measurements were based on body parts and a

decimal numeric system was developed based on
the ten fingers. A mathematical text, called
Moscow Papyrus, was known to have existed
around 2000- 1800 BC.
The Ancient Egyptian Number System: Base 10 was

fully developed as early as 2700 BC.
The Rhind Papyrus existed around 1650 BC. It is a kind of

instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. It
demonstrates how multiplication and division was carried
out at that time. There are also other math knowledge
contained there like prime and composite numbers,
fractions, arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means,
linear equations, and arithmetic and geometric series.
A notation for fractions was developed in order to

solve practical problems of trade and the market. It
is called the Eye of Horus. This also led to the first
known geometric series: 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16,...
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Greek Mathematics
In about 450 BC, the ancient numeral system

called Attic or Herodianic numerals was fully
developed in Greece. It was somewhat similar to
the earlier Egyptian system (base 10) and the
later Roman system.
The guidelines for the abstract development of

geometry was laid down by Thales through his
Thales' Theorem and Thales' Intercept Theorem
One of the best known mathematical

theorems was introduced: the Pythagorean
theorem.
The Three Geometrical Problems were

introduced. These problems were
profoundly influential on future geometry
and led to many fruitful discoveries. In
440 BC, Hippocrates of Chios published
his influential math book "The Elements",
which was the first compliation of the
elements of Geometry and which was an
important source for Euclid's later work.
The idea of infinity was contested by the

Greeks. In the 5th century BC, Zeno of Elea
posed paradoxes including the Dichotomy
Paradox and the well- known paradox
Achilles and the Tortoise.
The idea of proof and the deductive method

of using logical steps to prove or disprove
theorems from initial assumed theorems were
developed by the Greek mathematicians.
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Hellenistic Mathematics
Alexandria in Egypt became a great center of learning by the

3rd century BC. Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Heron,
Menelaus and Diophantus were some of the famous
mathematicians who studied and taught in the Library of
Alexandria.
Euclid- was the great chronicler of the mathematics of the tim.

He virtually invented classical (Euclidean) geometry as we
know it.
Archimedes- one of the greatest pure mathematicians of all
time.
Eratosthenes- invented an algorithm for identifying prime
numbers, called the “Sieve of Eratosthenes”.
Heron- became known for his Heronian triangles, Heron’s
Formula for finding the area of a triangle, and Heron’s Method
for iteratively computing a square root. He was also the first
mathematician to confront at least the idea of −1 .
Menelaus- author of the book "Sphaerica”, which delat with
the geometry of the sphere and its application in astronomical
measurements and calculations.
Diophantus- the first to recognize fractions as numbers, and is
considered an early innovator in the field of what would later
become known as algebra.
In the 3rd century BC, Apollonius of Perga became famous for

his work on geometry, particulaly conics and conic sections which
was very influential on later European mathematicians. It was
Apollonius who gave the ellipse, the parabola, and the hyperbola
the names by which we know them, and showed how they could
be derived from different sections through a cone.
The first recorded female mathematician, Hypatia, lived in the

middled of the 1st centry BC. She was a renowned teacher who
had written some respected commentaries on Diophantus and
Apollonius. She was dragged to her death by a Christian mob in
415 CE.
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Roman Mathematics
By the middle of the first century, Roman

numerals were the dominant number system for
trade and administration in most of Europe.
Mayan Mathematics
As early as 2000 BC, Mayans have known the

importance mathematics in astronomy
and calendar calculations. They have
constructed quite early a very sophisticated
number system, possibly more advanced than
any other in the world at the time.
As early as 36 BC Mayans and their neighbours had

independently developed the concept of zero, and they
have already been with sums up to the hundreds of
millions. They also produced extremely accurate
astronomical observations using no instruments other than
sticks and were able to measure the length of the solar
year to a far higher degree of accuracy than that used in
Europe.
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Chinese Mathematics
In the 2nd millennium BC the Chinese numbering system was

developed. It was a simple but efficient system which used small
bamboo rods arranged to represent the numbers 1 to 9, which were
then placed in columns representing units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
etc. It was very similar to the decimal place value system that we use
today.
Numbers and mathematical patterns were fascinating to the

ancient Chines; they even believe that some numbers have
cosmic significance. In around 650 BC, they had magic
squares of numbers which were regarded as having great
spiritual and religious significance.
In the 13th Century, Chinese mathematician Yang Hui produced a

triangular representation of binomial coefficients identical to the
later Pascals’ Triangle; he was also perhaps the first to use decimal
fractions in the modern form.
From about 200 BC onwards, the Chinese started putting

the thrust of mathematics in the empire’s growing need for
mathematically competent administrators. A textbook
called “Jiuzhang Suanshu” or “Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art” was written probably by several authors
over time. It became an important tool in the conduct of
civil service, covering hundreds of problems in practical
areas such as trade, taxation, engineering and the
payment of wages.
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was also a particularly

important guide on how to solve equations.
In 263 AD, China had Liu Hui, who was one of the first
mathematicians known to leave roots unevaluated, giving
more exact results instead of approximations. He also
formulated an algorithm which calculated the value of π as
3.14159.
In the 3rd century, a technique for solving problems like the Chinese Remainder
Theorem was posed by Sun Tzu and considered one of the jewels of
mathematics. It was being used to measure planetary movements by Chinese
astronomers in the 6th Century AD, and even today it has practical uses, such as
in Internet cryptography.
By the 13th century, a rather violent and corrupt imperial administrator and warrior ,
Qin Jiushao, lived. He is one of the most brilliant Chinese mathematicians, who
explored solutions to quadratic and even cubic equations using a method very similar
to that later devised in the West by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th Century. Qin even
extended his technique to solve extraordinarily complex mathematics for its time.
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Indian Mathematics
Before 1000 BC, Indians already had Vedic math.
In the 4th century BC, Buddha was already

enumerati g numbers up to 1053, as well as
describing six more numbering systems over and
above these, leading to a number equivalent to
10421.
As early as the 8th century BC, the Sulba Sutras was

written. It contained lists of Pytagorean triple, solutions of
linear and quadratic equations, and an accurate value
of 2.
As early as the 3rd or 2nd century, Indian

mathematicians were already been discussing the
concept of infinity
In the 3rd century CE, the Hindu- Arabic number

system was perfected by the Indians.
In the 7th century, Brahmagupta made the brilliant

conceptual leap to include zero as a number in its own
right, rather than merely as a placeholder, a blank or
empty space within a number, as it had been treated until
that time.
In 400 CE, a text called Surya Siddhanta by unkown authors was

published. It contained the roots of modern trigonometry,
including the first real use of sine, cosine, tangent, inverse sine, and
secants.
As early as the 6th century BC, Aryabhata have been

aware hat π is an irrational number, and that any
calculation can only ever be an approximation,
something not proved in Europe until 1761.
THe most accomplished mathematician lived In the

12th century. He was Bhaskara, who was credited with
explaining the previously misunderstood operation of
division by zero.
In the 14t century, The Kerata School of Astronomy and

Mathematics was founded by Madhava of
Sangamagrama, who the greatest mathematician-
astronomer of medieval India. He possibly influenced later
European works.
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Islamic Mathematics
In the 8th century, mathematics was raised to the form of an art in

Islam countries . They extensively used complex geometric patterns
to decorate their buildings and other things. Over time, Muslim
artists discovered all the different forms of symmetry that can be
depicted on a 2-dimensional surface.
The House of Wisdom was set up in Baghdad around 810, where

the major Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomy works
where translated into Arabic.
In the 9th century, outstanding Persian mathematician,

Muhammad Al- Kwarizmi, advocated the use of the Hindu
numerical system, which he recognized as having the power
and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic mathematics.
Muhammad Al Karaji was the first to use the method

of proof by mathematical induction in the 10th
century.
In the 13th Century, trigonometry was already treated as a

separate mathematical discipline, distinct from astronomy,
through the Persian astronomer, scientist and mathematician
Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi. He also formulated the Law of Sines.
By the 9th century, Arab Thabit ibn Qurra, was already

developing a general formula by which amicable numbers
could be derived. Amicable numbers were re-discovered
much later by both Fermat and Descartes
The use of decimals instead of fractions was introduced by

the10th Century Arab mathematician Abul Hasan al-
Uqlidisi.
As early as the 11th century, Persian Ibn al-Haytham who made

groundbreaking work on optics and physics, established the
beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry
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Medieval European Mathematics
From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European mathematics was limited

mainly to Boethius’ translations of some of the works of ancient Greek
masters. All trade and calculation was made using the
Roman numeral system, and with an abacus based
on Greek and Roman models.
In the 12th century, the great expansion of trade and commerce

created a growing practical need for mathematics. Common peple,
not only those in academe, started using arithmetic.
When printing press was invented in the mid-15th Century,

numerous books on arithmetic were published for the purpose of
teaching business people computational methods for their
commercial needs. By this time European mathematics was
gradually given a more important position in education.
In the 13th century, Leonardo of Pisa, intoduced the very interesting

Fibonacci sequence. He was instrumental in spreading the use of the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system throughout Europe, through his Book
Liber Abaci. It opened the way for great advances in European
mathematics.
In the 14th century, Frenchman Nicole Oresme used a system

of rectangular coordinates centuries ahead his
countryman René Descarte. He was perhaps the first to make
a time-speed-distance graph; the first to use fractional
exponents, and the first to prove that the harmonic
series 1⁄1 + 1⁄2 + 1⁄3 + 1⁄4 + 1⁄5… is a divergent infinite series
In the 15th century, the German scholar Regiomontatus published

the first great printed book on trigonometry. The book called De
Triangulis described much of the basic trigonometric knowledge
which we learn in today's high school and college.
Germany also had a 15th Century mathematician, Nicholas of

Cusa, whose ideas on the infinite and the infinitesimal directly
influenced later mathematicians like Gottfried Leibniz and Georg
Cantor.
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16th Century Mathematics
In 1514, a so-called “super magic square” with many

more lines of addition symmetry than a regular 4 x 4
magic square was included in the work of famous
artist Albrecht Dürer. It was a proof and tribute that
mathematics was held in respect in Europe.
In about the 15th century, Luca Pacioli, published a book on

arithmetic, geometry and book-keeping . It contained mathematical
puzzles and it introduced the symbols for plus and minus for the first
time in a printed book. Pacioli also investigated the Golden Ratio.
During the 16th and early 17th Century, the equals, multiplication,
division, radical (root), decimal and inequality symbols were
gradually introduced and standardized. The decimal point notation
was popularized in early in the 17th Century. A Flemish
mathematician Simon Stevin was ahead of his time to suggest that
all types of numbers, whether fractions, negatives, real numbers or
surds should be treated equally as numbers in their own right.
In the 16th century, Bologna University, which was famous for its
intense public mathematics competitions exposed a young
self-taught Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia. He revelaed through the
contests the formula for solving first one type, and later all
types, of cubic equations which had stumped the best
mathematicians of China, India and the Islamic world..It was
an achievement that was considered impossible at that time.
and
Tartaglia and two other Italian mathematicians Grrolamo Cardano

and Lodovico Ferrari demonstrated the first uses of complex
numbers. Bolognan mathematician Rafael Bombelli explained what
imaginary numbers reallly were and how they could be
used. Cardano published perhaps the first systematic treatment of
probability.
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In the early 17th Century Scottish mathematician John Napier invented the
logarithm which contributed to the advance of science, astronomy and
mathematics by making some difficult calculations relatively easy.
American mathematician Henry Briggs produced extensive lookup

tables of common logarithms, and in 1622 English mathematician William
Oughted had produced a logarithmic slide rule- an instrument which
became indispensible in technological innovation for the next 300 years.
Mersenne primes were studied by Frenchman Marin Mersenne.
In the mid-17th Century French mathematician René Descartes started the

development of analytic geometry and Cartesian coordinates. This allowed
the orbits of the planets to be plotted on a graph, and it laid the
foundations for the later development of calculus. Descartes is also
credited with the first use of superscripts for powers or exponents.
Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal were contemporary mathematicians

who used to to exchange letters which led to the development of the
concept of expected values and the field of probability theory.
Fermat formulated many theorems on number theory, and contributed
some early work on infinitesimal calculus. Pascal gave us the Pascal’s
Triangle of binomial coefficients.
Using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have

gone before him, Englishman Sir Isaac Newton formulated the
laws of physics in an unprecedented way. He also laid the
groundwork for almost all of classical mechanics. Becasue of
these, he is considered as one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time. Leibniz is Newton's contemporary
who introduced the calculus notation still in use today.
Both Newton and Leibniz contributed greatly in mathematics,
including Newton’s generalized binomial theorem, the theory
of finite differences and the use of infinite power series,
and Leibniz’s development of a mechanical forerunner to the
computer and the use of matrices to solve linear equations.
Other notable mathematicians of this time were Italian Bonaventura

Cavalieri (developed a geometrical approach to calculus); Englishman
John Wallis (systematized and extended the methods of analysis
of Descartes and Cavalieri); and Isaac Barrow (discovered the
fundamental theorem of calculus).
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The period was dominated by one family, the Bernoulli’s of Basel

in Switzerland, which gave three generations of exceptional
mathematicians, particularly the brothers, Jacob and Johann.
They further developed Leibniz’s infinitesimal calculus as well
as Pascal and Fermat’s probability and number theory.
Another mathematician from Basel, Leonhard Euler, was able

to find unexpected links between the different fields of
mathematics, all of which he had distinguishable superiority.
He proved many theorems, introduced new methods,
standardized mathematical notation and authored many
important textbooks throughout his long academic life.
Christian Goldbach was Euler's contemporary. In one of his
letters to Euler, he proposed the Goldbach Conjecture, which
states that every even integer greater than 2 can be
expressed as the sum of two primes.
During this period, Abraham de Moivre formulated his de

Moivre’s formula, (cosx + isinx)n = cos(nx) + isin(nx), which
links complex numbers and trigonometry. He also
generalized Newton’s famous binomial theorem into the
multinomial theorem, pioneered the development of
analytic geometry, and his work on the normal distribution
and probability theory were of great importance.
1. Joseph Louis Lagrange- worked on the calculus of

variation, differential equations and number theory,
pioneered the theory of groups, which would
become so important in 19th and 20th
Century mathematics.
2. Pierre Simon Laplace- made the geometric study
of classical mechanics calculus- based, opening up
a much broader range of problems; he worked on
differential equations, probability and statistics.
3.Adrien-Marie Legendre- mademportant
contributions to statistics, number theory, abstract
algebra and mathematical analysis; his extremely
accurate measurement of the terrestrial meridian
inspired the creationof the metric system of
measures and weights.
Gaspard Monge was the inventor of descriptive geometry,

a technique which would later become important in the
fields of engineering, architecture and design. His
orthographic projection became the graphical method
used in almost all modern mechanical drawing.
Swiss mathematicianJohann Lambert, finally provided a

rigorous proof in 1761 that π is irrational while Ferdinand
von Lindemann proved that π is also transcendental,
meaning it cannot be the root of any polynomial
equation with rational coefficients.
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Napoleon emphasized the practical usefulness of
mathematics and his reforms and military ambitions gave
French mathematics a big boost.
In the 19th Century, another important advance in mathematical analysis

was made by Joseph Fourier in his study of infinite sums in which the terms are
trigonometric functions.Meanwhile, German mathematician Lejeune
Direchlet contributed towards defining exactly what is meant by a function.
In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand published his paper on how

complex numbers could be represented on geometric diagrams
and manipulated using trigonometry and vectors.
Galois‘ work laid the groundwork for further developments

such as the beginnings of the field of abstract algebra,
including areas like algebraic geometry, group theory, rings,
fields, modules, vector spaces and non-commutative algebra.
Germany supported pure mathematics for its

own sake, detached from the demands of the
state and military.
Gauss’ ideas were a hundred years ahead of their time,
and touched on many different parts of the
mathematical world, including geometry, number theory,
calculus, algebra and probability. He is widely regarded
as one of the three greatest mathematicians of all times.
Bernhard Riemann formulated his famous Riemann Hypothesis, still unproven
after 150 years, and remains one of the world’s great unsolved mathematical
mysteries and now the testing ground for new generations of mathematicians.
The true forerunner of the modern electronic computer was designed durimg
this period by Charles Babbage of England. The machine's design could
automatically perform computations based on a program of instructions stored
on cards or tape. Babbage's large “difference engine” of 1823 was able to
calculate logarithms and trigonometric functions.
English mathematician George Peacock invented symbolic algebra and extended

the scope of algebra beyond the ordinary systems of numbers. In the mid-19th
Century, the British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra (now called
Boolean algebra or Boolean logic), in which the only operators were AND, OR and
NOT, and which could be applied to the solution of logical problems and
mathematical functions.
Mathematics became ever more complex and abstract, but it reexplored and
emphasized the use of some older methods like mathematical rigour. Some notable
mathematicians of this period are William Hamilton (Irish) , Arthur Cayley (Englishman) ,
the priest Bernhard Bolzano (Bohemian), Augustin-Louis Cauchy (French), the Germans
Karl Weierstrass, August Ferdinand Möbius, Carl Jacobi, and Felix Klein, Marius Sophus Lie
(Norweigian), and 16-year Niccolò Paganini (Italian).
The first foundations of set theory were established by Georg Cantor and Richard Dedekind
defined concepts such as similar sets and infinite sets (both are Germans). In 1881, the
Englishman John Venn introduced his “Venn diagrams” which become useful and
constantly encountered tools in set theory.
Hermann Minkowski developed the “geometry of numbers”; Gottlob Frege’s introduced the
notion of variables in logical statements, as well as the notions of quantifiers, universals and
existentials, and “predicate logic”. In 1896, Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée
Poussin independently proved the Prime Number Theorem.
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2oth Century Mathematics
Mathematics increasingly became generalized and abstract.

But it became a major profession. New specialized areas and
fields of study in mathematics has developed.
British mathematician G.H. Hardy and his young Indian protégé Srinivasa
Ramanujan, were two of the great mathematicians of the early 20th Century. They
tried their best to solve problems of the previous century, such as the Riemann
hypothesis.
In 1904, ten years after he started it, Johann Gustav Hermes finally
completed his construction of a regular polygon with 65,537 sides (216 +
1), using just a compass and straight edge as Euclid would have done.
The field of mathematical logic has began to rise through mathematicians

Giuseppe Peano, L.E.J. Brouwer, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and A.N.
Whitehead
A historic convention of mathematicians was held at the Sorbonne

in Paris in 1900. There, the young German mathematician David
Hilbert lectured his fellow and set out what he saw as the 23 greatest
unsolved mathematical problems of the day.
Completely new mathematical concepts were developed by Hilbert who also

formulated several theorems. His approach signalled the shift to the modern
axiomatic method in math. Meanwhile, Austrian Kurt Gödel proved the unthinkable
– that there could be solutions to mathematical problems which were true but
which could never be proved.
Mathematics was greatly used by Alan Turing in breaking the German

enigma code. His work led to the development of computers and the first
considerations of concepts like artificial intelligence.
The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton was establoshed. It

attempted to replicate the collegiate atmosphere of the old
European universities in rural New Jersey. It became a refuge to many
of the brightest European mathematicians, including Hermann Weyl,
John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel and Albert Einstein.
The most important woman in the history of mathematics, the German

Emmy Noether lived in this period. Her work changed the face of abstract
algebra and her theorem on the connection between symmetry and
conservation laws was key in the development of quantum mechanics
and other aspects of modern physics.
John von Neumann pioneered the game theory. His design model for a
stored-program digital computer that uses a processing unit and a separate
storage structure to hold both instructions and data is still followed in most
electronic computer architecture even today. Claude Shannon, considered
the father of information theory, together with von Neumann and Alan
Turing kick-started the computer and digital revolution of the 20th Century.
His work on Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic became the foundation
of digital circuit design in 1937 and an exciting exposition of communication
and information theory in 1948. He also made important contributions in
cryptography, natural language processing and sampling theory.
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Modern axiomatic foundations of probability theory was laid down by Soviet

mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov in the 1930s.
André Weil , another refugee from the war in Europe, worked on some of the greatest
achievements of modern mathematics. He formulated theorems which connected
number theory, algebra, geometry and topology. He was also responsible for setting up a
group of French mathematicians who, under the pen name Nicolas Bourbaki, wrote many
influential books on the mathematics of the 20th Century.
In the 1950s Alexander Grothendieck created a powerful new language which allowed new
solutions in number theory, geometry, and even in fundamental physics. In 1970s and 1980s
Mandelbrot studied complex dynamics and sets. He coined the term fractal, and became
known as the father of fractal geometry.
Jewish mathematician Paul Cohen rocked the mathematical world in the 1960s, when
he proved that Cantor‘s continuum hypothesis about the possible sizes of infinite sets
(one of Hilbert’s original 23 problems) could be both true and not true, and that there
were effectively two completely separate but valid mathematical worlds, one in which
the continuum hypothesis was true and one where it was not.
In 1970, the young Russian Yuri Matiyasevich finally proved that Hilbert’s tenth problem
was impossible, i.e. that there is no general method for determining when polynomial
equations have a solution in whole numbers. To arrive at his proof, Matiyasevich refered
to the work of the American mathematician Julia Robinson. This is a great s bhow of
internationalism at the height of the Cold War.
Because of the advent of the electronic computer, complex dynamics and chaos
theory was developed. Edward Lorenz was the pioneer of Chaos Theory. In 1976
Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken showed a proof of the four colour theorem, the
first major theorem to be proved using a computer. The four colour conjecture was first
proposed in 1852 by Francis Guthrie. Appel and Haken’s solution required some 1,200
hours of computer time to examine around 1,500 configurations.
Origami became recognized as a serious mathematical method, in

some cases more powerful than Euclidean geometry.
Andrew Wiles finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem for all numbers in 1995, about 350
years after Fermat posed the problem. Wiles' proof was a joint effort of several steps
involving many mathematicians over several years and the proof itself was 100 pagesI
The most recent of the great conjectures to be proved was the Poincaré Conjecture,
which was solved in 2002 (over 100 years after Poincaré first posed it) by the
eccentric and reclusive Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman.
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American economist and mathematician John Nash did some

important work in game theory, differential geometry and
partial differential equations. It opened insights into
understanding chance and events in daily life, market
economics, computing, artificial intelligence, accounting and
military theory. His life and battle against paranoid
schizophrenia has recently been popularized by the Hollywood
movie “A Beautiful Mind”,
In 1970, the Englishman John Horton Conway established

the rules for the so-called “Game of Life”, an early example
of a “cellular automaton” in which patterns of cells evolve
and grow in a grid, which became extremely popular
among computer scientists.
Mathematics-based recreational puzzles became extremely

popular among the general public, including Rubik’s Cube
(1974) and Sudoku (1980), both of which developed into full-
blown crazes. These puzzles generated attention from serious
mathematicians interested in exploring the theoretical limits and
underpinnings of the games.
With the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, free computer

softwares were used to discover the 13 largest Mersenne
primes . The 45th and largest Mersenne prime number was
discovered in 2009- it contains nearly 13 million digits! The
search also continues for ever more accurate computer
approximations for the irrational number π, with the current
record standing at over 5 trillion decimal places!
The P versus NP problem, introduced in 1971 by the

American-Canadian Stephen Cook, is a major unsolved
problem in computer science and complexity theory. It is one
of the Clay Mathematics Institute’s million dollar Millennium
Prize problems. The problem asks whether every problem
whose solution can be efficiently checked by a computer
can also be efficiently solved by a computer.
In 2013, the Chinese-born American mathematician,

Yitang Zhang, worked in the area of number theory and
provided a proof of the first finite bound on gaps
between prime numbers.
18
•••
Why is math important in education? Why do we have to study a lot of maths from
elementary to college and even beyond?
The special role of mathematics in education is a consequence of its universal

applicability. The results of mathematics are both significant and useful; the best results
are also elegant and deep. Mathematics teaches us distinctive modes of thought which
are both versatile and powerful, including modeling, abstraction, optimization, logical
analysis, inference from data, and use of symbols. In short, experience with
mathematical modes of thought builds mathematical power--a capacity of mind of
increasing value in this technological age that enables us to read critically, to identify
fallacies, to detect bias, to assess risk, and to suggest alternatives. With mathematical
skills that you have, you are empowered to understand the world in a deeper, sounder,
and more meaningful way.
Please click the link below for further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx6ZNEWydCU
Where do we use mathematics?
We use math in technology, engineering, media, medicine and health, finance

and business, and in almost every aspect of our life. Modern technology depends on
basic research to advance and research uses math, particularly statistics, to make
meaningful conclusions from the data obtained. That includes the invention of
advanced medical devices, computers, machines, etc. In engineering, math is used to
design and develop new components or products, maintain operating components,
model real-life situations for testing and learning purposes, as well as build and maintain
structures. Math is a core component of every engineering field, that would explain why
engineering students had to deal with a lot of maths. Mathematical concepts and
themes can also be found anywhere in the media. The range of ways that math is
related to the media is quite broad including the shape of camera lens, proportion scale
for movie sets, and the use of convincing nature of numbers used in advertising. In
business, ownership and management requires more than the skill in creating a product
or talent at providing a service. Understanding basic business math is necessary for
profitable operations and accurate record keeping. Math is also an essential concept
of fashion designing. From taking measurements, estimating the quantity and quality of
clothes, choosing the color theme, estimating the cost and profit, to produce cloth
according to the needs and tastes of the customers, math is followed at every stage.
You might say these applications are all in the industry. How about in our daily
life? When are we ever going to use math in real life?
We all use math in everyday applications whether we're aware of it or not. If you
look hard enough, you'll see math emerge from some of the most unlikely places. Math
is in the grocery store. Grocery shopping requires a broad range of math knowledge
from multiplication to estimation and percentages. Math is in the kitchen. When baking
or cooking, following a recipe can sometimes be tricky, because measurement of
ingredients and conversions are necessary. Recipes are like mathematical algorithms or
step-by-step sets of operations to be performed. When you travel, math also comes
along for the ride- from estimating the amount of fuel you’ll need to reading maps. Math
also helps you save money. Most experts agree that without strong math skills, people
tend to invest, save, or spend money based on their emotions. You rarely hear math
19
•••
majors falling into investment scams. You also use math when you exercise, train, and
watch your diet. We set our routine according to our workout schedule, count the
number of repetitions while exercising, count the number of calories we need, etc. The
bottom line is: math is everywhere, operating in real life ways all around us. It is the
universal language of our environment, helping mankind explain and create.
Please click the following links for further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXwStduNw14
A. Patterns in Nature and the World
Many of us misinterpret mathematics as the study of Did you know?

numbers and that only those who are excellent with
numbers can be called mathematicians. But it is not really
numbers that matter to a mathematician; rather, it is what
they represent. The mathematician’s true purpose is to
study, discover, or create patterns. While a scientist studies
an actual object, being, or phenomenon, the
mathematician provides him/ her the patterns, structures,
and relationships involved in whatever the scientist studies. The wings of a butterfly often sport
patches of color and stripes that
can imitate eyes or warn of toxins
Patterns provide clear insight into understanding the and therefore deter predators.
natural world. While we know that animals and plants are https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/211174958764866/
far from thinking beings they do have certain habits and

characteristics that exist in patterns. Scientists and biologists believe that understanding
these behavioral patterns will provide us a clearer understanding of all living things.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/21
1174958764866/
✓ What does the word pattern mean?
Pattern is considered as any kind of regularity that can be recognized by the

mind. These could be mathematical or non-mathematical patterns. Learning how to
recognize these patterns would be valuable to you as you gain mathematical maturity
and become a problem solver.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/1829656074039318/ https://in.pinterest.com/pin/180003316332146469/
20
•••
https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/:National_Aquatics_ https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/476959416760516186/
Center_Construction(cropped).jpg
We think of patterns as something that just repeats again and again throughout
space in an identical way, sort of like a wallpaper pattern. But many patterns that we
see in nature aren’t quite like that. We sense that there is something regular or at least
not random about them, but that doesn’t mean that all the elements are identical. One
familiar example of that would be the zebra’s stripes. Everyone can recognize the
zebra’s stripes as a pattern, but no stripe is like any other stripe on its skin. However, the
pattern is still so striking, beautiful and remarkable. That’s the beauty of natural patterns,
it makes us wonder: How does nature without any kind of blueprint or design put
together patterns like this?
If we look around us, we will see different kinds of pattern. Some are natural, some
are man- made, some give us scientific image, some have artistic vibe, and some are
intangible like software patterns. Like math, patterns can be seen all around us. It’s just
about everywhere! In this part of the module, we will focus only on the patterns that we
see in nature.
Patterns in Nature
“But in my opinion, all things in nature occur mathematically.”

- Rene Descartes
Patterns in nature are the visible regularities of form found in the natural world.
These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled
mathematically.
✓ What are the different natural patterns?
Natural Patterns include:

1. Symmetries
2. Fractals or Trees
3. Spirals
4. Chaos, flow, meanders
5. Waves, dunes
6. Bubbles, Foam
7. Tessellations
8. Cracks
9. Spots, stripes
✓ Look at your face in the mirror. Imagine a vertical line going through the
middle of your face. What can you say about the left and right side of your
face? Now imagine a butterfly with wings wide spread and an imaginary
vertical line going through the center of its body. What can you say about
the left and right side of the butterfly’s body?
✓ What kind of pattern do the questions above show you?

21
•••
This pattern is called symmetry.
1. Symmetry. Figures can have two distinct types of symmetry: reflection (mirror or
bilateral) symmetry and rotation (radial) n- fold symmetry, which we informally
differentiate below.
• A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that can be “folded over” so that
one- half of the figure matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is called
the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.
• A figure has rotation symmetry if there is a point around which the figure can be
rotated, less than a full turn, so that the image matches the original figure
perfectly.
A tiger has reflection symmetry. A starfish has rotation symmetry.

A snowflake has rotation symmetry.
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-of-patterns/
2. Fractals or Trees. From the word fraction, or part of a whole, fractals are self-similar,
iterated mathematical constructs where shrinking and moving are applied many
times. In a fractal, you will observe that as new shapes are constructed, they are
similar to each of the previous shapes, that is, the basic components of a fractal are
similar to the whole. This means that you can zoom into forever and find exactly the
same shapes.
Leaf of cow parsley

Angelica flowerhead, a sphere made of spheres (self-similar)
http://the-history-girls.blogspot.com/2017/09/wyspes-kexis-and-cokenay-in-
medieval.html
22
•••
Fractal spirals: Romanesco broccoli Trees: dendritic copper crystals

(microscope) Trees: Lichtenberg figure: high voltage
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/423690277417649466/
https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/4x4-captured-lightning-lichtenberg-
1792192892
3. Spirals. Spirals are the patterns that we see in many plants and some animals,
notably molluscs. To get a better picture, we will pay attention to a particular kind,
the nautilus shell. In a nautilus, each chamber of its shell is an approximate copy of
the next one, scaled by a constant factor and arranged in a logarithmic spiral. We
can say that growth spiral
can be seen as a special
case of self-similarity.
Spiral aloe
Spiralling shell Spiralling shell
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-
of-patterns/
4. Chaos, meanders. In mathematics, a dynamical system is chaotic if it is (highly)
sensitive to initial conditions. Meanders on the other hand are sinuous bends in rivers
or other channels, which form as a fluid, most often water, flows around bends.
Chaos: shell of gastropod mollusc Meanders: sinuous snake crawling

Meanders: symmetrical brain coral
23
•••
5. Waves, dunes. Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. While dunes
are created when winds blow over large bodies of sand. Dunes may form a range
of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and
longitudinal or seif ('sword') shapes.
Waves: breaking wave in a ship's wake Dunes: barchan crescent sand dune
Wind ripples with dislocations
6. Bubbles, foam. A soap bubble forms a sphere. Two bubbles together form a more
complex shape: the outer surfaces of both bubbles are spherical; these surfaces
are joined by a third spherical surface as the smaller bubble bulges slightly into the
larger one. A foam is a mass of bubbles. Mathematical models of bubbles and
foams are considered as collections of surfaces which minimize are under volume
constraints.
Foam of soap bubbles: four edges meet at each vertex Equal spheres (gas
bubbles) in a surface foam
✓ Have you heard of a tessellation?

✓ What is a tessellation?
24
•••
7. Tessellations. Tessellations are patterns formed by repeating tiles all over a flat
surface. Among animals, bony fish and reptiles like the pangolin, are protected by
overlapping scales or osteoderms. These form more or less exactly repeating units,
though often the scales in fact vary continuously in size.
Arrays: honeycomb is a
natural tessellation Bismuth hopper crystal illustrating the stairstep crystal habit.
Tilings: overlapping scales of common roach Tessellated

pavement: a rock formation on the
Tasman Peninsula
8. Cracks. Cracks are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. When
an elastic material stretches or shrinks uniformly, it eventually reaches its breaking
strength and then fails suddenly in all directions. Conversely, when an inelastic
material fails, straight cracks form to relieve the stress. Further stress in the same
direction would then simply open the existing cracks; stress at right angles can create
new cracks. Thus the pattern of cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or
not. In a tough fibrous material like oak tree bark, cracks form to relieve stress as usual,
but they do not grow long as their growth is interrupted by bundles of strong elastic
fibers. Since each species of tree has its own structure at the levels of cell and of
molecules, each has its own pattern of splitting in its bark.
.
25
•••
Drying inelastic mud in the Drying elastic

mud Palm trunk
https://aheadforfigures.co.uk/2016/11/02/the-beauty-
of-patterns/
9. Spots, stripes. One function of animal patterns

is camouflage; another function is signaling. These
patterns have an evolutionary explanation: they
have functions which increase the chances that the offspring of the patterned
animal will survive to reproduce. Leopards and ladybirds are spotted; angelfish and
zebras are striped. But while these evolutionary and functional arguments explain
why these animals need their patterns, they do not explain how the patterns are
formed.
Dirce beauty butterfly, Breeding pattern of cuttlefish, Sepia

officinalis
Nature uses only the longest threads to weave her patterns, so that each small
piece of her fabric reveals the organization of the entire tapestry.
-Richard P. Feynman
in The Character of Physical Law
Learning check
Activity #1:
1. Name 7 different natural objects that seem to exhibit patterns.
2. Show a picture of each natural object and tell us which part of the
object seems to exhibit a pattern.
3. Identify the type of pattern/s each object exhibits.
Please click the following links for further understanding of the lesson:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQElzjCsl9o
B. Numerical and Logical Patterns
Humans have always used observations of patterns to help mankind survive with
a better understanding of the world we live in. Some of these patterns seemed to have
only recreational value when first discovered, but later on they have been shown to be
26
•••
valuable tools in describing important aspects of life like weather systems, economic
behaviors, biological interactions, and other.
NUMERICAL PATTERNS
Sometimes, when we first study a math lesson, like mathematical logic, we do not
realize that it has a deep application in our lives. But understanding patterns helps us
improve our mental skills. In order to recognize patterns, we need to have an
understanding of critical thinking and logic which are clearly important skills to develop.
But do not worry, researchers have found that the skill of recognizing and understanding
patterns can be learned relatively quickly. But like learning other forms of math or any
other subject and skill, you will really need to exert effort with practicing it for the long
term. Remember, with practice comes skill.
Practice Tests: Find the next number in each of the following:
1. 3 10 13 23 36 ______
2. 2 4 4 16 16 ______
3. 3 9 6 15 9 ______
4. ¼ ½ 1 2 4 ______
5. 729 243 81 27 9 ______
6. 1 3 4 7 11 ______
7. 2 4 7 11 16 ______
8. 6 11 21 41 81 ______
9. 2 3 5 9 17 ______
10. 1 4 9 16 25 ______
LOGICAL PATTERNS
The three figures or symbols in each problem set below are related to each other
in a certain way.
Practice Tests: Draw the next shape in each of the following picture patterns.
1.
2.
3.
27
•••
4.
1
1 1
1 3 1
1 5 5 1
5. 1 7 13 7 1
1 9 25 25 9 1
? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Learning check
Activity: Answer the Logical Pattern (Abstract Reasoning Problems)
For item numbers 1 through 10, which figure completes the series?
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
28
•••
6.)
7.)
8.)
9.)
10.)
29
•••
For items number 11 through 14, which figure is the odd one out?
11.)
12.)
13.)
14.)
For item numbers 15 through 16, which figure completes the series?
15.)
16.)
30
•••
For items number 17 through 18, which belongs in neither group? x

17.)
18.)
19.) Which one completes the series?
31
•••
20.) Which is the odd one out?
C. Figurative Number Patterns, Sequences and Series
FIGURATIVE NUMBER PATTERNS
Among the many relationships of numbers that have fascinated and intrigued
mathematicians are those that were derived from the arrangement of points
representing numbers into a series of geometrical figures. These numbers are known as
figurate or figurative numbers which appeared in 15th-century arithmetic books and
were probably known to the ancient Chinese but were of special interest to the ancient
Greek mathematicians. To them, everything could be explained by numbers, and
numbers have specific characteristics and personalities. Among other properties of
numbers, they say that numbers had “shapes.” That’s why figurative numbers are
sometimes called polygonal numbers because they are points, or dots, arranged to
form various regular shape polygons, such as a triangle or a pentagon.
Examples:
Consider the triangular figures below.
Show how these triangular numbers are formed
The first four triangular numbers based on the number of dots are 1, 3, 6, and 10.
What is the next triangular number? Can you draw it? Answer: 15
Try this.
1. Use dots to form the first four square figures, and write their corresponding
square numbers.
2. Based on the four square numbers on item #1, what is the next square
number?
32
•••
Learning check
Seatwork:
1. a. Use dots to form the first four pentagonal numbers.
b. Write the first four pentagonal numbers.
c. What is the next pentagonal number?
2. Write a number in each circle from 1 through 6, and connect them with nodes/
lines to construct a mapping diagram that will satisfy the given set of relations.
The value of all nodes connected to a certain number must add up to the
same value on the right side of that number in the given relation.
1 = 12
2=4
3 = 12
4=8
5=8
6=3
NUMBER SEQUENCE
A pattern of numbers arranged in a particular order is called a sequence, and

the individual numbers in the sequence are called terms of the sequence. For example,
the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, … , form a number sequence. An ellipsis, the three
periods after the 4, is read “and so on”. Following are several examples of number
sequences.
Sequence Name
2, 4, 6, 8, … the even counting numbers
1, 3, 5, 7, … the odd counting numbers
1, 4, 9, 16, …. the square counting numbers
1, 3, 32 , 33 the powers of three
1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, … the Fibonacci sequence
Practice exercise 1. Describe the following pattern by answering the questions that
follow:
1+0∙9= 1
2 + 1 ∙ 9 = 11
3 + 12 ∙ 9 = 111
4 + 123 ∙ 9 = 1,111
5 + 1234 ∙ 9 = 11,111
Does the pattern continue? Why or why not? (Try continuing the pattern until
you can make a generalization. Verify your answer in this activity when your
teacher sends the recorded lecture about this lesson.)
33
•••
Practice exercise 2. Observe the following square array.
Do you see any pattern?

(Draw the next square array and complete the table that follows.)
Squares on a side 1 2 3 4 5 6 … n
Shaded squares (SS) 1 …
Unshaded squares (US) 0 …
Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)
Practice exercise 3. Following is a pattern of circular shapes:
If you make this pattern until you have 10 shaded circles in a row, how many
unshaded circles and how many shaded circles will you need?
Your answer: Number of unshaded circles: _________
Number of shaded circles: __________
(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)
Practice exercise 4. Observe the following pattern:
1 + 3 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 32
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42
a. Based on the pattern, can you find the following sum without actually
adding each term? 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 35
b. State the generalization that you can make (about the sum of consecutive
odd numbers starting from 1) based on this pattern.
(Verify your answer in this activity when your teacher sends the recorded lecture about
this lesson.)
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
A sequence is an ordered collection of objects. Some special sequences can be

classified by the way their terms are found. In the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, …, each term
after the first can be found by adding 2 to the preceding term. This type of sequence,
34
•••
in which successive terms differ by the same number, is called an arithmetic

sequence. Using variables, an arithmetic sequence has the form a, a + d, a + 2d, ….
Here "a" is the initial term (sometimes it is denoted by a1 ) and "d" is the amount by
which successive terms differ. The number "d" is called the common difference of the
sequence. The value of d may be positive or negative. If the arithmetic sequence is
decreasing, the value of d is negative. If the arithmetic sequence is increasing, the
value of d is positive.
In the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, …, each term after the first can be found by
multiplying the preceding term by 3. This is an example of a geometric sequence. By
using variables, a geometric sequence has the form a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , …
The number “r" by which each successive term is multiplied is called the common
ratio of the sequence.
The table below displays the terms for general arithmetic and geometric
sequences.
The General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence
Term 1 2 3 4 … n
Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d
Geometic sequence a ar ar 2 ar 3 … ar n−1
This table tells us that to find the general formula for any arithmetic sequence, you
will need to find first the values of a and d. Again, remember that a stands for the first
term of the sequence, and d stands for the common difference in the sequence.
Example: Find the general formula for the following arithmetic sequence.
5, 9, 13, 17, …
Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence
is:
an = a + (n − 1)d
We need the values of a and d that we will plug to this formula. So let’s start
working on it. The first term in the sequence is 5, so the value of a is equal to 5. The
common difference between the terms of the sequence is 4 because the “gap”
between the terms is 4. So the value of d is 4. (A systematic way of getting the common
difference in an arithmetic sequence is to subtract the first term from the second term.
Then verify if you have the correct value by subtracting the second term from the third
term, or in general, subtract the nth term from the (n+1)th term.) So plugging these
values a=5 and d= 4 to the format above, we have:
an = 5 + (n − 1)4
35
•••
Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because we are
just looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence. Furthermore, this
formula can be rewritten in its other form like:
an = 5 + 4n − 4 (after distribution property)
or an = 4n + 1 (after combining like terms)
So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = 4n + 1. But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do that by
applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For example, let us check
if we will get 13 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (13 is the third term in the given
sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)
a3 = 4(3) + 1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = 12 + 1
a3 = 13 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 13.)
Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we can
now confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is an =
4n + 1.
This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So
suppose we want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will just
replace n in the formula by 20. Let’s do that.
a20 = 4(20) + 1
a20 = 80 + 1
a20 = 81. (You can try looking for any term of the sequence using the formula.)
What you have solved is an arithmetic formula in linear form that’s why the
expression involved is of first degree: an= an + b. First degree expression means that the
highest exponent of the unknown is 1.
Sometimes you will be asked to find the first term of a sequence, given other
information like the common difference and the value of the nth term. In that case, you
will need to manipulate the formula to give you the desired value.
To find the first term, given d and a value for any term, use: 𝐚 = 𝐚𝐧 − (𝐧 − 𝟏)𝐝
In the same way, if you want to find the value of d, and you are given other information
like the first term and the value of the nth term of a sequence, then you will just need to
manipulate the formula to give you the desired value. To find the common difference,
𝐚𝐧 −𝐚
given the first term and a value for any term, use: 𝐝 = 𝐧−𝟏
Still, some problems would require a different formula. That’s when you use your
creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original formula and derive an
appropriate expression to solve the problem.
36
•••
At this point, we will solve a similar problem, but we will no longer describe the
step- by- step solution.
Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence:
20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 14, …
then find a12 .
Solution: You can see below a diagram of differences between successive terms.
This shows you that the common difference of this sequence is -2. You will see later in
the lesson why we labeled this “first difference”.
Sequence 20 18 16 14 12 14
First Difference -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
Hence, 𝐚 = 𝟐𝟎, and 𝐝 = −𝟐
General Rule: an = a + (n − 1)d

an = 20 + (n − 1)(−2)
an = 20 − 2n + 2
an = −2n + 22
(Checking if the formula really works is left for you to do.)
Solving for a12 : a12 = −2(12) + 22

a12 = −2
Let us now discuss the quadratic form of an arithmetic sequence. Its general format is
an = an2 + bn + c
where c=the zeroth (0th ) term
a+b=first entry in the level of first difference
2a= first entry in the level of second difference
Example: Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence 5, 12, 21, 32,
45, …
Solution: Since in the formula we will need a zeroth term, let us see how it is derived.
First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term, going left.
Terms 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 5 12 21 32 45
start here
and
First Difference 7 9 11 13 go
left
Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the “second
difference”, again, start working from the right going left.
37
•••

Sequence 5 12 21 32 45
First Difference 7 9 11 13
start here and
Second Difference 2 2 2 go
left
At this point, we have found the common difference on “second level”; that makes it
easy for us to remember because our sequence is quadratic or second degree. Now,
let us introduce the zeroth term in the sequence by working backwards in the figure. This
time, we start from the bottom and we shall use red broken lines to indicate that they
are derived from introducing a zeroth term.
Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Sequence 0 5 12 21 32 45
First Difference 5 7 9 11 13
Second Difference 2 2 2 2
start here and go up
It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be
subtracted from the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct
zeroth term. Remembering that in our formula, 2a stands for the first entry in the level
of second difference; a+b stands for the first entry in the level of first difference; and
c stands for the zeroth (0th ) term, we now have the following equations.
𝟐𝐚 = 𝟐 𝐚+𝐛=𝟓 and 𝐜=𝟎
We now proceed to solving for a and b so that we can already plug the values
to the format of the general formula.
Solving for a, we have 2a = 2
𝐚 = 𝟏 (after dividing both sides of equation by 2)
Solving for b, we have a+b=5

1 + b = 5 (after substituting the derived value of a
above)
b = 4 (after transposing 1 to the right side of the
equation)
Therefore, 𝐚 = 𝟏, 𝐛 = 𝟒, and 𝐜 = 𝟎. And plugging these into the format of the

formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟐 + 𝐛𝐧 + 𝐜, we will have
38
•••
𝐚𝐧 = 𝟏𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 + 𝟎
or 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧 (after simplifying)
To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct, let us
check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a4 . In our sequence,
a4 is 32. Let’s check if our formula will yield 32 if we replace n by 4.
a4 = (4)2 + 4(4)
a4 = 32 (Correct!)
This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the sequence
5, 12, 21, 32, 45, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝐧𝟐 + 𝟒𝐧.
So, suppose we are asked to find the 11th term of this sequence. We will just need
to replace n in the formula by 11. That is,
𝐚𝟏𝟏 = (𝟏𝟏)𝟐 + 𝟒(𝟏𝟏)
𝐚𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓 the 11th term of the sequence
Now, for the cubic form of an arithmetic sequence, we have the format
an = an3 + bn2 + cn + d
where d= zeroth term
6a= the first entry in the third difference
6a+2b= the first entry in the second difference
a+b+c= the first entry in the first difference
Example:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence 10, 15, 36, 76, 138,
...
Solution: Solving cubic sequences is just like extending the solution in a quadratic
sequence. First, we take the difference between terms starting from the 5th term, going
left.

Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here
and
First Difference 5 21 40 62 go
left
Notice that the differences are not the same, so we proceed to finding the “second
difference”, again, start working from the right going left.
Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here and
39
•••
left
Still, the differences are not the same so we extend the process of finding the difference
between terms.
Sequence 10 15 36 76 138
start here and
left
Third Difference 3 3
At this point, we have found the common difference on “third level”; that makes it easy
for us to remember because our sequence is cubic or third degree. Now, let us introduce
the zeroth term in the sequence by working backwards in the figure. This time, we start
from the bottom and we shall use red broken lines to indicate that they are derived from
introducing a zeroth term.
Terms 0th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Sequence 18 10 15 36 76 138
First Difference -8 5 21 40 62
Second Difference 13 16 19 22
Third Difference 3 3 3
start here and go up
It is important that you start from the bottom to know what needs to be subtracted from
the differences in each level to be able to arrive at the correct zeroth term.
Remembering that in our formula a+b+c corresponds to the first entry in the first
difference; 6a+2b corresponds to the first entry in the second difference; 6a corresponds
to the first entry in the third difference; and d corresponds to the zeroth (0th ) term, we
now have the following equations.
𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = −𝟖 6𝐚 + 𝟐𝐛 = 𝟏𝟑 𝟔𝐚 = 𝟑 and 𝐝=
𝟏𝟖
We now proceed to solving for a, b, and c so that we can already plug the
values to the format of the general formula.
Solving for a, we have 6a = 3
𝟏
𝐚 = 𝟐 (after dividing both sides of equation by 6)
40
•••
Solving for b, we have 6a + 2b = 13

1
6 (2) + 2b = 13 (after substituting the derived value of a above)
2b = 13 − 3 (after simplifying and transposing)
2b = 10
𝐛=𝟓
Solving for c, we have a + b + c = −8

1
+ 5 + c = −8
2
11
c = −8 − 2
𝟐𝟕
𝐜=− 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
Therefore, 𝐚 = 𝟐, 𝐛 = 𝟓, 𝐜 = − , and 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐
And plugging these values into the format of the formula
𝐚𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝟑 + 𝐛𝐧𝟐 + 𝐜𝐧 + 𝐝, we will have
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝐧 = 𝟐 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
To check if this formula for finding the nth term of our sequence is correct, let us
check it against any of the given terms. Let’s say we try it against a3 . In our sequence,
a3 is 36. Let’s check if our formula will yield 36 if we replace n by 3.
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟑 = 𝟐 (𝟑)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟑)𝟐 − (𝟑) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
a3 = 36 (Correct!)
This means that, indeed, the formula for finding the nth term of the sequence
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
10, 15, 36, 76, 138, … is 𝐚𝐧 = 𝟐 𝐧𝟑 + 𝟓𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧 + 𝟏𝟖.
𝟐
So suppose we are asked to find the 8th term of this sequence. We will just need
to replace n in the formula by 8. That is,
𝟏 𝟐𝟕
𝐚𝟖 = 𝟐 (𝟖)𝟑 + 𝟓(𝟖)𝟐 − (𝟖) + 𝟏𝟖
𝟐
𝐚𝟖 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 the 8th term of the sequence
That’s it! Its time for you to practice your newly learned skill.
Learning check
Activity:
1. Write the general rule for the nth term of sequence 9, 6, 3, 0, -3, -6, … Then
find its 25th term.
2. Write the general rule for the nth term of this quadratic number sequence
– 3, 8, 23, 42, 65, … Then find the a24 .
3. Write the general rule for the nth term of the sequence 4, 14, 40, 88, 164, …
Then find its 31st term.
4. The twelfth term of a sequence is 94 and the common difference between
terms is 8. Find the first term and write the first 5 terms of the sequence.
5. Find the common difference in a sequence where the first term is 12 and
a15 = −86. Then enumerate the first 5 terms of the sequence.
41
•••
6. Write the general formula of a sequence with two given terms, a5 = 19 and
a18 = 110. Then list down the first 5 terms of the sequence.
42
•••
Geometric Sequence
At this point, we shall discuss the geometric sequence- a kind of number sequence
where each term after the first can be found by multiplying the preceding term by a
common number. This common number, denoted by “r" , is called the common ratio of
the sequence.
The table below, which we also saw in the previous lesson shows us the formula for
finding the nth term of a geometric sequence.
The General Rule (Formula) for the nth Term of a Sequence
Term 1 2 3 4 … n
Arithmetic sequence a a+d a + 2d a + 3d … a + (n − 1)d
This table tells us that to find the general formula for any geometric sequence,
you will need to find first the values of a and r. Again, remember that a stands for the
first term of the sequence, and r stands for the common ratio in the sequence.
Let us try this example on a geometric sequence with common ratio r, r ≠ 1.
Example 1:
Find the general rule to generate the terms of the sequence
1, - 2, 4, - 8, 16, ___, ___, ___, … , ___
Solution: The format for the general formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence
is:
an = ar n−1
We need the values of a and r that we shall plug to this formula. So let’s start
working on it. The first term in the sequence is 1, so the value of a is equal to 1. The
common ratio of the terms of the sequence is -2 because the “common number” that
we can multiply to any preceding term to get the next term is -2. (A systematic way of
getting the common ratio in a geometric sequence is to divide the second term by the
first term. Then verify if you have the correct value by dividing the third term by the
second term, or in general, divide the (n+1)th term by nth term.)
The diagram below should help you to better understand what I am saying.
(Check out the computation for r in the box.)
Sequence 1 -2 4 -8 16
−2
𝑟1 = = −2
1
4 Common ratio (r) -2 -2 -2 -2
𝑟2 = = −2
−2
8
𝑟3 = − = −2 (When you multiply 1 by -2, you get -2; when you multiply -2 by -2,
4
16 you get 4; when you multiply 4 by -2, you get -8, and so on.)
𝑟4 = = −2
−8
43
•••
So a = 1 and r = −2. Plugging these values to the format above, we have:
an = 1(−2)n−1
Remember that here we do not need to replace n by any value because we are just
looking for the general formula for the nth term of this sequence. Furthermore, this
formula can be rewritten in its simplified form like:
an = (−2)n−1 (justified by the identity property for multiplication)
So, it looks like that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is
an = (−2)n−1. But before we say so, let us not forget to check if it is correct. We do that
by applying this formula to verify any given term in the sequence. For example, let us
check if we will get 4 if we substitute 3 to n in this formula. (4 is the third (3rd) term in the
given sequence that’s why we will substitute 3 for n.)
Checking: a3 = (−2)3−1 (Notice that all n in the formula are replaced by 3.)
a3 = (−2)2
a3 = 4 (Here we have verified that the formula gives a3 = 4.)
Since we have checked that the formula works for the given sequence, we can now
confidently say that the general formula for the nth term of this sequence is an = (−2)n−1
This means that we can find any term in the sequence using this formula. So suppose we
want to find a20 or the 20th term in the sequence. To find this, we will just replace n in the
formula by 20. Let’s do that.
a20 = (−2)20−1
an = (−2)19
a20 = −524,288 You can try looking for any term of the sequence using
the formula.)
Going back to the problem, the terms that must be in the blank are -32, 64, and -128,
respectively.
Note: The common ratio of this sequence is a negative, which resulted in an alternating
sequence. An alternating sequence will have numbers that alternate or switch back
and forth between positive and negative signs. Notice that when the exponent is even,
you get a positive power (answer); and when the exponent is odd, you get a negative
power (answer).
Example 2.
List down the first five terms of a geometric sequence if the first term is 8 and the
1
common ratio is 2. Also, find the value of a13 .
Solution: Let us write down the given values first and see if we can directly proceed to
substituting them into the formula format.
1
a = 8; r = 2
44
•••
Our formula requires just these two values so we can proceed directly to substitution.
That is,
1 n−1
an = (8) (2)
1 1
Unlike in example 1, here we cannot multiply 8 and just yet because has an
2 2
exponent. (Remember PEMDAS?) So our formula can no longer be simplified. Let us now
check if it is correct.
Checking: Try it for a (first term), since there’s no other given terms.
1 1−1
a1 = (8) (2)
1 0
a1 = (8) ( )
2
a1 = (8)(1)
a1 = 8 (Correct!)
We can now generate the next four terms (or any other term, for that matter) of this
sequence. And these are:
1 2−1
a2 = (8) (2) =4
1 3−1
𝑎3 = (8) (2) =2
1 4−1
𝑎4 = (8) (2) =1
1 5−1 1
𝑎5 = (8) (2) =2
Of course, you can list down these values without deriving the general formula. All you
1
need to do is to multiple the first term 8 by 2 and do the same thing for each succeeding
term. However, I’m sure you would not want to continue doing that until you get the
13th term. So deriving the formula is a wise solution.
1 13−1 1
𝑎13 = (8) (2) = 512
1
To answer the problem, the first five terms of the sequence are 8, 4, 2, 1, and 2; and the
1
13th term is 512.
Practice exercise 1. Analyze the given sequence for its general rule/ formula and identify
the next three terms.
1, 10, 100, 1,000, …
(Verify your answer when your teacher sends the recorded lecture of this lesson.)
Practice exercise 2. Extend the sequence below for three more terms then find an
expression for the nth term. Afterwards, find 𝑎17 .
1, -2, 4, -8, 16, __, __,__,…__
45
•••
Practice exercise 3. Examine the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …
a. what is the next term?
b. what formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
c. Find the 25th term of the sequence.
The first two examples involved direct substitution to the general formula of a geometric
sequence. But some problems would require a different formula. That’s when you use
your creativity and critical thinking to manipulate the original formula and derive an
appropriate expression to solve the problem. Here are some other formulas derived from
the general formula of a geometric sequence that you might find useful.
𝒂
𝒏
𝒂 = 𝒓𝒏−𝟏 (if you need to find the first term and you are given the value
of nth term and the common ratio)
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
𝒓= ( 𝒂𝒏 ) (if you need to find the common ratio and you are given the
value of the first and nth term)
Example 3:
Find𝑎15 of a geometric sequence if the first few terms of the sequence are given
21 21
by −42, 21, − 2 , 4 , …
Solution:
We are given the value of a (first term), which is -42; but we still need to derive the
value of r (common ratio) to be able to plug these into the formula. So let’s do it!
21 1
𝑟 = −42 = − 2 (divide the second term by the first term)
−21⁄2 1
𝑟= = −2 (verify the value of d by dividing the third term by the
21
second term)
So we now have the values that we need to plug into 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 . These are 𝑎 = −42, and
1
𝑟 = − 2.
1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = −42 (− 2) .
Let us check if the formula is correct by checking if it works for 𝑎3 . (But of course, you
can use other terms in checking.)
1 3−1
Checking: 𝑎3 = −42 (− 2)
1 2
𝑎3 = −42 (− 2)
21
𝑎3 = − (Correct!)
2
46
•••
Since we have verified that our formula is correct, we can now proceed to finding 𝑎15 .
1 15−1
𝑎15 = −42 (− 2)
1 14
𝑎15 = −42 (− 2)
21
𝑎15 = − 8192
Example 4:
Find r given that 𝑎 = 10 and 𝑎20 = 10−18. Then find the 6th term of the sequence.
Solution:
This problem is different from the previous three, and obviously it requires a
𝟏
𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
different version of our formula. Here we will need to use 𝒓 = ( 𝒂𝒏 ) because we need
to find the common ratio given the value of the first term and an nth term, specifically,
𝑎20 . So if we plug the values to our formula, we will have:
𝟏
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟎−𝟏
𝒓=( ) (take time to understand the substitution here)
𝟏𝟎
Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟏
𝟏
(review laws of exponents if you have trouble arriving at
𝟏𝟗
𝒓 = (𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 )
this expression)
1
𝑟 = 10 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous
expression to arrive at this value of r)
So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 6th term of the
sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
1 𝑛−1 1
𝑎𝑛 = (10) (10) (Again, we cannot multiply 10 by 10 because of PEMDAS)
Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎20 . (We should get 10−18 to be able
to say tat our formula is correct.)
1 20−1
Checking: 𝑎20 = (10) (10)
1 19
𝑎20 = (10) (10)
1
𝑎20 = (10) (1019 )
10
𝑎20 = 1019
1
𝑎20 = 1018
𝑎20 = 10−18 (Correct!)
Since our checking yielded a correct statement, then we can now proceed to getting
the value of the 6th term.
47
•••
1 6−1
𝑎6 = (10) ( )
10
1 5
𝑎6 = (10) (10)
1
𝑎6 = 10,000 (or 10−4 )
Example 5:
Find 𝑎 given that 𝑟 = 2 and 𝑎18 = 393,216. Then find the 8th term of the sequence.
Solution:
This problem also requires a different version of our formula. Here we will need to
𝒂𝒏
use 𝒂 = 𝒓𝒏−𝟏 because we need to find the first term of the sequence given the common
ratio and an nth term, specifically, 𝑎18 . So if we plug the values to our formula, we will
have:
𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂= (after substituting values appropriately to the formula)
𝟐𝟏𝟖−𝟏
Simplifying this expression leads us to:

𝟑𝟗𝟑,𝟐𝟏𝟔
𝒂 = 𝟐𝟏𝟕
𝒂=𝟑 (a calculator can help you simplify the previous

expression to arrive at this value of a)
So we now have the necessary values to get a formula for finding the 8th term of the
sequence. Let’s derive the formula for the nth term of this sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = (3)(2)𝑛−1 (Again, we cannot multiply 3 by 2 because of PEMDAS)
Let’s check if our formula is correct by trying it on 𝑎18 . (We should get 393,216 to be able
to say that our formula is correct.)
Checking: 𝑎18 = (3)(2)18−1
𝑎18 = (3)(2)17
𝑎18 = 393,216 (Correct!)
Since our checking yielded a correct statement, then we can now proceed to getting
the value of the 8th term.
𝑎8 = (3)(2)8−1
𝑎8 = (3)(2)7
𝑎8 = 384
Example 6:
1
Given the terms 𝑎3 = 2 and 𝑎5 = 8 of a geometric sequence, find the exact value
of the term 𝑎15 if the terms of the sequence are all positive.
Solution:
To solve this problem, we first need to get the value of r (common ratio) and a
(first term). But we cannot find the common ratio by getting the quotient of n+1 by n,
48
•••
because we are not given any consecutive terms of the sequence. So, how do we
approach this problem? Remember this part of the table earlier?
Term 1 2 3 4 … n
This table reminds us that each new term is found by multiplying the previous term by
the common ratio r. That means, if we begin from 𝑎3 , we will reach
𝑎5 by multiplying 𝑎3 by r twice (see the table below)
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎4 𝑎5
1
Terms ? ? 2 ? 8
1
1 1
Terms ? ? 2 ( )𝑟 ( 𝑟) 𝑟
2 2
1
From this table, we can see that the equation 𝑎5 = 8 can also be written as 𝑎5 = (2 𝑟) 𝑟
1
or 𝑎5 = 2 𝑟 2 . If you cannot remember the properties of equality, let’s just use logic to
make a conclusion from these equations:
1
If 𝑎5 = 8 and 𝑎5 = 2 𝑟 2 then __________.
1
Logic dictates us that 8 = 𝑟 2 . In fact, this is justified by transitive property of equality. So,
2
from this equation, we can derive the value of r. Let’s now work on it:
1
8 = 2 𝑟2
16 = 𝑟 2 (after multiplying both sides by 2 or after cross-
multiplication)
𝑟 2 = 16 (justified by symmetric property of equality)
𝑟 = ±4
At this point we have to decide which root of the equation to take: the positive root (4),
or the negative root (-4)? From our example earlier where we had a negative value of
r, we learned that if r is negative, the signs of the terms will alternate between positive
and negative. Going back to the problem, it says that all terms in the sequence are
positive, so we will take the positive root (4) as the correct value of r.
The next step is to find the value of a (first term), and we do that by using any one
of the values that are given. Let’s say we use 𝑎5 .
From the format of the formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1,
we will have
𝑎5 = 𝑎(4)5−1 (after substituting 5 to n and 4 to r)
8 = 𝑎(4) 4
(because 𝑎5 = 8)
8 = 256𝑎 (because 44 = 256)
256𝑎 = 8 (symmetric property, this is not a significant step here)
1
𝑎 = 32 (after dividing both sides of equation by 256)
So no we have r and a! That means we no w have the values that we need in the
formula format. Let’s plug them already!
49
•••
1
𝑎𝑛 = 32 (4)𝑛−1
Checking: (We will check using 𝑎3 but remember that you can also use 𝑎5 , or any other
term that’s given in the problem.)
1
𝑎3 = 32 (4)3−1
1
𝑎3 = 32 (4)2
1
𝑎3 = 2 (Correct!)
We now proceed to find 𝑎15 as required by the problem.

1
𝑎15 = 32 (4)15−1
𝑎15 = 8,388,608
Learning check
Solve each problem as detailed as we did in the examples, that is, include
checking and make sure to answer the primary question in each problem.
1. Find the 11th term of a geometric sequence if 𝑎1 = 45 and the common ratio 𝑟 =
0.2.
2. The first term of a geometric sequence is 3 and the ninth term is 768. Find the
common ratio of the sequence and the value of 𝑎12 .
1 2 4 8
3. Given the geometric sequence, 3 , 9 , 27 , 81, …, determine the formula for the nth
term and find 𝑎10 .
4. The common ratio of a geometric sequence is 4 and its 5th term is 192. Find the
value of the first term and determine the 9th term of the sequence.
5. In 2017, the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends is 284. It is estimated that the
number of her Facebook friends will increase by 4% each year.
a. Write a formula for the number of Kathleen’s Facebook friends. (Remember
that r can be a fraction/ decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of Facebook friends Kathleen will have in 2021. (State
your final answer in a sentence and round off value if necessary because
there are no “fraction” or “decimal” friends.)
6. A bike shop business starts a new website. Initially the number of hits is 293 due to
the curiosity factor. The business estimates the number of hits will increase by 2.6%
per week.
a. Write a formula for the number of hits. (Remember that r can be a fraction/
decimal.)
b. Estimate the number of hits in 5 weeks. (State your final answer in a sentence
and round off value if necessary because there are no “fraction” or
“decimal” hits.)
50
•••
ARITHMETIC SERIES AND GEOMETRIC SERIES
After learning about arithmetic and geometric sequences, we now study

arithmetic and geometric series. But what are they?
An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence, while a

geometric series is the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence.
SUM OF AN ARITHMETIC SERIES

If 𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are terms in an arithmetic sequence with common difference d,
then the sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following formula:
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 2
where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the arithmetic sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the arithmetic sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the arithmetic sequence
If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula for
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
the nth term of an arithmetic sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = .
2
3 5 7
Example: Find the sum of the first 35 terms of the arithmetic sequence , 2, , 3, , … if
2 2 2
37
𝑎35 = .
2
Solution: In the formula, we need the values of 𝑛, 𝑎, and 𝑎𝑛 . The number of terms 𝑛
3
involved in this sequence is 35, the first term 𝑎 is 2, and the value of the nth term 𝑎𝑛 (in
37
this case, the 35th term) is . It looks like we have everything that we need! So, now we
2
can directly substitute these values to the formula for finding the sum of an arithmetic
series.
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 2
3 37
35( + )
2 2
𝑆35 = 2
𝑆35 = 350
3 5 7
So, the sum of the first 35 terms in the sequence 2 , 2, , 3, , …, is 350.
2 2
51
•••
Did you know that there's a famous (although apocryphal) story about the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss and the arithmetic series? The story goes
something like this:
When Gauss was just 9 years old, he was enrolled in a math class with regular
students. Because he was already a genius even at this young age, he would get bored
in his class and would always play around even when class is going on. This disrupts the
class and gets him into trouble. One day his teacher wanted to punish him for fooling
around once more, and told him: “If you’re so smart, why don't you go sit in the corner
and add up all the integers from 1 to 100?” That’s 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100!
Remember there were no calculators in those days! But Gauss went and sat in the
corner and yet he didn't pick up his pencil. The teacher confronted and challenged
him: “Carl! Why aren't you working? Did you figure it out already?” Gauss responded
with “Yes – it's 5,050.” The teacher couldn't believe how Gauss managed to answer
correctly and so quickly!
So how did Gauss find the answer so fast? The answer is simple, really – it's all about
pattern recognition. Let's look at the problem more closely.
Gauss was tasked to get the sum of:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … . + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100
Upon looking at the list, Gauss recognized that if he takes the sum of two extreme
values, like 1 and 100, he would get 101. If he does the same thing with 2 and 99, he
would also get 101, and if he continued until the two middlemost pair 50 and 51, he
would also get 101! This was how Gauss saw the problem:
So Gauss noticed that the sums of each pair of numbers in the series were all the same
valuen(101). And since he had 50 such pairs, he multiplied 101 by 50 and obtained 5050.
This is the sum of the integers from 1 to 100.
Gauss was able to quickly solve the problem and establish a relationship that we still use
today when working with arithmetic series.
𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = Gauss had 𝑎 and 𝑎𝑛 too (1 and 100), and his was 50.
2 2
Gauss grew up to become a famous mathematician who contributed in many

fields of mathematics and science and is named as one of the greatest mathematicians
of all times, along with Archimedes and Newton.
52
•••
Example 2: Find the sum of integers from 1 to 85.
Solution: List down the given. 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎85 = 85; and 𝑛 = 85

Substitute these values to the formula.
85(1 + 85)
𝑆85 = 2
𝑆85 = 3,655 the sum of integers from 1 to 85
Example 3: Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯
Solution: Here we do not know the value of 𝑎𝑛 (which is 𝑎45 ), so we still need to work
on it. Remember the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑? We will need that again. Either we input
𝑛[𝑎 +𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]
that to the arithmetic series formula and have 𝑆𝑛 = or just solve for 𝑎𝑛 first
2
and input the derived value to the arithmetic series formula. For this time, we will do the
second one, that is, we will solve for the value 𝑎𝑛 separately. I hope you still remember
how to get 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic sequence formula.
𝑎45 = 1 + (45 − 1)3 substitute 𝑎, 𝑛, and 𝑑 in the arithmetic sequence formula

𝑎45 = 133 this will be our 𝑎𝑛 in the arithmetic series formula
From the given series, these are the values that we will need for the arithmetic series
formula. 𝑛 = 45; 𝑎 = 1; 𝑎45 = 133
45(1 +133)
𝑆45 = 2
𝑆45 = 3,015 sum of the first 45 terms of the series 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ⋯
Example 4: Find 1 (4 + 7𝑛).

∑38
Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4+7n where n is from 1 to 38”.
This problem used the symbol called “summation notation” and it is a compact way of
writing the arithmetic series 11 + 18 + 25 + 32 + ⋯ + 270. (Wait, what?) These terms in
the series are found by substituting 1, 2, 3, 4, and 38, respectively to the expression 4+7n.
We can say that 4+7n is the formula for the nth term of the series. (See below.)
𝑎 = 4 + 7(1) = 11 𝑎2 = 4 + 7(2) = 18 𝑎3 = 4 + 7(3) = 25
𝑎4 = 4 + 7(4) = 32 𝑎38 = 4 + 7(38) = 270
The numbers 1 and 38 in the summation notation above are called lower limit and upper
limits. These tell us that we have to add the terms of the arithmetic sequence given by
the formula 4 + 7𝑛 starting from the first (1st) term up to the thirty- eighth (38th) term.
Now that we understand the new symbol and what the problem really is, we can
proceed to solving for what we are really asked: the sum of the series. The values that
we will need for the formula are 𝑎 = 11, 𝑛 = 38, and 𝑎𝑛 = 270. Let’s now substitute these
to the arithmetic formula.
38(11+270)
𝑆38 = 2
𝑆38 = 5,339 the value of ∑38
1 (4 + 7𝑛)
53
•••
Example 5: Find 12(4n − 5).

∑30
Solution: This problem is read: “Find the summation of 4n - 5 where n is from 12 to 30”.
Notice that the lower limit is not 1, so we cannot say that there are 30 terms involved in
our series. You might say, we can just subtract the lower limit 12 from the upper limit 30
to get the actual number of terms involved. That’s 30-12=18. However, if we count the
number of terms from 𝑎12 to 𝑎30 , there are actually 19! So, we have to be careful with
tricky problems like this. The technique here is to subtract the upper and lower limits but
add 1 to the difference to ensure that the lower limit is included in the counting of terms.
Here the number of terms involved is given by 30 − 12 + 1 = 19, so our 𝑛 is 19. Let us now
solve for the other values that we will need for the arithmetic series formula.
Solving for the first term 𝑎12 : 𝑎12 = 4(12) − 5 = 43
Solving for the last term 𝑎30 : 𝑎30 = 4(30) − 5 = 115
Substituting these to the arithmetic series formula, we will have:

19 (43+115)
𝑆19 = 2
𝑆19 = 1,501 the value of ∑30
12(4𝑛 − 5)
SUM OF A GEOMETRIC SERIES

If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 form a geometric sequence with common ratio 𝑟 ≠ 1, then the
sum 𝑆𝑛 of these n terms is given by the following:
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟 𝑛
where 𝑆𝑛 = the sum of all terms in the geometric sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms involved in the geometric sequence
𝑎 = the first term in the geometric sequence
𝑎𝑛 = the nth term in the geometric sequence
𝑟 = the common ratio in the geometric sequence
If we do not have a value for 𝑎𝑛 , we can rewrite this formula to plug in our formula for
𝑎−𝑟(𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 )
the nth term of a geometric sequence. We will have 𝑆𝑛 = , which can be
1−𝑟
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
simplified to 𝑆𝑛 = .
1−𝑟
Example 1: Find the sum of the first 25 terms of a geometric sequence that begins with
𝑎 = 1 and has common ratio 𝑟 = 2.
Solution: We list down the values we can gather from the problem.
𝑎 = 1; 𝑟 = 2; 𝑛 = 25
Since we do not yet know the value of 𝑎25 (which we will replace to 𝑎𝑛 in the geometric
series formula), we can solve for it first using the formula for finding the nth term of a
geometric sequence or we can just use the simplified form of our second formula:
54
•••
𝑎 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
1 (1 − 225 )
𝑆25 = 1−2
𝑠25 = 33,554,431 the sum of the first 25 terms of the sequence
Example 2: Evaluate 𝑆8 for the geometric sequence 250, 100, 40, 16, …
Solution: This problem asks us to get the sum of the first 8 terms of the given sequence.
2
From the problem, we can gather that 𝑛 = 8 , 𝑎 = 250, and 𝑟 = 5 . (I hope you still
remember how to get these values.)
28
250 (1 − )
substitute the values to the geometric series formula
5
𝑆8 = 2
1−
5
𝑆8 = 416.3936 the sum of the first 8 terms of the sequence
26 1
Example 3: Find 𝑎𝑛 if 𝑆4 = 27 and 𝑟 = 3.
Solution: Again, we will use the second formula for geometric series, this time not to
find 𝑆𝑛 but to find the first term 𝑎, which we will need in our final solution later.
1 4
26 𝑎 (1 − ( ) )
plug in values to the formula
3
= 1
27 1−
3
1
26 𝑎 (1 − )
= 2
81
perform innermost operations
27
3
52 80
81
= 81 𝑎 cross multiply and simplify
13
𝑎 = 20 the first term in the sequence
To solve for 𝑎𝑛 , we substitute 𝑎 and 𝑟 to the format of the formula for finding the
nth term of a geometric sequence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 .
13 1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = 20 (3) the formula for the nth term of the sequence
Example 4: Evaluate ∑10

1 3(−2)
𝑛−1
.
This problem is read: “Find the summation of three times -2 raised to n minus 1, where n
is from 1 to 10”. The notation tells us to get the sum of the first 10 terms of the series whose
nth term is given by 3(−2)𝑛−1. From this, we can gather that the first term of the series is
3 and the common ratio is -2. (Try to explain to yourself why.) For better understanding,
let’s solve for a few terms of the sequence.
𝑎 = 3(−2)1−1 = 3 𝑎2 = 3(−2)2−1 = −6 𝑎3 = 3(−2)3−1 = 12
𝑎4 = 3(−2)4−1 = −24 𝑎10 = 3(−2)10−1 = −1,536
55
•••
Of the above terms, only 𝑎 and 𝑎10 are necessary to derive because we will need them
in our formula. But if we will use the second formula again, we actually don’t need them.
Let’s have two solutions and decide for yourself which one you find easier.
𝑎 − 𝑟𝑎𝑛 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Using formula 1: 𝑆𝑛 = Using formula 2: 𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
3 −[(−2)(−1536)] 3[1−(−2)10 ]
𝑆10 = 𝑆10 =
1−(−2) 1−(−2)
3 −(3072) 3(−1023)
𝑆10 = 𝑆𝑛 =
3 3
𝑆10 = −1,023 𝑆𝑛 = −1,023
Example 5: Find the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Solution: The Pascal’s triangle shown here is up to the 8th row only. But if we can find
a pattern from this, we will be saved from having to write and complete the triangle.
Well, of course we have to try to find a pattern because we don’t want to add all these
numbers one by one, right? Let’s look at the following figure.
If we look at the sum of the terms in each row, we see that they form a pattern,
specifically, a geometric sequence!
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
This is a geometric sequence whose first term 𝑎 is 1, and whose common ratio 𝑟 is 2. So
easily, and without completing the Pascal’s triangle, we can continue the pattern and
56
•••
get the 10th term of the sequence or just solve directly for the 10th term by using the
formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎10 = 1(2)10−1
𝑎10 = 512
If you choose to continue the pattern, you can just continue multiplying each previous
term by 2 until you reach the 10th term. But this is not practical if you are asked to look
for higher terms, like 20th, 28th, etc. So, I suggest you practice what we did above.
Anyway, the geometric sequence formed by the sum of the terms in each row of the
Pascal’s triangle is:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, …
Since these numbers form a geometric sequence, we can use the formula for the sum
of a geometric series to solve our problem.
1 − 2(512)
𝑆10 = 1−(2)
−1023
𝑆10 = −1
𝑆10 = 1,023 the sum of the terms of a Pascal Triangle up to 10th row
Learning check
Solve the following problems as comprehensive as we did in our examples.
(Caution! If the kind of sequence or series is not mentioned in the problem, you have to
identify first whether it is an arithmetic or geometric to avoid using incorrect formula.)
1. Find the sum of the first 45 terms of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …
2. Find the sum of all even numbers between 35 and 427.
3. Find the sum of the series 1 + 3.5 + 6 + 8.5 + ⋯ + 101.
4. Find the sum of the geometric series 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯ if there are 12 terms

in the series.
5. Find 𝑆10 for the sequence 8, −4, 2, −1, ….
6. Find the sum of the first 24 terms of the sequence 4, −3, −10, …
7. A grocery store displays their canned sardines in towers of eighteen rows,

with each row having one less can than the row below it. If the bottom row
has twenty‐eight cans, how many cans are in the display?
57
•••
D. The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio
The discussion of number sequences would not be complete without mentioning

a sequence known as the Fibonacci sequence. It is named after Leonardo of Pisa, also
known as Fibonacci, and one of the best-known mathematicians of Medieval Europe.
Before we continue studying this famous number sequence, let us first grasp its
inventor, Fibonacci.
Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci)
Leonardo was born in Pisa, Italy around 1170. He is

considered one of the most distinguished mathematicians of
the Middle Ages. His father Guglielmo del Bonacci was a
wealthy Pisan merchant who took Leonardo with him when
he traveled because he wanted his son to become a
merchant, too.
Leonardo was sent by his father to study mathematics
https://www.storyofmathematics.c
om/medieval_fibonacci.html with an Arab master (teacher), who guided him in learning
calculation techniques, especially those concerning Hindu- Arabic numbers, which was
not yet introduced in Europe at that time. (We learned about this in our lesson about
history of mathematics.)
Fibonacci’s education started in Bejaia and continued also in Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, places he visited with his father along the trade routes, before returning
permanently to Pisa. For the next 25 years, Fibonacci dedicated himself to writing
mathematical manuscripts. When he began writing, he referred to himself as Fibonacci,
which roughly means “son of Bonacci”- the name by which he is known today.
In addition to the famous sequence bearing his name, Fibonacci is also credited
with introducing the Hindu- Arabic number system in Europe. His 1202 book, Liber Abacci
(Book of the Abacus), explained the use of this number system and emphasized the
importance of the number zero.
Leonardo’s reputation as a mathematician became so great that Emperor
Federico II asked an audience while in Pisa in 1225. After 1228, not much is known of
Leonardo’s life, except that he was awarded the title of “Discretus et sapiens magister
Leonardo Bigollo” in recognition of the great progress he made to mathematics.
Fibonacci died sometime after 1240, presumably in Pisa.
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
The Fibonacci sequence was introduced by Fibonacci in his book Liber Abacci,
when he posed an original problem that he investigated. It was about how fast rabbits
could breed in ideal circumstances. The problem was stated like this:
58
•••
Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one

female, are put in a field. After a month, these rabbits
have produced no offspring but they have grown fertile
so they are able to mate. At the end of the second
month the female rabbit gave birth to another pair of
rabbits, conveniently, a male and a female again.
Every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces
another pair of rabbits and the offspring reproduce in
exactly the same manner. Suppose that none of the
rabbits dies, how many pairs will there be in one year?
The solution to this problem led to the development of the sequence that bears
its inventor’s name: the Fibonacci sequence. The first few terms of the Fibonacci
sequence are:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, …
In the Fibonacci sequence, the first and second terms are 1. The sum of these two
terms is the third term. The sum of the second and third terms is the fourth term, and so
on. Following is the formal definition of the Fibonacci numbers.
THE FIBONACCI NUMBERS
𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.
Where 𝐹1 = the first term in the Fibonacci sequence

𝐹2 = the second term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝐹𝑛 = the nth term in the Fibonacci sequence
𝑛 = the number of terms in the Fibonacci sequence
Example: Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eight
Fibonacci numbers.
Solution: This method of getting a term in the Fibonacci sequence is practical only for
relatively small terms because you have to know the two preceding terms to
get the new term. Formulas like this is called a recursive formula. Unless you
memorize every term in the sequence, this method requires that you list down
59
•••
the Fibonacci sequence from the first term, going forward. Anyway, suppose
we remember that the 5th and 6th terms in the Fibonacci sequence are 5 and
8, respectively, then our 𝐹7 will be given by
𝐹7 = 𝐹6 + 𝐹5
𝐹7 = 8 + 5
𝐹7 = 13
From this, our 𝐹8 will be given by
𝐹8 = 𝐹7 + 𝐹6
𝐹8 = 13 + 8
𝐹7 = 21
Again, this formula is practical only if you are required to find early terms in the
Fibonacci sequence. But what if we were asked to find the 20th term? Or the 30th term?
Fortunately, we have the following formula.
Binet’s Formula
The Binet’s formula for finding the nth Fibonacci number is given by:
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹𝑛 = [( ) −( ) ]
√5 2 2
where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛 = the number of terms in the sequence
1+√5
(The ratio is called the golden ratio, which we shall discuss later.)
2
The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 is that you can
determine the nth Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding Fibonacci
numbers. You have to master the use of a scientific calculator, though.
Example: Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th, and 40th Fibonacci
numbers.
Solution: Most calculators will let you evaluate this directly, just make sure that you
use appropriate symbols to input values correctly. For example, in calculating 𝐹20 , this
was what I have pressed in my scientific calculator. (Go from left to right, down left to
right.)
( 1 𝑎 𝑏⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧
2 0 - ( ( 1 - √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 2 0 ) =
20 20
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹20 = [( ) −( ) ] = 6,765
√5 2 2
30 30
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹30 = [( ) −( ) ] = 832,040
√5 2 2
60
•••
40 40
1 1+√5 1−√5
𝐹40 = [( ) −( ) ] = 102,334,155
√5 2 2
Binet’s Formula Simplified

Although Binet’s formula saved us from rewriting the Fibonacci sequence from the
beginning each time we try to get a Fibonacci number, we recognize that the formula
is quite cumbersome. Fortunately, yet again, it can be simplified! The Binet’s formula
when simplified is given by:
𝑛
1 1+√5
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ]
√5 2
where 𝐹𝑛 = the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence

𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 = an abbreviation for “the nearest integer to”
This is a lighter formula but unlike the original Binet’s formula where you get only integers,
here it is possible that you will get a decimal. In that case, just round your calculator
results to the nearest integer. (That’s where 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 comes.) In cases where you get an
integer, you don’t have to round off because its exactly the “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡”.
Example: Use the simplified form of Binet’s formula to find the 16th, 21st, and 32nd
Fibonacci numbers.
Solution:
To get 𝐹16 , here are the keys to press in your scientific calculator. “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡′ is not found in
any calculator, it just tells you to round your results to the nearest integer.
( 1 𝑎 𝑏⁄𝑐 √ 5 ) ( ( 1 + √ 5 ) ÷ 2 ) ∧ 1 6 =
Your result must be 987.0002026. Round this result to the nearest integer, 987. Therefore,
𝐹16 = 987. In the following notation, notice that “𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡” was no longer written in the final
answer. That is because we have already rounded the answer to the nearest integer
987.
16
1 + √5 1
𝐹16 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 987.0002 = 987
√5 2
21
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹21 : 𝐹21 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 10,945.99998 = 10,946
√5 2
32
1 1+√5
Solving for 𝐹32 : 𝐹32 = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 [ ( ) ] = 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 2,178,309 = 2,178,309
√5 2
In the last example, we still write 𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑡 although the result is an integer, but we also
remove it in the final answer.
61
•••
The Fibonacci Sequence in Nature
The Fibonacci sequence and the related topic of the golden ratio appear in many
places in nature and play an important role in geometry, art, and music.
• The Fibonacci sequence can be seen on seed arrangement of many species of

plants. For instance, when the flowering head of the sunflower matures to seed,
the seeds’ spiral arrangements become clearly visible. If you count the clockwise
and counterclockwise spirals that reach the outer edge of the sunflowers’ seeds,
you'll usually find that it gives you 89 steeply curving to the right, 55 curving more
shallowly to the left, and 34 again shallowly to the right. These numbers are
consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence. The largest known specimen to be
examined had spiral counts of 144 right, 89 left, and 55 right, which are also
consecutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence. (Read: ScienceMag.org
Sunflowers Show Complex Fibonacci Sequences)
• The Fibonacci sequence can be seen on petal counts of various flowers.
Euphorbia has 2 petals

Calla Lily has 1 petal Anthurium has 1 petal
62
•••
Clematis has 8 petals 1

Hibiscus (Gumamela) has 5 petals
Iris has 3 petals
Aster has 21 petals 1
Corn marigold has 13 petals Blanket flower has 34 petals
dahlia has 55 petals Dahlia pinnata has 89 petals
• The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen on the structure of pinecones: The
tablike or scalelike structures that make up the main body of the pinecone form
a set of spirals that start from the cone’s attachment to the branch.
63
•••
A count on the steep spiral will reveal a Fibonacci number, and a count on the
gradual one will reveal the adjacent smaller Fibonacci number, or if not, the next
smaller Fibonacci number. One investigation of 4,290 pinecones from 10 species
of pine trees found in California revealed that only 74 cones, or merely 1.7%,
deviated from this Fibonacci pattern. (Read: https://www.m-
a.org.uk/resources/Presidential-Address-2018-TomRoper.pdf)
• The structure of pineapples also shows Fibonacci sequence. Pineapple scales are
roughly hexagonal in shape, which means that three distinct sets of spirals can be
counted. Generally, the number of pineapple scales in each spiral are Fibonacci
numbers. (Read: https://craftofcoding.wordpress.com/2020/05/28/fibonacci-
and-pineapples/)
https://craftofcoding.files.wordpress.co
• It’s also interesting to learn that the number of ancestors of a male bee follows
the Fibonacci sequence. Did you know that in bee family, a female bee can
either be a queen or a worker? If the female bee is fertile, she is a queen. If the
female bee is infertile, she is a worker. When a queen bee mates with a male bee,
the offspring is always a female bee (either a worker or a future queen). But a
queen bee can also produce an offspring even without mating with a male bee,
in which case, the offspring is always a male bee. In essence then, female bees
have two parents, whereas male bees only have one parent. We can see the
64
•••
Fibonacci sequence as we move back through the male bees’ generations. Here
is an illustration of a family tree for a male bee.
• The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way (some) tree branches form
or split. A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth
points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies
dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of the new stems.
https://fractalfoundation.org/OFCA/weezs
Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Number (𝝓, 𝒑𝒉𝒊)

In 1753, while studying the Fibonacci sequence, Robert Simson, a mathematician
at the University of Glasgow, noticed that when he took the ratio of any term to the term
that immediately preceded it, the value he obtained remained in the vicinity of one
specific number. To illustrate this, let’s look at the table on the following page.
65
•••
Fibonacci Numbers Ratio

1
1, 1 =1
1
2
1, 2 =2
1
3
2, 3 = 1.5
2
5
3, 5 ≈ 1.667
3
8
5, 8 = 1.6
5
13
8, 13 = 1.625
8
21
13, 21 ≈ 1.615
13
34
21, 34 ≈ 1.619
21
55
34, 55 ≈ 1.618
34
89
55, 89 ≈ 1.618
55
Simson proved that the ratio of the (n+1) term to the nth term as n gets larger and
√5+1
larger is the irrational number , which begins 1.61803… But this number was already
2
well known to mathematicians at that time as the golden number!
There are evidences that the ancient Greeks, in about the sixth century B.C.,
sought unifying principles of beauty and perfection, which they believed could be
described by using mathematics. In their study of beauty, the Greeks used the term
√5+1
golden ratio and its value was . Also, many years ahead of Simon, Bavarian
2
astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler wrote that for him the golden number
symbolized the Creator’s intention “to create like from like”.
The Golden Ratio and the Golden (Divine) Proportion
A C B
When this line segment is divided at a point C such that the ratio of the whole,
segment AB, to the larger part, segment AC, is equal to the ratio of the larger part,
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
segment AC, to the smaller part, segment CB, each ratio 𝐴𝐶 and is referred to as a
𝐶𝐵
√5+1
golden ratio, and each equal to the golden number, . (You may need to trace each
2
segment mentioned in the statement for better understanding.)
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶
The proportion these ratios form, 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐵, is called the golden proportion.
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 √5+1
That is, = 𝐶𝐵 = ≈ 1.618.
𝐴𝐶 2
66
•••
The Golden Ratio
In mathematics and the arts, two quantities Did you know?

are in a golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the
ratio of their sum to the larger of the two
quantities. If you only examine the dimension of
things around us like the screen of your cell
phones, tablets, computers, or television, notice
that the quotient of its length and width is close to
1.61803… This is because, some artists, architects,
and manufacturers believe that rectangles whose Supermodel Bella Hadid has been declared the
most beautiful woman in the world after she
areas are close to the golden ratio is pleasing to passed a science test that determines what
look at. constitutes the 'perfect face'. The 23-year-old
was found to be 94.35% 'accurate' to the
Golden Ratio of Beauty Phi - a measure of
During the ancient times, Greeks set their physical perfection.
obra maestro to this proportion to make their
https://www.cnn.ph/entertainment/2019/10/18/Bella-
artworks visually pleasing to others.
Hadid-science-face.html
The golden ratio is often symbolized by the Greek letter phi (). It is the number 
1+√5
= 1.61803… and the irrational number . It is sometimes called the “divine proportion”
2
because of its frequency in the natural world. But in medieval times, people referred to
the golden proportion as the divine proportion, reflecting their belief in its relationship to
the will of God.
Examples of objects with divine proportions are faces of both human and non-
human. The mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the distance
between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can be seen from the
side, and even the eye and ear itself.
https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio+in+human+body&source=lnms&tb
m=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMtICf6pnmAhWSHqYKHUUSBTEQ_AUoAXoECA8QAw&bi
w=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgrc=WjEHAg17IOFxqM:
According to Dr. Stefan Markuort’s theory, you can see how beautiful face is if its
characteristics are arranged according to the golden ratio – a ratio equal to 1.618 : 1.
The golden ratio is the basis that most people use in determining what they perceive to
be beautiful. However, this is done on a subconscious level by some people who are
67
•••
inclined to arts such as artists or architects who purposefully designed the object to
reflect mathematical proportions.
Here are some other examples showing the divine proportion in nature:
https://www.google.com/search?q=golden+ratio&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKsODe
8JnmAhXdxosBHd83C4QQ_AUoAXoECBEQAw&biw=1536&bih=754&dpr=1.25#imgdii=ttyCeJxYVCL93M:
&imgrc=i-BdKeN4Ae41XM:
The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, built about

2600 B.C., is the earliest known example of use
of the golden ratio in architecture. The ratio of
any of its sides of the square base (775.75 ft) to
its altitude (481.4 ft) is about 1.611. Do you think
the Pyramid of Giza is sturdy because its
measurements follow the golden ratio? Some
do, some don’t. (Read:
https://www.goldennumber.net/great-
pyramid-giza-complex-golden-ratio/ and
https://www.fastcompany.com/3044877/the-
golden-ratio-designs-biggest-myth)
In the 19th century, German physicist and psychologist Gustav Fechner tried to
determine which dimensions were most pleasing to the eye. Fechner, along with
psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, found that most people do unconsciously favor the golden
dimensions when purchasing greeting cards, mirrors, and other rectangular objects. This
discovery has been widely used by commercial manufacturers in their packaging and
labeling designs, by retailers in their store displays, and in other areas of business and
advertising. Another research (Slavka T. Nikolic, et. al.) in 2011 verified that the golden
ratio generally affects consumer preferences. (We shall not show pictures of products
using the golden ratio packaging or presentation because it is not ethical in module-
writing.)
In the twentieth century, architect Le Corbusier developed a scale of proportions for

the human body that he called the Modulor. It was intended to develop a scale which
could improve both the appearance and function of architecture by solely using
human proportions, the double unit, the Fibonacci numbers, and the golden ratio. In
68
•••
the Modulor, you can see the golden sections that form (approximately) golden
proportions like the measurement from the navel (1130) to the floor and the top of the
1130
head to the navel is the golden ratio (1829-1130=699), that’s = 1.617. Look at the
699
Modulor below then use the red and black rectangles and the given measurements to
discover what else in the human body tend to follow the golden ratio.
You Do the Math!
The Golden Ratio and the Human Body

1. Find someone at home who can help you get the measurement (in inches)
of the following:
a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus.
b. Distance from your navel to the top of your head.
69
•••
c. Distance from the ground to your knees.

d. Distance from your wrist to your elbow.
e. Length of your hand.
2. Calculate the following ratios:

a. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus__
Distance from your navel to the top of your head
b. Distance from the ground to your umbilicus_ __

Distance from the ground to your knees
c. Distance from your wrist to your elbow __

Length of your hand
Can you see anything special about these ratios?
The face of both human and nonhuman

also abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio.
The mouth and nose are each positioned at the
golden sections of the distance between the eyes
and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions
can be seen from the side, and even the eye and
ear itself. Animal bodies also exhibit similar
tendencies, including dolphins (the eye, fins, and
tail all fall at Golden sections).
In the field of reproductive science, a gynaecologist at the University Hospital

Leuven in Belgium, studied the measurements of the uterus. Dr. Jasper Veguts, said that
doctors can tell whether a uterus looks normal and healthy based on its relative
dimensions- dimensions that approximate the golden ratio. To come up to this
conclusion, he had measured the uteruses of 5,000 women using ultrasound and drawn
up a table of the average ratio of a uterus’s length to its width for different age bands.
The data showed that this ratio is about 2 at birth, and then it steadily decreases through
a woman’s life to 1.46 when she is in old age. Dr. Verguts was thrilled to discover that
when women are at their most fertile, between the ages of 16 and 20, the ratio of length
to width of a uterus is 1.6- a very good approximation to the golden ratio. (Read: The
Guardian’s Golden Ratio Discovered in Uterus.) Furthermore, it is known that the DNA
molecule measures 34 angstroms long by 21 angstroms wide for each full cycle of its
double helix spiral, that’s another golden ratio. It has been said that the more closely
our proportions adhere to the golden number phi, the more “attractive” those traits are
perceived. It’s quite possible that, from an evo- psych perspective, we are primed to
70
•••
like physical forms that adhere to the golden ratio- a potential indicator of reproductive
fitness and health.
THE GOLDEN RATIO AND GOLDEN RECTANGLE
From the golden proportion, the golden rectangle can be formed.

A C B
a a
a b
Note that when a square is cut off one end of a golden rectangle (see previous
figure), the rectangle has the same properties as the original golden rectangle (creating
“like from like” as Johannes Kepler had written) and is therefore itself a golden rectangle.
Furthermore, the curve derived from a succession of diminishing golden

rectangles (see the four figures above) is the same as the spiral curve of the chambered
nautilus. The same curve appears on the horns of rams and some animals, in sunflowers
and other flower heads, pinecones and pineapples, and others.
In forums over the internet, people were asking why a spiral design seems ever
present in our natural world and in the universe? As of now, we don’t know why, but
nothing in nature happens without a reason, all of these patterns have an important
reason to exist and they also happen to be beautiful to watch. In the case of the flower’s
spiral arrangement of petals, it is believed it was nature’s design so that new leaves don't
block the sun from older leaves, or so that the maximum amount of rain or dew gets
directed down to the roots. For the sunflower’s seed arrangement, the reason seems to
be that this arrangement forms an optimal packing of the seeds so that, no matter how
large the seed head, they are uniformly packed at any stage, all the seeds being the
same size, no crowding in the center and not too sparse at the edges. The same
happens in many seed and flower heads in nature.
71
•••
The Golden Ratio, Golden Rectangle, and Fibonacci Numbers in Art
The Ancient Greek civilization used the golden rectangle in art and architecture.
The main measurements of many buildings of antiquity, including the Parthenon in
Athens, are governed by golden ratios and golden rectangles. Greek statues, vases,
urns, and other works of art also exhibit characteristics of the golden ratio. It is for Phidas,
considered the greatest of Greek sculptors, that the golden ratio was named “phi.” The
golden proportion can be found abundantly in his work.
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, designed by Phidas
https://i.pinimg.com/236x/33/00/0
9/33000
https://i.pinimg.com/236x/33/00/09/33000
72
•••
The golden rectangle can also be seen in the following artworks.
La Parade de Cirque (1887 George Seurat)
Fibonacci Garden (1995 Caryl Fallert)
In the music field, the Golden ratio is also evident.
On the piano keyboard, an octave on a keyboard

has 13 keys: 8 white keys and 5 black keys.
Additionally, the black keys are in one group of 2
and one group of 3.
In one study, researchers found out that the

musical interval considered by many to be the most
pleasing to the ear are the major sixth and minor
5 8
sixth, whose ratio of vibration reduces to and 5 ,
3
respectively. That’s the golden ratio again!
Patterns that can be expressed mathematically in terms of Fibonacci
relationshipshave been found in Gregorian chants and works of many composers,
including Bach, Beethoven, and Bartok.
(https://faculty.ncc.edu/Portals/254/APS09_0508.ppt)
A number of studies have tried to explain why the Fibonacci sequence and
related items are linked to so many real- life situations. It appears that the Fibonacci
numbers are part of a natural harmony that is pleasing to both the eyes and the ear.
73
•••
Learning check
Activity:
Bee Genealogy: In the study of Biology, one learns that a male bee has only
one parent, his mother. A female bee has both father and mother. Complete the
picture of the family tree of a male bee, where δ (Mars) represents male and Ꝗ (Venus)
represents female up to 8th generation. Do you notice any relationship between
Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . and
1. The number of ancestors in each generation?
2. The number of male ancestors in each generation?
3. The number of female ancestors in each generation?
4. Without drawing up to 21st generation, how many ancestors does a
male bee have, and how many of these (ancestors) are male bees?
Learning check
Activity:
1. Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence, with F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, and so

on, find:
1. F18
2. F29
3. If F22 = 17,711 and F24 = 46,368, what is F23?
2. Let’s see if the Golden Ratio is somewhere in each of us. At home, find four
persons to form a group of five. Make a table like the one below. Write the name
of each person in your group.
Name B/N F/K L/H A/E X/Y
1. Measure the height (B) and the navel Height (N) of each member of
your group. Calculate the ratios B/N. Record them in your table.
2. Measure the length (F) of an index finger and the distance (K) from the
finger tip to the big knuckle of each member of your group. Calculate
the ratios F/K. Record them in your table.
3. Measure the length (L) of a leg and the distance (H) from the lip of the
to the kneecap of everyone in your group. Calculate and record the
ratios L/H.
4. Measure the length (A) of an arm and the distance (E) from the finger
tips to the elbow of everyone in your group. Calculate and record the
ratios A/E.
74
•••
5. Select another pair of length (X and Y) on the body that you suspect
may be in the golden ratio. Measure the lengths and calculate the
ratios (large to small) and record them.
E. Isometry
This part of the module will discuss about isometry, which is a kind of
transformation. Mathematical transformation is a process that manipulates a polygon
or other two-dimensional object on a plane or coordinate system. Formally, it is defined
as a one- to- one correspondence between points in the plane such that each point P
is associated with a unique point P’, called the image of P. Basically, it involves taking
a preimage and transforming it in some way to produce an image. A preimage or
inverse image is the two-dimensional shape before any transformation, while
the image is the figure after transformation. Each point in the preimage corresponds to
another point in the image.
There are two different categories of transformations:
1. The rigid transformation, which does not change the shape or size of the
preimage.
2. The non-rigid transformation, which will change the size but not the shape of the
preimage.
Although our lesson will cover only the rigid transformation, we shall mention a little bit
of non- rigid transformation for the sake of identification.
The following figures show the four types of transformations.
1. Translation- which involves “sliding” the object from one position to another.
The preimage is the light orange triangle. Notice

the three parallel arrows that show the direction of
“sliding” or “shifting” to get the image, which is the
dark orange triangle.
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geom
etry/imag
75
•••
2. Reflection- which involves “flipping” the object over a line called the line of reflection.
The preimage is the light orange triangle.

Notice the three parallel arrows that show how the
preimage is “flipped” to create a reflection, the
image (dark orange triangle). The line of reflection
here is the orange vertical line which is equidistant
from corresponding points between the preimage
and the image.
https://www.mathsisfun.com/geo
metry/imag
3. Rotation- which involves “turning” the object about a point called the center of
rotation.
The preimage is the light orange triangle.

Notice the arrow that shows the direction of
rotation (counterclockwise) employed in the
preimage to get the image, the dark orange
triangle. The object is rotated to a certain degree
about the center of rotation.
etry/imag
4. Dilation- which involves a resizing of the object. It could result in an increase in size
(enlargement) or a decrease in size (reduction).
Here, the preimage (light orange triangle) is

dilated (specifically, enlarged) to create the image
(dark orange triangle).
etry/imag 1
76
•••
Among these four types of transformation, translation, reflection and rotations are
called rigid motion or isometric transformations because the image is the same size and
shape as the original object (preimage). This implies that the original object and the
image are congruent. The word isometry comes from the words “iso”, meaning “same”,
and “metry” meaning “measure” so it’s easy to remember that isometry is a kind of
transformation that preserves the size and shape of a geometric figure.
Dilation is not an isometric transformation because the size of the image is not the
same as the original object (preimage). This implies that the original object and the
image are only similar, not congruent. Similar objects have the same shape but different
size.
Properties of Isometries
1. Isometries map lines to lines, segments to segments, rays to rays, angles to angles,
and polygons to polygons.
2. Isometries preserve angle measure.
3. Isometries map triangles to congruent triangles.
4. Isometries preserve parallelism.
At this point, we will discuss the three kinds of isometry and give you examples in
each.
Translation. This is a transformation that acts like a “slide” or “shift”. Here, orientation is
preserved. In a translation, points in the original figure move an identical (constant)
distance along parallel paths to the image of the figure. The arrow, called a translation
vector, shows distance and direction. The length of the translation vector from the
starting location to tip represents the distance, while the direction that the arrow is
pointing represents the direction the object is to be translated. (See sample figure
below.)
https://mammothmemory.net/images/user/ba
What do we have to remember about translation?

✓ It is a rigid transformation of the plane that moves every point of a pre-image a
constant distance in a specified direction.
✓ When working in the plane this is usually represented by an arrow, the arrow
provides both distance and direction of the translation.
77
•••
✓ When working in the coordinate plane, a translation vector (V or 𝑣⃗) is used to

describe the fixed distance and the given direction often denoted by < 𝒉, 𝒌 >.
The h-value describes the effect on the x-coordinates (right or left) and the k-
value describes the effect on the y-coordinates (up or down).
✓ After a translation, the pre-image and the image are identical.
What are the properties of translation?

1. Distance (lengths of segments are the same)
2. Angle measure (angles stay the same)
3. Parallelism (things that were parallel are still parallel)
4. Collinearity (points on a line, remain on the line)
Coordinate plane rules for translation:

(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌) where h and k are the horizontal and vertical shifts.
Note: If movement is to the left, then h is negative. If movement is downward, then k is

negative.
Example 1: Given the vector < −2, 9 > written in component form, convert it to
coordinate plane rule.
Solution: < −2, 9 > converted to coordinate plane rule is (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 9)
Example 2: Translate the given triangle ABC three units to the right and two units down.
(Write the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle to clearly see the change in the
coordinates after translation.)
Solution: The problem tells us to slide the figure 3

units to the right and 2 units down. That means we
have 3 units horizontal translation (parallel to the x-
axis) and 2 units vertical translation (parallel to the y-
axis). In symbols, the vector is written < 3, −2 >. To
get the coordinates of the image, we can apply the
coordinate plane rules for translation:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 ± ℎ, 𝑦 ± 𝑘)
where h and k are the horizontal and vertical shifts.
So, we have: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 3, 𝑦 − 2). This means that
we will add 3 to the x- coordinate and subtract 2 from the y- coordinate of each point
in the preimage to get the corresponding image. But since three points can already
determine a triangle, we only need three points to get the picture of the image. And
for convenience, we will of course, pick the vertices.
𝐴(−3, 2) → (−3 + 3, 2 − 2)
→ (0,0) the image of A is (0, 0)
𝐵(−2, 4) → (−2 + 3, 4 − 2)
→ (1, 2) the image of B is (1, 2)
78
•••
𝐶(−1, 1) → (−1 + 3, 1 − 2)
→ (2, −1) the image of C is (2, −1)
We can now plot these points on the same Cartesian plane to show the new location
of the triangle after translation.
Note: The image of a point is denoted by ‘

and is read “prime”
Notice that the shape and size of the

triangle are preserved.
Example 3: Given the figure, determine the translation vector that would translate the
preimage to the image. (The direction of the arrow should tell you that the preimage is
the pink triangle and the image is the blue triangle.)
Solution: Begin by naming the coordinates of some

points on the preimage (conveniently, the vertices),
and their corresponding points on the image. The
graph below shows these points.
Through the second graph, we can systematically write the correspondence of points
between the preimage and the image.
𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′(−2, −8)
𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶′(7, −4)
79
•••
Then, we go back to the coordinate plane rule(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 ± 𝒉, 𝒚 ± 𝒌)s. We want to know

what values of h and k will satisfy the translation. Basically, we want to know the values
of h and k that will satisfy the following equations:
−6 + ℎ = −2 1 + 𝑘 = −8
−2 + ℎ = 2 7 + 𝑘 = −2
3+ℎ=7 5 + 𝑘 = −4
Solving for h using any of the three equations involving h, we get ℎ = 4. And solving for
k using any of the three equations involving k, we get 𝑘 = −9. So, the translation vector
is < 4, −9 > . You can check if our answer is correct by checking if each pair/
corresponding point satisfies (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 − 9).
Checking: 𝐴(−6, 1) → 𝐴′ (−6 + 4, 1 − 9) = 𝐴′(−2, −8)

𝐵(−2, 7) → 𝐵 ′ (−2 + 4, 7 − 9) = 𝐵′(2, −2)
𝐶(3, 5) → 𝐶 ′ (3 + 4, 5 − 9) = 𝐶′(7, −4)
Example 4: Triangle PQR is a preimage with its vertices at 𝑃(−5, 0), 𝑄 (5, −2) and 𝑅(0, −3).
If the triangle is translated by the vector 𝑣⃗ =< −5, −6 >, what are the coordinates of the
image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′?
Solution: A graph will definitely help you picture out the problem and the solution. But
even without it, we can solve this problem. Just remember that the vector gives us the
values of h and k in the coordinate plane rule for translation. Here, our h is equal to -5
and our k is equal to -6. Plugging these to the formula, we have:
(𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙 − 𝟓, 𝒚 − 𝟔)
This formula will make it possible for us to determine the image of the vertices of the
preimage triangle, even without a graph.
𝑷(−𝟓, 𝟎) → 𝑷′(−𝟓 − 𝟓, 𝟎 − 𝟔) = 𝑷′(−𝟏𝟎, −𝟔)
𝑸(𝟓, −𝟐) → 𝑸′(𝟓 − 𝟓, −𝟐 − 𝟔) = 𝑸′ (𝟎, −𝟖)
𝑹(𝟎, − 𝟑) → 𝑹′(𝟎 − 𝟓, −𝟑 − 𝟔) = 𝑹′ (−𝟓, −𝟗)
So, the coordinates of the image triangle 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′ are (−10, −6), (0, −8) and (−5, −9). You
can check our answer by sketching the graph of the preimage and image triangles.
Observe if the size, shape, and orientation of the preimage are preserved after
translation. (Graphing is left for you to do.)
Example 5: A translation maps point 𝐴(7, 3) to point 𝐴′(−2, 6). Determine this translation
vector.
Solution: This is a single point translation, and the coordinate plane rule still applies. In
fact this is an easier version of example 3. Here, we want to find the values of h and k
such that when you add h to 7 you get -2, and when you add k to 3 you get 6. Easily,
we can say that ℎ = −9 and 𝑘 = 3, because:
7 − 9 = −2 and 3 + 3 = 6
So, the translation vector is 𝑣⃗ =< −9, 3 >.
80
•••
Note: In general, to calculate the exact horizontal shift of a translation from preimage
to image, we subtract the x- coordinate of the preimage from the x- coordinate of the
image. And to calculate the exact vertical shift of a translation from preimage to image,
we subtract the y- coordinate of the preimage from the y- coordinate of the image.
Example 6: The vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 describes the translation of 𝐴(−1, 𝑤) onto 𝐴’(2𝑥 + 1, 4)
and 𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) onto 𝐵’(3, 3𝑧). Find the values of w, x, y, and z.
Solution: Remember that the translation vector 𝑣⃗ = 〈4,1〉 can be converted to

coordinate plane rule (𝑥 + 4, 𝑦 + 1) . To understand the problem better, let us
systematically write each pair of preimage and image along with the translation vector.
𝐴(−1, 𝑤) → 𝐴′(−1 + 4, 𝑤 + 1) = 𝐴′ (2𝑥 + 1, 4)
𝐵(8𝑦 − 1, 1) → 𝐵′(8𝑦 − 1 + 4, 1 + 1) = 𝐵′(3, 3𝑧)
So, what we actually need to do is to solve the equations that we can form from the
mappings above. And what are these equations?
Equation 1: −1 + 4 = 2𝑥 + 1 (from the x- coordinate A’)
3 = 2𝑥 + 1 (equation 1 simplified)
Equation 2: 𝑤 + 1 = 4 (from the y- coordinate A’)
Equation 3: 8𝑦 − 1 + 4 = 3 (from the x- coordinate B’)

8𝑦 = 0 (equation 3 simplified)
Equation 4: 1 + 1 = 3𝑧 (from the y- coordinate B’)

2 = 3𝑧 (equation 4 simplified)
Now, let’s look at the boxed equations. These are simple equations and we can solve
them right away!
Solving for x: 2𝑥 + 1 = 3 Solving for w: 𝑤+1=4

2𝑥 = 2 𝑤=3
𝑥=1
Solving for y: 8𝑦 = 0 Solving for z: 3𝑧 = 2

2
𝑦=0 𝑧=3
So, the coordinates of the points in the preimage are 𝐴(−1, 3) and 𝐵(−1, 1), and that of
the image are 𝐴′(3, 4) and 𝐵 ′ (3, 2). To check, let’s look at their graph.
81
•••
Notice that both points of the pre-image

moved a constant distance in parallel
direction.
Rotation. A rotation is a translation that corresponds to turning or rotating a figure

through some degree 𝜃, around a fixed point 𝑂, called the center of rotation. Rays
drawn from the center of rotation to a point on the preimage and its corresponding
image form the angle of rotation. (See figure below.)
What do we have to remember about rotation?

✓ Rotations do not preserve orientation unless the rotation is 360° or the figure
exhibits rotational symmetry.
✓ Rotations of 180° are equivalent to a reflection through the origin.
✓ The rotation with center O and angle with measure 𝑎, denoted 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 , maps each
point P other than O to the point P’ such that the measure of directed angle ∡𝑃𝑂𝑃′
is a, and 𝑂𝑃′ = 𝑂𝑃. Point O is mapped to itself by 𝑅𝑂,𝑎 . (See figure below.)
✓ If the angle of rotation is positive, the rotation is done counterclockwise, and if the
angle of rotation is negative, the rotation is done clockwise.
What are the properties of rotation?

3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
5. Orientation (lettering order remains the same)
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•••
Coordinate plane rules for Rotation
Center of Angle of Preimage Rotated Notation

Rotation Rotation (Point P) (Point P’) (Point P’)
(0,0) 90° (or −270°) (x, y) (-y, x) (x, y) → (-y, x)
(0,0) 180° (or −180°) (x, y) (-x, -y) (x, y) → (-x, -y)
(0,0) 270° (or −90°) (x, y) (y, -x) (x, y) → (y, -x)
Use this table of coordinate plane rules (which we shall call cheat sheet) to guide you
in answering questions like this. All you have to do is verify if the center of rotation is (0, 0),
and then look up the row that contains the angle of rotation indicated in the problem.
Here, we do not indicate whether the rotation is clockwise or counterclockwise, but a
little recall from your Trigonometry class will remind you that clockwise rotation yields to
a negative angle, while counterclockwise rotation yields to a positive angle. Notice that
in the table, the values corresponding to 90° and −270° are the same. That is because
90° and −270° are coterminal angles (their initial and terminal sides are the same). The
last column of the table shows us the coordinate plane rules for rotation in different
angles. Our discussion is limited only to rotation through 90°, 180°, and 270°, around the
origin.
Example 1: Find an image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a counterclockwise
rotation:
a. about the origin at 90°
b. about the origin at 180°
c. about the origin at 270°
Solution:
a. The last column for 90° shows us (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥) . It means that to get the
coordinates of the image of a point that has undergone this rotation, you have
to take the opposite sign of y and interchange it with x. So we will have:
(3, 2) → (−2, 3)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 90° , its image will be
located at (−2, 3). Let’s take a look at its graph.
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•••
The center of rotation is (0, 0), the angle

of rotation is 90°. If you draw a line from
the preimage to the center of rotation,
and another line from the image to the
center of rotation, you will see that
these two lines will form an angle of
same amount to the given angle of
rotation (90°). Notice that the arrow of
rotation shows counterclockwise
direction because the angle of rotation
is positive.
b. We do the same thing with the second problem, but this time we look at the last
column for the second row (180°) of the table to get the coordinate plane rule:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). This means that we are going to take the opposite sign of both
coordinates. Applying this to the given point, we will have:
(3, 2) → (−3, −2)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 180°, its image will be
located at (−3, −2). Let’s take a look at its graph.
The center of rotation is (0, 0) , the

angle of rotation is 180°. You will see
that the two lines made by connecting
the preimage and image to the center
of rotation formed an angle of same
amount to the given angle of rotation
(180°) . Notice that the arrow of
rotation shows counterclockwise
direction because the angle of
rotation is positive.
c. We do the same thing with the

third problem, but this time we look at the last column for the third row (270°) of
the table to get the coordinate plane rule: (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). This means that we
are going to take the opposite sign of x and interchange it with y. Applying this to
the given point, we will have:
(3, 2) → (2, −3)
This means that if you rotate (3, 2) around the origin at 270°, its image will be
located at (2, −3). Let’s take a look at its graph.
84
•••
The center of rotation is (0, 0), the angle of rotation

is 270°. If the angle of rotation had been −90°, you
will get the same graph, but the direction of
rotation will be different.
Example 2: Write the notation to describe the rotation for the point (5, −4). Check your
answer by plotting the preimage and image points.
a. about the origin at −90°
b. clockwise rotation about the origin at 180°
c. clockwise about the origin at 270°
Solutions: Look up the table for the coordinate plane rule for each rotation.
a. For a rotation of −90° , we look up the same row for 270° because they are
coterminal angles. The coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Applying this to
(5, −4) and indicating the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (−4, − 5)
b. For a clockwise rotation of 180°, that means our angle of rotation is −180°, and we
look up the same row for 180° because they are coterminal angles. The
coordinate plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦). Applying this to (5, −4) and indicating
the center and angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,180 (5, −4) → (−5, 4)
c. For a clockwise rotation of 270°, that means our angle of rotation is −270°, and we
look up the same row for 90° because they are coterminal angles. The coordinate
plane rule is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥). Applying this to (5, −4) and indicating the center and
angle of rotation, we have:
𝑅0,−270 (5, −4) → (4, 5)
85
•••
Example 3. Describe the rotation in words and in notation.
Solution: Since some coordinates of the preimage and the rotated image are given, we
can just inspect how each pair behaves. Let’s examine them one- by- one. The
statement inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine each pair of
corresponding points.
𝐴(1, 1) → 𝐴′(−1, 1) (It seems that the sign of x was changed.)

𝐵(5, 5) → 𝐵′(−5, 5) (It could also be that the sign of y was changed
and it was interchanged with x.)
𝐶(−2, 4) → 𝐶′(−4, −2) (This one is clearer; it verifies that the sign of y was
indeed changed and it was interchanged with x.)
Our investigation leads us to conclude that the coordinate plane rule employed in this
rotation is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, 𝑥), which means that the figure is rotated around the center
through 90°. (See cheat sheet for verification.)
Example 4: Write the mapping rule for the counterclockwise rotation of Image A to
Image B.
Solution: Just like in example 3, we can take a few corresponding points for investigation
on how the coordinates behave. But this time, the coordinates are not given so we still
need to name them. For convenience, let’s pick points that are located at integer
points, like A, B, C, and D (although three points are more than enough).
𝐴(−12, 4) → 𝐴′(4, 12) (It seems that the sign of x is changed and it is
interchanged with y.)
86
•••
𝐵(−12, 1) → 𝐵′(1, 12) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed and it
is interchanged with y.)
𝐶(−8, 4) → 𝐶′(4, 8) (By now, we are convinced that the sign of x is
changed and it is interchanged with y.)
𝐷(−5, 1) → 𝐴′(1, 5) (This further verifies that that the sign of x is
changed and it is interchanged with y.)
Going back to the cheat sheet, the angle of rotation that gives this coordinate
plane rule (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) is 270°. So the mapping that satisfies this rotation is:
𝑅0, 270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)
Example 5. Write the notation that represents the clockwise rotation of the preimage A
to the rotated image J in the diagram below.
Solution: Another way to answer the question is to take one point on the preimage and
bring it to the center of rotation. Then take one point from the image also, and bring it
to the center of rotation. Finally trace a rotation along these lines to see or measure the
angle. I believe you are already familiar on how 90°, 180°, and 270° look. (See figure
below.)
The orange broken line is the line that brings a

point on the preimage to the center of rotation.
The blue broken line is the line that brings a point
on the image to the center of rotation. The brown
arrow shows the direction and measure of the
angle of rotation. Since it forms a straight angle,
we can conclude that the rotation employed
here is 180°, and thr mapping rule notation is:
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦).
Example 6: Thomas describes a rotation as point J moving from J(-2,6) to J’(6, 2). Identify
and write the notation to describe the rotation for Thomas.
Solution: The sign of x is changed and coordinates were interchanged, so in symbols, it

is (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥). Since the direction of rotation is not indicated, then there are two
possible answers- it is either 270° or −90°. So, we write:
𝑅0,270 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥) or 𝑅0,−90 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, −𝑥)
87
•••
Reflection. A reflection is a transformation that takes a shape and flips it across a line
(called the line of reflection or axis of symmetry) to create a new shape. A line of
reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining every point and its image.
(See figure below.)
A figure has reflection symmetry if there is a line that

can be “folded over” so that one- half of the figure
matches the other half perfectly. The “fold line” is
called the figure’s line (axis) of symmetry.
In the figure on the left, notice that when we fold the figure
along the line in the middle through B, we are actually forming
a one- to- one correspondence between the points of the
figure. For example, points A and C correspond to each other,
points D and E correspond to each other, and points along
segments ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐶𝐵
̅̅̅̅ correspond. If a point lies on the axis of
symmetry then it corresponds to itself, like the point B here in the
figure.
What do we have to remember about translation?

✓ By examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine the line
of reflection. The most common lines of reflection are the x- axis, the y- axis, the
line 𝑦 = 𝑥, and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥. Sometimes, a figure is also reflected through a point
like the origin (0, 0), in which case, there is no line of reflection; only point of
reflection.
✓ Reflections do not preserve orientation.
What are the properties of reflection?

3. Parallelism (parallel lines remain parallel)
Coordinate plane rules and notations for Reflection

Over the x- axis: 𝒓𝒙−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒙, −𝒚) (change the sign of y)
Over the y- axis: 𝒓𝒚−𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) (change the sign of x)
Over the line 𝒚 = 𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (𝒚, 𝒙) (interchange x and y)
Over the line 𝒚 = −𝒙: 𝒓𝒚=−𝒙 (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒚, −𝒙) (change the signs of x and y and
interchange them)
88
•••
Through the origin (0, 0) 𝒓(𝟎,𝟎) (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, −𝒚) (change the signs of x and y)
Example 1. Determine the line of reflection of the triangle below. The preimage is the
triangle with solid lines.
Solution: Write the coordinates of corresponding vertices of the preimage and image
triangle to clearly see the change in the coordinates after reflection. The statement
inside the parenthesis is just a “working guess” as we examine each pair of
corresponding points.
𝐴(2, 2) → 𝐴′(−2, 2) (It seems that the sign of x is changed.)

𝐵(4, 4) → 𝐴′(−4, 4) (It also seems that the sign of x is changed.)
𝐶(5, 1) → 𝐴′(−5, 1) (This verifies that the sign of x is changed.)
Going back to the coordinate plane rule for reflection, which we shall call cheat sheet,
the kind of reflection that changes the sign of x, (𝒙, 𝒚) → (−𝒙, 𝒚) after reflecting an image
is reflection over the y- axis. So, our answer is: The line of reflection is the y- axis.
Example 2: Find the image of the point (3, 2) that has undergone a reflection across the
following lines:
a. the x- axis
b. the y-axis
c. the line y=x
d. the line y=-x
e. through the origin (0, 0)
Solution: We just look at our cheat sheet, if we have not memorized it yet. Apply the rules
a. 𝑟𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟x−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (3, −2)
b. 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, 𝑦) so, 𝑟𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 (3,2) → (−3, 2)
c. 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (3,2) → (2, 3)
d. 𝑟𝑦=−𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥) so, 𝑟𝑦=−x (3,2) → (−2, −3)
e. 𝑟(0,0) (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦) so, 𝑟(0,0) (3,2) → (−3, −2)
Let us look at the graph of these reflections.
89
•••
The last two figures are both graphs of the point (3, 2) reflected through the origin. The
last figure shows us that reflection of figure through the origin is the same as rotation of
figure around the origin through 180°.
Example 3. Reflect Image A in the diagram below across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
Solution: First, we have to determine some points in the

triangle, and for convenience, we pick the vertices. Let us
label them with letters PQR and write their coordinates.
90
•••
In vertex Q, we opted to write the fraction form or

the y- coordinate because we want to get used to
using exact values instead of decimal
approximations (although 3.5 is also exact).
We, then look back on our cheat sheet and apply

the rule for reflecting figures over the line 𝑦 = 𝑥,
which is:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑦, 𝑥) (interchange x and y)
So, we will have the following mappings:

𝑃(1, 2) → 𝑃′(2, 1)
7 7
𝑄 (2, 2) → 𝑄′ (2 , 2)
𝑅(3, 1) → 𝑅′(1, 3)
We now plot these points on the same plane. Let us not forget to show the line of
reflection.
Example 4: Write the notation that represents the reflection of the preimage to the
image in the diagram below:
Solution: The line of reflection (red broken line) is
clearly shown to be the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. So we can
easily write the notation that represents this
reflection as:
𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑦, −𝑥)
Had there been no indicated line of symmetry,

you will need to pick some pairs of
91
•••
corresponding points on the preimage and image and investigate how each pair of
coordinates behave, just like what we did in example 1.
Example 5: Alvin describes a reflection as point J moving from J(−2,6) to J′(−2,−6). Write
the notation to describe this reflection for Alvin.
Solution: The sign of y is changed, so this must be a reflection over the x- axis, and the
notation is: 𝑟𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥, −𝑦)
❖ Bonus Lesson!
Glide Reflection. This is a transformation that is a combination of a translation and a
reflection.
Definition
Suppose that A and B are different points in the
plane and that line l is parallel to directed line
segment ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 . The combination of the translation
followed by the reflection is called the glide
reflection determined by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and glide axis 𝑙. That
is, P is first is mapped to P* by translation. Then P* is
mapped to P’ by reflection. The combination of
translation followed by reflection maps P to P’.
Learning check
Activity:
1. Translate the triangle ABC, whose vertices are 𝐴(−3, 2), 𝐵(−2, 4), and 𝐶(−1, 1),
three units to the right and two units down. Show the graph of the preimage and
image with coordinates.
2. Rotate triangle XYZ (-2, -4), (-4, 5), (1, 3) into 90°, 180°, and 270°. Show the graph of
the preimage and image with coordinates. Indicate the angle of rotation in each
graph.
3. Reflect triangle LMN (5, 1), (2, 2), (4, 4) across x-axis, y-axis, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and 𝑦 = −𝑥.
Show the graph of the preimage and image with coordinates.
4. Graph square SQRE with the following vertices: 𝑆(1,2), 𝑄(4,1), 𝑅(5,4) and 𝐸(2,5).
Then find the image after the translation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 + 3). Graph and label
the image.
5. Fill in the blanks with the correct coordinates if the given point will be rotated
through the indicated angle of rotation.
92
•••
Starting point 90° rotation 180° rotation 270° rotation 360° rotation
1. (1, 4)
2. (4, 2)
3. (2, 0)
4. (-1, 2)
5. (-2, -3)
6. Write the rotation and its corresponding notation that represents the rotation of
the preimage to the image for each diagram below.
a. b.
c. d.
7. Determine the line of reflection to describe the movement of the points in each
of the reflections below.
a. S(1,5)→S′(−1,5) g. F(−4,2)→F′(−4,−2)
b. A(3,5)→A′(−3,5) h. G(1,3)→G′(1,−3)
c. W(−5,−1)→W′(5,−1) i. B(−4,−2)→B′(−2,−4)
d. C(1,2)→C′(2,1) j. E(3,1)→E′(−3,1)
e. Q(2,−5)→Q′(2,5) k. M(4,3)→M′(−3,−4)
f. D(2,−5)→D′(5,−2)
Practice exercise 13
93
•••
REFLECTION
What new ideas about mathematics did you learn in th?

What is it about mathematics that might have changed your thoughts about
it?
What about mathematics do you think is the most useful for humankind?
Learning check
Construct a short – response essay focusing on only one of the following aspects
of mathematics. (10 points)
i. Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.

ii. Mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and phenomena in the
world.
iii. Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own
ends.
Rubrics %
Substance
(depth and validity of the 40%
content)
Relevance
30%
(connection to the topic)
Comprehensiveness
20%
(extensiveness of the content)
Clarity
10%
(organization of though)
Total 100%
EVALUATION
Part 1. Answer the following completely and neatly in yellow paper. You may choose
to work alone or with a partner, in which case, you will submit a single output. Do not
use the back page of your paper.
27
1. Find the nth term of the sequence 6, 9, ,… (4 points)
2
(Hint: Determine first whether this is an arithmetic or geometric sequence. Remember
that the converse of common difference is common addend and the converse of
common ratio is common multiplier.)
2. Find 𝑎𝑛 in the arithmetic sequence 45, 60, 75, 90, …, (7

points)
94
•••
3. Find 𝑝 so that 𝑝 + 7, 3𝑝 + 9, 𝑝 + 3, …, form an arithmetic sequence. (10

points)
(Hint: Remember that pairs successive terms in an arithmetic sequence has common
difference. So here you have to show that the difference between pairs of successive
terms are common or equal.)
4. Find the sum of all even numbers between 33 and 427. (8 points)
(Note: Even numbers only.)
5. The total seating capacity in an auditorium is 1,065. The first row has 21 seats and
each row has one seat more than the row in front of it. How many rows are
there in the auditorium?
(15 points)
(Hint: In case you will need the quadratic formula in your solution, here it is: 𝑥 =
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
2𝑎
Part II. True or False.
a. The sum of any six consecutive Fibonacci numbers is always divisible by 4.

b. The sum of any 10 consecutive Fibonacci numbers is always divisible by 11.
c. The greatest common factor of any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers is 1.
d. For any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers, the difference of the squares of the
middle two numbers equals the product of the smallest and largest numbers.
e. Twice any Fibonacci number minus the next Fibonacci number equals the
second number preceding the original number.
Part III. Determine whether the sequence is a Fibonacci- type sequence (each term is
the sum of the two preceding terms). If it is, determine the next two terms of the
sequence.
1) 4, 5, 9, 18, 36, 72, …

2) 4, 5, 9, 14, 23 ,37, …
3) 1, 5, 6, 11, 17, 28, …
4) 0, 𝜋, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, …
5) -1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 2, …
6) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …
7) 5, 10, 15, 25, 40, 65, …
1 1 1 3 1
8) , , , , 1 4 , 2, …
4 4 2, 4
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•••
Part IV. Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following transformations represents an isometry?
a. c.
b. d.
2. Refer to the figure below. The rule for this transformation of ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 onto ∆ 𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′ is
______________________.
a. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 9, 𝑦 − 2)
b. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 9, 𝑦 + 2)
c. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 − 9, 𝑦 + 2)
d. (𝑥, 𝑦) → (𝑥 + 9, 𝑦 − 2)
3. The point 𝐴(−7, 3) is translated onto 𝐴′ by the vector 𝑢

⃗⃗ = 〈5, −4〉. The coordinates
of 𝐴′ are ______________.
a. (−2, −1) b. (−12, 7) c. (2, −7) d. (5, −4)
4. What are the coordinates of the vertices when the figure is reflected in line m?
a. 𝑊 ′ (4, −3), 𝑋 ′ (−2, −1), 𝑌 ′ (−5, −1)
b. 𝑊 ′ (4, 3), 𝑋 ′ (2, −1), 𝑌 ′ (−5, 1)
c. 𝑊 ′ (0, −3), 𝑋 ′ (−2, 1), 𝑌 ′ (−9, −1)
d. 𝑊 ′ (−3, 0), 𝑋 ′ (1, −2), 𝑌 ′ (−1, −9)
5. A reflection is always ____________.

a. a rotation b. a translation c. an isometry d. reflexive
96
•••
4
6. The graph of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 below represents the equation 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 + 4. If ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 is reflected
over the x- axis, what would be the new value of y when 𝑥 = 0?
a. −3
b. −4
c. 4
d. 3
7. Refer to the figure below. The change in position from the solid figure to the
dotted/ dashed figure is best describes as _____________.
a. transmission
b. reflection
c. rotation
d. translation
8. Use the graph below to complete the sentence: “Figure 𝐴′ 𝐵 ′ 𝐶 ′ 𝐷′ is the image
of figure 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 under a rotation __________________________________.”
a. 180° about the origin

b. 90° counterclockwise about the
origin
c. 270° counterclockwise about the
origin
d. 270° clockwise about the origin
97
•••
4
9. The graph of ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 below represents the equation 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 + 4. If ⃡⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑀𝑁 is rotated
counterclockwise 270° around the origin, what will be the new coordinates of
point N?
a. (0, 3)
b. (0, −3)
c. (3, 0)
d. (−3, 0)
10. The transformation (𝑥, 𝑦) → (−𝑥, −𝑦) is applied to the figure below. Identify the
image of the figure under this transformation.
98
•••
11. Which glide reflection could map triangle ABC to triangle A′B′C′?
a. translation: (x, y) → (x, y + 3)

reflection : in x = −1
b. translation: (x, y) → (x + 1, y + 3)
reflection: in x = −1
c. translation: (x, y) → (x + 3, y)
reflection: in y = −1
d. translation: (x, y) → (x + 3, y + 1)
reflection: in y = −1
12. Which of the following shows the image of ∆ABC after the glide reflection
described?
TRANSLATION: (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱, 𝐲 − 𝟑); REFLECTION: in 𝐱 = 𝟏
99
•••
13. Which of the following shows the image of ∆ABC after the glide reflection
described?
TRANSLATION: (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱 − 𝟕, 𝐲); REFLECTION: in 𝐲 = 𝟑
14. The composition of two (or more) isometries is always ___________________.

a. an isometry b. a translation c. a rotation d. a reflection
15. Graph ∆DEF with vertices D(0,3), E(4,3), and (F(0,7). Then graph its image after
the given transformation.
ROTATE 𝟏𝟖𝟎° THEN TRANSLATE USING (𝐱, 𝐲) → (𝐱 − 𝟏, 𝐲 − 𝟏).
a. b.
c. d.
100
•••
16. The hexagon shown below is equiangular. How many lines of symmetry does it
have?
a. 2 c. 3
b. 1 d. 6
17. Which of the following four letters Q, S, T, Z (if drawn as simply as possible) has at
least one line of symmetry?
a. S b. T c. Q d. Z
18. Which figure shows all lines of symmetry?
a. c.
b. d.
19. Which figure has more than one line of symmetry?

a. b. c. d.
20. If a triangle has three lines of symmetry, then it is ______________.

a. scalene b. equilateral c. a right triangle d. isosceles
21. Which of the following is not true?

a. A regular hexagon has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
b. A triangle has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
c. A rectangle has rotational symmetry and always has line symmetry.
d. A parallelogram has rotational symmetry and may have line symmetry.
101
•••
22. Which figure has rotational symmetry for an angle of rotation of 240°?
a. b. c. d.
23. The line shown in the figure below is the only line of symmetry for a hexagon. The
figure shows three of the hexagon’s vertices. What are the coordinates of the
other three vertices of the hexagon?
a. (7, 3), (6, −2), (0, −3)
b. (7, 3), (6, −2), (−1, −2)
c. (7, 3), (7, −1), (0, −2)
d. (3, 7), (−2, 6), (−3, 0)
24. Points A, B, and C are three points on a convex polygon that has rotational
symmetry only for rotations of 90° or multiples of 90°. How many more vertices
does the polygon have and what are their coordinates?
a. There is one more vertex at (2, 3).
b. There are two more vertices at

(2, 1) and (1, 2).
c. There are two more vertices at
(2, 0) and (0, 2).
d. There is one more vertex at (2, 2).
25. During ceramics class, Susan painted plates for her mother. Which design
exhibits rotational symmetry?
102
•••
References
1. Aufmann, R. er.al. (2018). Mathematical in the Modern World Excursions. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.
2. Bluman, A. G. (2003). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach. 5th Ed.
McGraw Hill, Inc.
3. CENGAGE (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
4. DS Malik, MK Sen. Discrete Mathematical Structures.
5. Johnsonbaugh, R. Discrete Mathematics.
6. Guillermo, R.M. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Quezon City: Nieme
Publishing House Co. Ltd.
7. Lactuan, I. R. et. al. (2018). Instructional Material in Mathematics in the Modern
World. Puerto Princesa City: Palawan State University.
8. Nocon, R. C. & E. G. Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C
& E Publishing, Inc.
9. Nocon and Nocon (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World.
10. Stewart, I. Nature’s Numbers. http://ian-stewart-numerele-naturii.pdf
11. Walpole, M. and M. (2002). Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists. 7th
Ed. Prentice Hall Int’l. Inc.
12. wac.colostate.edu http://wac.colostate.edu/docs/llad/v4n1/jamison.pdf
13. https://problem-solving_by_Loren%20C.%20Larson.pdf
14. http://46.100.53.74/IdeaWeb/Files/Data/Library/20169131536812.pdf
15. https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2017/04/math-real-life-examples
16. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-algebra/chapter/geometric-
sequences-
17. https://www.analyzemath.com/math_problems/geom-seq-problems.html
18. https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/Sequences/SSGauss.html
19. https://www.wyzant.com/resources/blogs/277085/mathematical_journeys_carl_ga
uss_and_the_sum_of_an_arithmetic_series
20. carl gauss arithmetic series
21. https://www.coolmath.com/algebra/19-sequences-series/06-gauss-problem-
arithmetic-series-07
22. https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/math-transformation.html
23. https://study.com/academy/lesson/transformations-in-math-definition-graph-
quiz.html
24. https://tutors.com/math-tutors/geometry-help/transformations-in-math-definition-
examples
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Module 1

The Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics in the Modern World

In his book “How Not to Be Wrong: The Power of Mathematical Thinking”,

Grasp the history of mathematics and its impact to the world;

Classify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

Explain the importance of mathematics in one’s life;

Appreciate mathematics as a human endeavor through creating self-designed

Utilize methods and approaches in proving and solving problems.

Initial activity (Accessing prior knowledge)

mathematicians, called pure mathematicians are interested only in finding a pattern or

Mathematics was used for counting and

Geometric designs were used in artifacts, not as the

Mathematics proper was developed when

The use of 60 and 360 in the circle

Sumerian/ Babylonian Mathematics

Mathematics was used for developing agriculture

Starting as early as the 4th millennium BC, large

The Sumerian and Babylonian Number System: Base 60

The Babylonians used geometric shapes in their buildings

Pythagorean triangles were already discussed as

Measurements were based on body parts and a

The Ancient Egyptian Number System: Base 10 was

The Rhind Papyrus existed around 1650 BC. It is a kind of

A notation for fractions was developed in order to

In about 450 BC, the ancient numeral system

The guidelines for the abstract development of

One of the best known mathematical

The Three Geometrical Problems were

The idea of infinity was contested by the

The idea of proof and the deductive method

Alexandria in Egypt became a great center of learning by the

Euclid- was the great chronicler of the mathematics of the tim.

In the 3rd century BC, Apollonius of Perga became famous for

The first recorded female mathematician, Hypatia, lived in the

By the middle of the first century, Roman

As early as 2000 BC, Mayans have known the

As early as 36 BC Mayans and their neighbours had

In the 2nd millennium BC the Chinese numbering system was

Numbers and mathematical patterns were fascinating to the

In the 13th Century, Chinese mathematician Yang Hui produced a

From about 200 BC onwards, the Chinese started putting

The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was also a particularly

Before 1000 BC, Indians already had Vedic math.

In the 4th century BC, Buddha was already

As early as the 8th century BC, the Sulba Sutras was

As early as the 3rd or 2nd century, Indian

In the 3rd century CE, the Hindu- Arabic number

In the 7th century, Brahmagupta made the brilliant

In 400 CE, a text called Surya Siddhanta by unkown authors was

As early as the 6th century BC, Aryabhata have been

THe most accomplished mathematician lived In the

In the 14t century, The Kerata School of Astronomy and

In the 8th century, mathematics was raised to the form of an art in

The House of Wisdom was set up in Baghdad around 810, where

In the 9th century, outstanding Persian mathematician,