ANAPHYSIO LECTURE
MIDTERMS
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Histology and Physiology
Functions of the Muscular System
 Types of Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal Muscle- Most abundant and
most studied type
 Smooth Muscle- most widely
distributed type of muscle in the body.
 Cardiac Muscle- found only in the
heart, and its contractions provide the
major force for moving blood through
the circulatory system.
 Major Functions  layers located outside sarcolemma.
 Movement of the body
 Maintenance of posture
 Respiration
 Production of Body Heat
 Communication
 Constriction of organs and vessels
 Contraction of the heart
 4 Major functional properties
 Contractility- the ability of muscle to
shorten forcefully, or contract
 Excitability- the capacity of muscle to
respond to an electrical stimulus.
 Extensibility- means a muscle can be
stretched beyond its normal resting
length and still be able to contracts.
 Elasticity- the ability of muscle to
spring back to its original resting length
after it has been stretched.
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy  filaments, which are part of the
 Connective Tissue Coverings
 Fascicles- a muscle is composed of
numerous visible bundles.
 Perimysium- Connective tissue layer
that surrounds each fasciculus.
 Epimysium- The entire muscle is
surrounded by a layer of dense irregular
collagenous connective tissue (DICCT)
 Fascia- is a general term for sheets of
DICCT within the body.
 Muscular fascia- located superficial to
the epimysium and separates individual
muscles or groups of muscles.
 Nerves and Blood Vessels
 Motor neurons- specialized nerve cells
responsible for stimulating skeletal
muscle contraction.
 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy
 Long, cylindrical cells, each with
several nuclei located near the plasma
membrane.
 Length: 1mm to 4 cm from 10
micrometers to 100 in diameter
 Muscle Fiber Development
 Myoblasts- muscle fibers develop from
less mature, multinucleated cells
 Hypertrophy- enlargement of muscles
in children and adults results from an
increase in the size of each muscle fiber,
not from a substantial increase in the
number of muscle fibers. Similarly,
hypertrophy 
 Sarcolemma- plasma membrane of a muscle
fiber
 External lamina- deeper & thinner; delicate CT
 Endomysium-second layer also consists mostly
of reticular fibers, but it is a much thicker layer.
 T tubules/transverse tubules- many tubelike
invaginations of the sarcolemma.
 sarcoplasmic reticulum- highly organized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
 sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
 myofibrils- The sarcoplasm also contains
numerous bundles A myofibril contains two
kinds of long, thin protein filaments of protein
filaments
 myofilaments- A myofibril contains
two kinds of long, thin protein filaments
 Actin myofilaments(thin)- are
linear polymers of globular actin
(G-actin) subunits and occur as
microfilaments in the
cytoskeleton and as thin
contractile apparatus, in muscle
and non-muscle cells
 Myosin myofilaments(thick)-
filament composed of either
multiple myosin or actin
proteins that slide over each
other to generate tension.
 Actin and Myosin Myofilament
 Sarcomeres- The actin and myosin
myofilaments are arranged into highly ordered
units
 the basic structural and functional unit of
skeletal; the smallest portion that is capable
of contracting.
 Z disks- separate one sarcomere from the
next; a filamentous network of proteins;
forms the attachment of actin myofilaments.
 I band/isotropic bands- light staining
bands; extends to the ends of the myosin
filaments; consists only of action
myofilaments
  A band- dark staining in the center of each
sarcomere; extends the length of the myosin
myofilaments within a sarcomere.
 H zone – actin and myosin filaments do not
overlap and only myosin myofilaments are
present
 M line – in the middle of H zone; consists of
filaments that attach to the center of the
myosin myofilaments: holds it in place.
 Titin- one of the largest proteins, consisting
of a single chain of amino acids- it attaches
to Z disks and extends along myosin
myofilaments to the M line
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have a
negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM >
outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
the CM
Different types of Ion Channels
 Nongated/Leak channels – always open
 Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to open
Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane comes
more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions
move into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the resting
membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
 repolarization of the CM; results in muscle
contraction
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that stimulate
muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a
junction with a muscle fiber
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and
another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal
muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that contains
small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in
the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic nerve
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the muscle
fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments during contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in
reponse to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the
muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs
O Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is
increased by the increasing no. of motor units stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down
glucose
to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can be
stored in muscle fibers
Fatigue
§ A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP faster
than they are produced; when the effectiveness of Ca+ to
stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an individual
perceives that continued muscle contraction is
impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of the
muscle does not change; the amount of tension increases
during the contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
O Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
O Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen
Muscle Tone
§ Constant tension produced by body muscles
over long periods of time
§ Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
Classification of Muscle Fiber
1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
2. Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
fatigue resistant than type IIb
b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type I
Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle.
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that facilitate
action potential conduction bet. cells
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in
accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative
tothe body
Nomenclature
1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid
process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), vastus (large)
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular)
7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth;
flattens
the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of the
mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one side
of
the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting; depresses
the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation of
mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
also open the auditory tube
Neck Muscles
Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
II. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several
movements
of the vertebral column
External intercostal – elevate the ribs during inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced expiration,
depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall that
consists of white connective tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal wall of
a lean, well-muscled person to appear segmented.
External/Internal abdominal oblique & Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or
compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm
Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor
Perineum – associated with the male/female
reproductive structures
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
erects the penis, clitoris
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base of
penis/clitoris
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the orifice
of
the anal canal closed
III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
§ Attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula
§ Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly in
position when the muscle of the arm contract
§ Move the scapula into different positions
 Trapezius
 Levator scapulae
 Rhomboids
 Serratus anterior
 Pectoralis minor
Arm Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially rotates
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the
shoulder
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal
humerus
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the
elbow
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps flex
the elbow
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that the
palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers the
flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within the
hand
Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction of
the fingers
Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the
tibi. when a person is standing
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
laterally rotates the thigh; contributes most of the mass
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in the
buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the body;
flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
sitting cross legged
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the calf
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid in
plantar flexion
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and adduct 4. Olfaction- The sensation of smell occurs when
the toes airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes, cavity
everts foot. 5. Protection-The respiratory system provides
Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; inverts protection against some microorganisms by
foot preventing them from entering the body and
Tibialis anterior – inverts foot removing them from respiratory surfaces.
Fibularis tertius – everts foot
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral toes, inverts 7 Structures
foot External nose
Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe, inverts foot Nasal cavity
Tibialis posterior – inverts foot Pharynx (throat)
Fibularis brevis – everts foot Larynx (voice box)
Fibularis longus – everts foot Trachea (windpipe)
Bronchi (branches of trachea)
Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle Lungs 
§ Decreased muscle mass Anatomy 
§ Slower reaction time UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
§ Reduced stamina - External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
§ Increased recovery time LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Types of Muscular Tissue Conducting Zone- exclusively for air movement and
I. Skeletal (striated voluntary) extends from the nose to the bronchioles.
 Large, long, cylindrical cells NOSE 
 Multinucleated - Consists of the external nose and nasal cavity
 Attached to bones EXTERNAL NOSE – visible structure that forms a
 Responsible for body movement prominent feature of the face
II. Cardiac (striated involuntary) NARES (nostrils) – external openings of the nose
CHOANAE – openings into the pharynx; posterior
 Cylindrical cells structures
 Branched and connected to one another by Vestibule -The vestibule is lined with stratified
intercalated disks squamous epithelium, which is continuous with the
 Single nucleated stratified squamous epithelium of the skin
 Found in the heart HARD PALATE – floor of the nasal cavity; separates
 Pumps the blood the
III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary) nasal and oral cavity
 End tapered cells NASAL CAVITY –open chamber inside the nose where
air first enters the respiratory system. extends from the
 Single nucleated
nares to the choanae
 Found in hollow organs: stomach, intestine; NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing the nasal
 skin, eyes cavity
 Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through into right and left parts
tubes, controls the amount of light entering the DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM – occurs when the
eye, produces ‘goose bumps’ septum bulges to one side
CONCHAE – three prominent bony ridges on the lateral
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM walls on each side of the nasal cavity; increase the
Complete exchange of o2 and co2 surface area of the nasal cavity and cause air to churn
1. Ventilation MEATUS- tunnels where air passes through
2. External respiration PARANASAL SINUSES – air-filled spaces within
3. Gas transport bone
4. Internal respiration NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – carry tears from the eyes
FUNCTIONS SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from
1. Regulation of blood pH the nasal cavity.
2. Production of chemical mediators Functions of nasal cavity
3. Voce production-Air moving past the vocal 1. Serves as a passageway for air.
folds makes sound and speech possible. 2. Cleans the air
 3. Humidifies and warms the air.
4. Contains the olfactory epithelium.
5. Helps determine voice sound.
PHARYNX
- Common passageway for both the respiratory and
digestive systems. receives air from the nasal cavity and
receives air, food, and drink from the oral cavity
THREE REGIONS:
1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part; contains openings
on each side from the auditory tubes that are continuous
with the middle ear.
a. SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscle and
connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx
b. UVULA – posterior extension of the soft palate
c. PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps defend the
body against infection
2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to the
Epiglottis; air, food, and drink all pass through the
oropharynx.
a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the lateral
walls near the border of the oral cavity and the
oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the surface of
the posterior part of the tongue
FAUCES- the narrow passage from the mouth to the
pharynx between the soft palate and the base of the
tongue.
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes posterior to the
larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis to
the esophagus; lined with stratified squamous epith.
and ciliated columnar epith.
LARYNX (Voice box)
- Passageway for air between the pharynx and trachea
- held in place by membranes and/or muscles superior
to the hyoid bone
- Has 3 unpaired cartilages and 6 paired cartilages
UNPAIRED (3):
1. THYROID CARTILAGE – Adam’s apple; largest
cartilage
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE – most inferior, forms the
base of the larynx
3. EPIGLOTTIS – 3rd unpaired cartilage; consist of
elastic cartilage; is attached to the thyroid cartilage and
projects superiorly as a free flap toward the tongue
PAIRED (6): they form an attachment site for the vocal
folds
1. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE (wedge)– Top;
contained in a mucous membrane anterior to the
corniculate cartilages
2. CORNICULATE CARTILAGE (horn)– Middle;
attached to the superior tips of the arytenoid cartilages.
3. ARYTENOID CARTILAGE (ladle) – Bottom; the
posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage
2 PAIRS OF LGAMENTS
VESTIBULAR FOLDS – false vocal cords; superior
mucous membrane.
VOCAL FOLDS/CORDS – true vocal cords; inferior
mucous membrane
GLOTTIS-The combination of the vocal folds and the
opening between them
 LARYNGITIS – inflammation of the mucous
epith. of the vocal folds
TRACHEA(Windpipe)
- Membranous tube attached to the larynx
- Consists of CT and smooth muscle; Reinforced with
15-
20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
TRACHEALIS MUCLE- an elastic ligamentous
membrane
and bundles of smooth muscle
C-SHAPED CARTILAGES – form the anterior and
lateral sides of the trachea; protect the trachea and
maintain an open passageway for air
 COUGH REFLEX – dislodges foreign
substances from the trachea
 SMOKER’S COUGH – results from constant
irritation and inflammation of the respiratory
passages by cigarette smoke
BRONCHI
- The trachea divides into the left and right main
bronchi or primary bronchi, each of which connects to
a
lung
CARINA- tracheal cartilage separating the openings
into the main bronchi forms a ridge
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS – more horizontal because
it
is displaced by the heard
RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS – where foreign objects
that enter the trachea usually lodge; more vertical.
LUNGS
- tracheal cartilage separating the openings into the main
bronchi forms a ridge
- Principal organs of respiration
RIGHT LUNG – has 3 lobes (superior, middle,
inferior)
LEFT LUNG – has 2 lobes (superior, inferior)
- The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep,
prominent fissures on the lung surface.
- Each lobe is divided into Bronchopulmonary
segments
separated from one another by CT septa.
- The main bronchi branch many times to form the
TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE.
 MAIN BRONCHI
 LOBAR BRONCHI – Secondary
bronchi
  SEGMENTAL BRONCHI – 2 PHASES:
Tertiary bronchi 1. INSPIRATION – inhalation; movement of air into
 BRONCHIOLES the lungs
 TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES 2. EXPIRATION – exhalation; movement of air out of
 RESPIRATORY the lungs
BRONCHIOLES CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
 ALVEOLI – small, air- MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION – include the
filled chambers where diaphragm
the air and the blood and the muscles that elevate the ribs and sternum, such
come into close contact as the external intercostals
with each other. • DIAPHRAGM – a large dome of skeletal
 ALVEOLAR DUCTS – muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from
long, branching abdominal cavity
hallways with many MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION – internal intercostals;
open doorways depress the ribs and sternum.
 ALVEOLAR SACS- PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
chambers connected to Two physical principles that govern the airflow:
two or more alveoli 1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure.
2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area
BRONCHODILATION- occurs when the smooth of lower pressure
muscle relaxes, making the bronchiole diameter larger - During INSPIRATION, air flows into the alveoli
BRONCHOCONSTRICTION- occurs when the because atmospheric pressure is greater than the
smooth muscle contracts, making the bronchiole alveolar pressure.
diameter smaller. - During EXPIRATION, air flows out of the alveoli
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE OF THE LUNGS – because alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric
where gas exchange between the air and blood takes pressure.
place Alveolar pressure- the air pressure within the alveoli
- It is very thin to facilitate the diffusion of gases Atmospheric pressmuc- the air pressure outside the
- Consists of 6 LAYERS: body
1. Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus LUNG RECOIL
2. Alveolar epithelium – composed of simple squamous - The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size.
epithelium - When thoracic volume and lung volume decrease
3. Basement membrane of the alveolar epith. during quiet expiration.
4. Thin interstitial space - Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
5. Basement membrane of the capillary endothelium SURFACTANT and PLEURAL PRESSURE.
6. Capillary endothelium – simple squamous epith. SURFACTANT – reduces the surface tension of the
PLEURAL CAVITIES fluid lining the alveoli (surface acting agent).
- surround the lungs and provide protection against PLEURAL PRESSURE – lower than alveolar pressure,
friction which causes the alveoli to expand.
PLEURA – serous membrane lining the pleural cavity CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME
• PARIETAL PLEURA – lines the walls of the - Increasing thoracic volume results in decreased
thorax, diaphragm and mediastinum pleural pressure, increased alveolar volume, decreased
• VISCERAL PLEURA – covers the surface of the alveolar pressure, and air movement into the lungs
lung (inspiration).
PLEURAL FLUID – acts as a lubricant and helps hold - Decreasing thoracic volume results in increased
the pleural membranes together pleural pressure, decreased alveolar volume, increased
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY alveolar pressure, and air movement out of the lungs
SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS – are deep (expiration).
to RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES
the visceral pleura; they drain lymph from the SPIROMETRY – is the process of measuring volumes
superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura of
DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS – follow the bronchi; air that move into and out of the respiratory system.
they drain lymph from the bronchi and associated CTs. SPIROMETER – device that measures the resp.
VENTILATION AND RESP. VOLUMES volumes
VENTILATION (breathing) – the process of moving RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – are measures of the
air amount of air movement during different portions of
into and out of the lungs.
ventilation - CO2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissues to a lower
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES – are sums of two or pp in the tissue capillaries.
more respiratory volumes GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES: OXYGEN TRANSPORT
1. TIDAL VOLUME – air inspired or expired with each OXYHEMOGLOBIN – hemoglobin with oxygen
breath (at rest, quiet breathing = 500mL) bound
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that to its heme groups
can MORE OXYGEN IS RELEASED FROM
be inspired forcefully beyond the resting TV HEMOGLOBIN IF (FOUR FACTORS):
(3000mL) 1. Partial pressure for O2 is low
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can 2. Partial pressure for CO2 is high
be 3. pH is low
expired forcefully (1100mL) 4. Temperature is high
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME – air still remaining in the CO2 TRANSPORT AND BLOOD pH
respiratory passages and lungs after maximum CARBONIC ANHYDRASE – enzyme that promotes
expiration (1200mL) the
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES: uptake of CO2 by RBCs
1. FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY – ERV + - As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases
RV (becomes
O Amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of more acidic)
a normal expiration (2300mL) - As CO2 levels decrease, blood pH increases
2. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY – TV + IRV (becomes
O Amount of air a person can inspire maximally after more basic)
a normal expiration (3500mL) RHYTHMIC BREATHING
3. VITAL CAPACITY – IRV + TV + ERV RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
O It is the maximum volume of air that a person can MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER –
expel from the resp. tract after maximum establishes
inspiration (4600mL) rhythmic breathing
4. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY – IRV + ERV + TV O DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) –
+RV primarily
O Also equal to the VC + RV (5800mL) responsible for stimulating contraction of the
GAS EXCHANGE diaphragm.
- Gas exchange bet. air and blood occurs in the O VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) –
respiratory membrane primarily
DEAD SPACE – the parts of the resp. passageways responsible for stimulating the external and internal
where gas exchange bet. air and blood does not occur. intercostal, and abdominal muscles.
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS o PRE-BOTZINGER COMPLEX – establish the
- Increases in the thickness of the respiratory membrane basic rhythm of breathing
result in decreased gas exchange. PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP – is a collection
SURFACE AREA of
- Small decreases in surface area adversely affect gas neurons in the pons.
exchange during strenuous exercise. When the surface - It plays a role in switching between inspiration and
area is decreased to 1/3 or 1/4 of normal, gas exchange expiration.
is restricted under resting conditions. GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC BREATHING
PARTIAL PRESSURE - involves the integration of stimuli that start and stop
- is the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of inspiration
gases, such as air. 1. Starting inspiration
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE LUNGS 2. Increasing inspiration
- O2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the alveoli 3. Stopping inspiration
to a lower pp in the pulmonary capillaries. NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING
- CO2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS – allow voluntary
pulmonary capillaries to a lower pp in the alveoli. control
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE TISSUES of breathing.
- O2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissue capillaries HERING-BREUER REFLEX – supports rhythmic
to respiratory movements by limiting the extent of
a lower pp in the tissue spaces. inspiration
TOUCH, THERMAL, PAIN RECEPTORS – can
stimulate breathing.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
HYPERCAPNIA – a greater than normal amount of
CO2
in the blood
CARBON DIOXIDE – major chemical regulator of
breathing
CHEMORECEPTORS (in medulla oblongata) –
respond to changes in blood pH
CHEMORECEPTORS (in carotid and aortic bodies)
– § Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT
respond to changes in blood O2.
HYPOXIA – a condition when blood O2 declines to a
low level
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING
1. Breathing increases abruptly
2. Breathing increases gradually
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD – the highest level of
exercise that can be performed without causing a
significant change in blood pH
RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO EXERCISE
- Training results in increased minute volume at
maximal exercise because of increased TV and
respiratory rate.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESP. SYSTEM
1. VC and Maximum min. ventilation decrease
2. RV and dead space increase
3. Increase in resting TV compensates for increased
dead space, loss of alveolar walls, and thickening of
alveolar walls
4. The ability to remove mucus from respiratory
passageways decrease with age.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS (IDEA)
1. Ingestion of food.
2. Digestion of food.
3. Elimination of wastes.
4. Absorption of nutrients.
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY
Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract
§ Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, anus
Four Tunics
1. Mucosa
§ Innermost tunic
§ Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina propria
(loose CT), muscularis mucosae (thins SM layer)
§ Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists abrasion
§ Stomach, intestine; absorbs and secrets
2. Submucosa
§ Thick layer of loose CT, consists of nerves, blood
vessels, small glands
§ Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell
processes (innervated by the autonomic nerves)
3. Muscularis
§ Consists of circular SM (inner), longitudinal SM
(outer)
§ Enteric nervous system – composed of the
nerve plexuses of the submucosa and
muscularis; controls movement and secretion
within the tract
4. Serosa
§ Outermost layer
§ Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial
layer + underlying CT)
not covered by the peritoneum
Peritoneum
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous
membrane that covers the organs
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance that
covers the wall of the abdominal cavity
Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the abdominal cavity
organs in place
a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser curvature
of the stomack to the liver and diaphragm
b. Greater omentum – connects the greater
curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon
and posterior body wall
v Omental bursa – a long, double fold of
mesentery that extends inferiorly from
the stomach before looping back to the
transverse colon to create a
cavity/pocket
v Mesentery proper – attaches the small
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no
mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending +
descending colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands,
urinary bladder
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of Oral Cavity
§ Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++ contains the
teeth and tongue
Lips – muscular structures formed by the orbicularis
oris muscle
Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks
against
teeth
Mastification – begins the process of mechanical
digestion
Tongue – plays a major role in the process of
swallowing; major sensory organ for taste; one of the
major organs of speech
v Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
tongue
Teeth
§ 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
§ Located in the mandible and maxillae
1. Incisor – to cut
2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
Parts
a. Crown
b. Cusps
c. Neck
d. Root
Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels
nerves, and pulp (connective tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that
covers
the dentin of the tooth drown
Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the root;
anchors the tooth in the jaw.
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x
maxillae) – where the teeth are rooted
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified
squamous epithelium that covers the alveolar processes
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown
of
enamel by acids produced by bacteria on tooth surface
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of
the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone
Palate and Tonsils
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food from
passing into the nasal cavity during chewing and
swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that contains bone
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that consists of
skeletal muscle _ CT
v Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension of the
soft palate
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from entering the
nose and mouth
Salivary Glands
§ Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
3 Pairs of SG
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located
anterior to each ear
2. Submandibular glands – produce more serous
than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce
primarily mucous secretions
Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland caused by
viral infection
Saliva
§ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
§ Contains enzymes that begin the process of
digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak antibacterial action
Mastification
§ Breaks large food particles into many small ones
§ Increases the efficiency of digestion
Pharynx
§ Throat
§ Connects the mouth with the esophagus
§ Oropharynx + laryngopharynx – transmit food
§ Contains pharyngeal constrictor muscles
Esophagus
§ Muscular tube that ransports food from the
pharynx to the stomach
§ Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement
of food into and out of the esophagus
§ Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
§ Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
§ Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the
oropharynx
2. Pharyngeal Phase
§ A reflex initiated when a bolus of food
stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
§ Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the
larynx
3. Esophageal Phase
§ Responsible for moving food form the pharynx
to the stomach
§ Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the
esophagus
STOMACH
§ Functions primarily as a storage and mixing
chamber for ingested food
Anatomy
Gastroesophageal opening – opening from the
esophagus ino the stomach
Cardiac region – region of t around the
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart
Fundus – most superior part of the stomach
Body – largest part of the stomach
v Greater curvature
v Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach into the
small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner obique
layer – produce a churning action in the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and mucosa
are thrown into when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands; formed by
simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of stomach
& lining the gastric pits; coats and protects the
stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid &
intrinsic factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor of
the protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and
activates pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to form
smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial cells
from the damaging effect of acidic chime +
pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA
synthesis and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are
initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of
food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion
O Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric
secretions by negative feedback loops
O Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the duodenum
in response to low pH
O Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of
gastric motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and
peptides
Movement in the Stomach
§ Increased motility = increases emptying
§ Distention of stomach = increases gastric
motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food
with stomach secretions to form chime
O Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
O Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
§ Major site of digestion and absorption of food
§ Major function is the absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the long
axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike projections of
the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic extensions
on the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli, produce
digestive enzymes, absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced within
tubular galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the submucosa of
the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects to the
large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to move from
the ileum to the large intestine; but not in opposite
direction
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in proteins to
form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down disaccharides
(maltose) into monosaccharides (glucose)
Movement of the Small Intestine
A. Peristaltic contractions – proceed along the
length of the intestine for variable distances;
causes the chime to move along the small
intestine
B. Segmental contractions – propagate for shot
distances; mix intestinal contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver
Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that separates the right
and left lobe of the liver.
Smaller Lobes
1. Caudate lobe
2. Quadrate lobe 2. Chymotrypsin
Porta – gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and 3. Carboxypeptidase
nerves enter and exit the liver Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide
Sources of Blood in the Liver digestion
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich blood to the that began in the oral cavity
liver; supplies liver with oxygen Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor blood but Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to
rich in nutrients their component nucleotides
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and empty LARGE INTESTINE
into the inferior vena cava Anatomy
Portal Triads Cecum
1. Hepatic artery § Proximal end of the large intestine
2. Hepatic portal vein Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
3. Hepatic duct Colon
Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and margins of 1. Ascending colon
each lobule 2. Transverse colon
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the hepatic 3. Descending colon
cords 4. Sigmoid colon
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that separates the Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the mucosal lining of
hepatic cords from one another the colon
Central vein – where mixed blood flows toward the Teniae coli – three bands
center of each lobule Rectum
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the cells of each § Straight, muscular tube that begins at the
hepatic cord termination of sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic ducts canal
Common bile duct – common hepatic duct + cystic duct Anal Canal
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile § Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends
Duodenal papilla – where the common bile duct joind at the anus (external digestive tract opening)
the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle layer at
Functions of the Liver superior end
1. Digestion External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at inferior
2. Excretion end
3. Nutrient storage Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or
4. Nutrient conversion hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal; may
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
6. Synthesis of new molecules Functions of Large Intestine
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; dramatically 1. Feces production
increases the efficiency of fat digestion and absorption; 2. Water absorption
stimulated by secretin MAVM.
Bile salts – emulsify fats Feces – converted chyme
Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the Defecation – elimination of feces from the colon
breakdown of hemoglobin Mass movements – strong contractions in the large parts
Anatomy of Pancreas of the colon; propel the colon contents a considerable
1. Head – near the midline of the body distance towards the anys
2. Tail – extends to the left Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) +
Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – endocrine part; parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes
produce insulin and glucagon DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules tha are
Acini – produce digestive enymes small enough to be absorbed into the circulation
Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from clusters a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large good
of acini particles into smaller ones
Functions of the Pancreas b. Chemical digestion – breaking of covalent
Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein chemical bonds in organic molecules by
digestion digestive enzymes
that began in the stomach Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble molecules
1. Trypsin diffuse through the stomach epithelium into the
circulation 1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste
Transport – requires carrier molecules and includes products.
facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport 2. Transports of processed molecules
Carbohydrates 3. Transport of regulatory molecules.
§ Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose 4. Regulation of pH and osmosis.
(table sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit 5. Maintenance of body temperature
sugar), and lactose (milk sugar) 6. protection against foreign substances
Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that consist of 7. Clot formation
many sugars linked by chemical bonds
Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of I. Plasma
carbohydrates in the mouth A. Plasma Proteins
Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of 1. Albumin
carbohydrates 2. Globulin
Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down 3. Fibrinogen
polysaccharide B. Serum
Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break the II. Formed Elements
disaccharides to monosaccharides A. Platelets
Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose, galactose, B. RBCs
and fructose C. WBCs
Lipids 1. Granular
§ Molecules which are insoluble or slightly i. Neutrophils
soluble in water ii. Basophils
Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3 fatty acids iii. Eosinophils
bound to glycerol 2. Agranular
Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds i. Lymphocytes
Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more double ii. Monocytes
bonds Composition of Blood
Emulsification – large lipid droplets are transformed  Plasma – liquid matrix
into much smaller droplets  Formed elements – cells & cell fragments
Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid molecules  4 – 5 L in females; 5 – 6 L in males 8% of total
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small droplets of body weight
digested lipids Plasma
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein complexes § Pale yellow fluid
(lipoproteins) a. 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions/gases
Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of absorbed Plasma Proteins
lipid 1. Albumin – water balance bet. the blood and
Proteins tissues
§ Chains of amino acids 2. Globulins – part of the immune system;
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that breaks down function as transport molecules; a clotting factor
proteins  Alpha globulins – transport hormones,
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains prothrombin, high density lipoprotein
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – enzymes (HDL/healthy cholesterol)
produced by the pancreas that continues the digestive  Beta globulins – transport vitamins,
process minerals, and other lipoproteins
Peptidases – small peptides (LDL/bad cholesterol)
Water and Minerals  Gamma globulins – antibodies that
§ Approximately 9 L of water enters the digestive provide imuunity
tract 3. Fibrinogen – a clotting factor
§ Approximately 2 L from food & drink &  Fibrin – threadlike protein that forms
remaining 7 liters is from digestive secretions. blood clots
Serum
Plasma without the clotting factors
BLOOD Formed Elements
 A type of connective tissue that consists of a Production of Formed Elements
liquid matrix Hematopoiesis – process of blood cell production;
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD confined primarily to red bone marrow
Stem cells / Hemocytoblasts – where all formed II. White Blood Cells / Leukocytes
elements of blood are derived from  Spherical cells that lack hemoglobin
I.  Red Blood Cells / Erythrocytes  Thin, white later of cells + has a nucleus
A. Disk-shaped x biconcave (increases the  Protects the body against invading
cell’s surface area) microorganisms
B. Anucleate (without nucleus &  Removes dead cells and debris form the tissues
organelles) by phagocytes
C. Transports O2 form the lungs to the Ameboid movement – like an ameba; cell projects a
various tissues of the body cytoplasmic extension that attaches to
D.  Helps transport CO2 from the tissues to an object
the lungs  to protect the body against invading
Hemoglobin – main component of RBCs; microorganism 
pigmented protein responsible for its red color  to remove dead cells and debris from the tissues
Oxygen transport – accomplished by the of phagocytosis.
hemoglobin
Globin – each protein A. Granulocytes – large cytoplasmic granules
Heme – red-pigmented molecules that   Neutrophil
composes a globin • Most common type of WBCs
Bright red hemoglobin – bound to O2 • Stains with both acidic & basic dyes
Darker red hemoglobin – without bound to O2 • Commonly lobed (2 – 4)
Iron – necessary for O2 transport • Phagocytize microorganisms and
Carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme that catalyzes other foreign substances
a reaction that converts CO2 and H2O into a • Pus – dead neutrophils, cell debris
hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion and fluid that accumulates at sites
Proerythroblasts – give rise to the RBCs line of infections
B vitamins folate & B12 – required for cell  Basophil
division; necessary for the synthesis of DNA • Least common of all WBCs
Iron – required for the production of • Stain blue/purple with basic dyes
hemoglobin • Release histamine and other
RBC production – stimulated by low blood O2 chemicals that promote
level inflammation
Erythropoietin – glycoprotein released by the • Release heparin which prevents the
kidneys; stimulates the 877red bone marrow to produce formation of clots
more RBC  Eosinophil
• Stain bright red with an acidic stain
Iron recycling (eosin)
 When RBCs become old, abnormal and • Two lobed nucleus
damaged, they are removed from the • Involved in inflammatory responses
blood by macrophages. associated with allergies and asthma
 Within the macrophage, the globin is • Involved in destroying certain
broken down into amino acids that are worm parasites
reused to produce other proteins. B. Agranulocytes – very small granules
 Iron released from the heme is transported  Lymphocyte
to the red bone marrow and used to • Smallest of the WBCs
produce new hemoglobin. • Play an important role in body’s
 The heme molecules are converted into immune response
bilirubin. • Production of anti-bodies and other
 Bilirubin – yellow pigment molecule; brown chemicals that destroy
color. microorganisms
 If the liver is not functioning normally, or the  Monocyte
flow of bile is hindered = bilubrin builds up and • Largest of the WBCs
produces jaundice • Macrophages – enlarged
 Jaundice – yellowish color to the skin monocytes; phagocytize bacteria,
 Converted bilirubin into other pigments = brown dead cells, cell fragments; can break
color in feces + yellow color in urine down phagocytized foreign
 substances
III. Platelets / Thrombocytes
 Produced in the red bone marrow from
megakaryocytes (large cells)
 Play an important role in preventing blood loss
 Preventing Blood Loss
A. Vascular Spasm
 An immediate but temporary constriction of
 blood vessels
 Constriction can close small vessels completely
 and stop the flow of blood through them
 Thromboxanes – derived from certain
prostaglandins
 Endothelin- endothelial cells lining blood
vessels
B. Platelet Plug Formation
 An accumulation of platelets that can seal up a
small break in blood vessels
 Maintains the integrity of the circulatory system
 Platelet adhesion – platelets stick to the
collagen exposed by blood vessel damage
 Von Willebrand factor – a protein
produced and secreted by blood vessel
endothelial cells; forms a bridge bet.
collagen and platelets by binding to
platelet surface receptors and collagen
 Platelet release reaction – platelets release
chemicals (ADP and thromboxane) that activate
other platelets
 Fibrinogen receptors – surface
receptors that bind to fibrinogen
 Platelet aggregation – fibrinogen forms bridges
be. The fibrinogen receptors of numerous
platelets
C. Blood Clotting / Coagulation
 (A) Inactive clotting factors activate or (B)
Thromboplastin causes activation.
 Series of activation of clotting factors occurs.
 Prothrombinase / Prothrombin activator is
formed.
 Prothrombinase converts prothrombin (inactive
CF) to thrombin (active CF).
 Thrombin converts fibrinogen (inactive CF) to
fibrin (active CF).
 Each CF activates many additional CF resulting
in the formation of a clot.
Clot – traps blood cells, platelets, and fluid
Fibrin – a network of threadlike protein fibers
Vitamin K & Ca – required for clot formation
Sources of vit. K – diet + bacteria within the large
intestine
Anticoagulants – prevent CF from forming clots under
normal conditions
Antithrombin & Heparin – inactivate thrombin
Clot retraction – a clot begins to condense into a more
compact structure
Fibrinolysis – process wherein clots are dissolved
Plasminogen – inactive plasma protein
Plasmin – active plasma protein
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) – stimulate
the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin
Heart attack – results when a clot blocks blood vessels
that supply the heart
Aspirin & Anticoagulant therapies – prevent
heart attacks
Plasmin activators – quickly dissolve the clot
and restore blood flow to cardiac muscle
Streptokinase – a bacterial enzyme used to
dissolve clots
Blood Grouping
Transfusion – transfer of blood/blood components form
one individual to another
Infusion – introduction of fluids other than blood
(saline, glucose) into the blood
Transfusion reactions – clumping/rupture of blood
cells and clotting within blood vessels
Antigen – molecules on the surfaces of RBCs
Antibodies – proteins in plasma
Agglutination – clumping of cells
Hemolysis – rupture of blood cells; caused by the
combination of the antibodies with the antigens
ABO and Rh blood groups – most important in
transfusion reactions
A. ABO Blood Group
ABO antigens appear on the surface of the RBCs
Antigens on bacteria/food in the digestive tract stimulate
the  formation of antibodies against antigens that are
different from the body’s own antigens
Blood Type Antigen Antibody
BLOOD TYPE ANTIG
A A
B B
AB AB
O N/A
Donor – person who gives blood
Recipient – person who receives blood
Universal Donor = type O blood – misleading
 Mismatching other blood groups can cause
transfusion reactions
  Antibodies in the donor’s blood can react with
antigens on the recipient’s RBCs
B. Rh Blood Group
 First studied in the rhesus monkey
 Can occur through
o Transfusion
o Transfer of blood across the placenta to
a mother from her fetus
Rh-positive – have Rh antigens on the surface of
RBCs
Rh-negative – don’t have Rh antigens
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN) /
Erythroblastosis fetalis
 Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross
the placenta and cause agglutination and
hemolysis of fetal RBCs
 Doesn’t occur in first pregnancy
 Arises in later pregnancies
Rho (D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) –
prevention of HDN that contains antibodies
against Rh antigens; inactivates the fetal Rh
antigens and prevents sensitization of the
mother
Diagnostic Blood Tests
A. Type and Crossmatch
Blood typing – determines the ABO and Rh blood
groups of a blood sample
Crossmatch – donor’s blood cells are mixed with the
recipient’s serum + donor’s serum is moxed with the
recipient’s cells; safe = no agglutination occurs in both
A. Complete Blood Count (CBC)
 Analysis of blood that provides useful info
 Consists of RBC count, hemoglobin +
hematocrit measurements, WBC count
1. Red Blood Count
§ Male – 4.6-6.2 M RBCs/microliter of blood
§ Female – 4.2-5.4 M/microliter
§ Erythrocytosis – overabundance of RBCs
§ Erythrocytopenia – deficiency of RBCs
2. Hemoglobin Measurement
§ Male – 14-18 g/100 mL of blood
§ Female – 12-16 g/100 mL
§ Anemia – abnormally low hemoglobin
measurement
 Aplastic Anemia – the inability of redbone
 marrow to produce RBCs
 Iron-deficiency Anemia – deficiency intake or
excessive loss
 Folate deficiency – fewer cell division; neural
tube defects
 Pernicious Anemia – inadequate vit.
B12 or intrinsic function
3. Hematocrit Measurement
§ Hematocrit – total blood volume that is
composed of RBCs
§ Buffy coat – thin, whitish layer bet. the plasma
and RBCs
§ Hematocrit measurement – affected by no. and
size of RBCs
4. White Blood Count
§ 5000-9000 white cells per/microliter of blood
§ Leukopenia – lower than normal WBC
§ Leukocytosis – abnormally high WBC
§ Leukemia – cancer of the red marrow; abnormal
production of one/more WBC types
B. Differential Blood Count
§ Determines % of each of the 5 kinds of WBCs
§ 60-70% Neutrophils
§ 20-25% Lymphocytes
§ 3-8% Monocytes
§ 2-4% Eosinophils
§ 0.5-1% Basophils
C. Clotting
1. Platelet count
§ 250K – 400K platelets/microliter of blood
§ Thrombocytopenia – platelet count is freatly
reduced; caused by decreased platelet prod.
2. Prothrombin Time Measurement
§ How long it takes for the blood to start clotting
§ Normally is 9-12 s
§ Prothrombin time – determined by adding
thromboplastin to whole plasma
§ Thromboplastin – released from injured tissues
that starts the process of clotting
§ International Normalized Ratio (INR) –
standardizes time it takes to clot
D. Blood Chemistry
§ High blood glucose levels – pancreas is not
producing enough insulin
§ High blood urea nitrogen (BUN) – reduced
kidney function
§ Increased bilirubin – liver dysfunction
§ High cholesterol levels – risk of cardiovascular
disease

HEART
 A muscular organ that pumps blood through the
body
 Pumps approx. 5L/min of blood
 Approx. the size of a closed fist
Cardiovascular system – the heart + blood vessels +
blood
Pulmonary circulation – right side of the heart pumps
blood to the lungs; then back to the left side
Systemic circulation – left side of the heart pumps
blood to all other tissues of the body; then back to the
right side
Functions
1. Generating blood pressure.
2. Routing blood.
3. Ensuring one-way blood flow.
4. Regulating blood supply.
Size, Form, and Location of the Heart
Apex – blunt, rounded point of the heart
Base – larger, flat part at the opposite end of the heart
Mediastinum – midline partition
Pericardial cavity – surrounding cavity of the heart
Importance of location and shape of the Heart
 To accurately place a stethoscope
 To place chest leads for ECG
 To administer CPR
Anatomy of the Heart
Pericardium
Pericardial cavity – where the heart lies
Pericardium/Pericardial sac – surrounds the heart and
anchors it within the mediastinum
Fibrous pericardium – tough, fibrous connective tissue
outer layer
Serous pericardium – thin layer of connective tissue
Parietal pericardium – serous pericardium ling the
fibrous pericardium
Visceral pericardium/Epicardium – portion covering
the heart surface
Pericardial fluid – produced by the SP; reduces friction
as the heart moves
External Anatomy
Atria – entrance chamber
Ventricles – cavities
Coronary sulcus – separates the atria from the
ventricles
 Anterior interventricular sulcus
 Posterior interventricular sulcus
Superior & Inferior vena cava – carry blood to the RA
Pulmonary veins – carry blood form the lungs to the
LA
Pulmonary trunk & aorta – exit the heart
Pulmonary arteries – carry blood to the lungs
Aorta – carries blood to the rest of the body
Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
A. Right and Left Atria
 Receives blood from the veins
 Function as reservoirs; where blood returning
from veins collects before it enter the ventricles
 Interatrial septum – separator of the two atria
B. Right and Left Ventricle
 Major pumping chambers
 Ejects blood into the arteries and forces it to
flow through the CS
 Interventricular septum – separator of the two
ventricles
Heart Valves
Atrioventricular valves
 Allows blood to flow from the atria into the
ventricles;
 Prevents it from flowing back into the atria
1. Tricuspid valve – bet. the RA and the RV
2. Bicuspid/Mital valve – bet. the LA and the LV
Papillary muscles – cone-shaped, muscular pillars;
prevents the valves from opening into the atria
Chordae tendineae – thin, strong, connective tissue
strings
Aortic & Pulmonary semilunar valves – blocks blood
from flowing back into the ventricles
Cardiac skeleton – a plate of connective tissue;
electrical insulation bet. the atria and the ventricles;
provides rigid attachment site for cardiac muscle
Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Superior & Inferior vena cava
2. Right Atrium (RA)
3. Tricuspid Valve (TV)
4. Right Ventricle (RV)
5. Pulmonary semilunar valves
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung tissue (Pulmonary circulation)
9. Pulmonary veins
10. Left Atrium (LA)
11. Biscupid Valve (BV)
12. Left Ventricle (LV)
13. Aortic semilunar valves allow cytoplasm to flow freely bet. cells
14. Aorta Electrical Activity of the Heart
15. Body tissues (Systemic Circulation) Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
1. Depolarization phase
Blood Supply to the Heart 2. Plateau phase – period of slow repolarization
Coronary arteries – supply blood to the wall of the heart 3. Repolarization phase – achieves its maximum
 Left coronary artery degree of polarization; returns to the resting
 Anterior interventricular artery membrane potential
 Circumflex artery Refractory period
 Left marginal artery § Allows cardiac muscle to contract and relax
 Right coronary artery almost completely before another action
 Right marginal artery potential can be produced
§ Prevents tetanic contractions from occurring
Cardiac veins Conduction System of the Heart
 Cardiac veins § Specialized cardiac muscle cells in the heart wall
 Coronary sinus Sinoatrial node (SA) – heart’s pacemaker; initiates the
contraction of the heart
Histology of the Heart Atrioventricular node (AV) – spreads action potential
Heart Wall slowly
1. Epicardium/Visceral pericardium Atrioventricular bundle – a bundle of specialized
§ Thin, serous membrane forming the smooth cardiac muscle
outer surface Left & Right bundle branches – two branches of
§ Consists of simple squamous epithelium conducting tissue
overlaying a layer of loose connective tissue + Purkinje fibers – conduct action potentials more rapidly
adipose tissue than do other cardiac muscle fibers
Ectopic beat – action potentials originate in an area of
2. Myocardium the heart than the SA node
§ Composed of cardiac muscles Electrocardiogram (ECG)
§ Responsible for contraction of the heart § An extremely valuable tool for diagnosing a
chambers number of cardiac abnormalities
P wave – depolarization of the atrial myocardium
QRS complex – depolarization of the ventricles
3. Endocardium
T wave – repolarization of ventricles
§ Simple squamous epithelium over a layer of
PQ interval – time bet. the beginning of the P wave and
connective tissue
the beginning of the QRS complex; atria contracts and
§ Allows blood to move easily
begins to relax
§ Forms the heart valves
v PR interval – common name bcos the Q wave is
Trabeculae carneae – ridges and columns of cardiac
very small
muscle
QT interval – represents the time req. for ventricular
depolarization and repolarization
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Cycle
§ Relies on Ca2+ and ATP for contraction
§ Repetitive pumping process of cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle cells
contractions
§ Elongated, branching cells
Major events
§ Two, centrally located nuclei
1. Atrial systole
§ Contains actin and myosin myofilaments that
2. Ventricular contraction
form sarcomeres
3. Ejection
§ Rich in mitochondria (produce ATP at rapid
4. Ventricular relaxation
rate)
5. Passive ventricular filling
Actin & Myosin myofilaments – responsible for muscle
Atrium – primer pump; complete the filling of ventricles
contraction
with blood
Organization of A&M myofilaments – gives the cardiac
Ventricle – power pump; produce the major force that
muscle a striated (banded) appearance
causes blood to flow
Intercalated disks – specialized cell-to-cell contacts;
Atrial systole – contraction of two atria
greatly increase contact in between; prevents cells form
Ventricular systole – contraction of two ventricles
pulling apart
Atrial diastole – relaxation of the two atria
Gap junctions – specialized cell membrane structures;
Ventricular diastole – relaxation of the two ventricles
Systole & Diastole – ventricular contraction or
relaxation
Heart Sounds
Stethoscope – used to listen to the sounds of the lungs
and the heart
Lubb – closure of the AV valves
Dupp – closure of the semilunar valves
Murmurs – abnormal heart sounds; result of a faulty
valve
Stenosed – when opening of a valve is narrowed;
swishing sound precedes
Regulation of Heart Function
Cardiac output (CO) – vol. of blood pumped; 5 L/min
Stroke volume (SV) – vol. of blood pumped per
ventricle per contraction; 70 mL/beat
Heart rate (HR) – no. of times the heart contracts per
minute; 72 beats/min
CO = SV x HR
Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart
§ Mechanisms contained within the heart itself
Venous return – amt. of blood that returns to the heart
Preload – degree to which the ventricular walls are
stretched at the end of diastole
Starling’s Law of the Heart – relationship bet. preload
and stroke volume
Afterload – pressure against which the ventricles must
pump blood
Extrinsic Regulation of the Heart
§ Mechanisms external to the heart
A. Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor Reflex
§ A mechanism of the nervous system in
regulating heart function
Baroreceptors – stretch receptors that monitor
blood pressure
Cardioregulatory center – receives and
integrates action potentials form the
baroreceptors
B. Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor Reflex
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine – causes
increased HR and SV
BLOOD VESSELS
FUNCTIONS:
1. Carries blood
2. Exchanges nutrients, wastes and gases
3. Transports substances
4. Helps regulate blood pressure
5. Directs blood flow to tissues
SYSTEMIC VESSELS – from LV and back to the RA
PULMONARY VESSELS – from RV to lungs to LA
PERIPHERAL CIRCULATION
GENERAL FEATURES OF BLOOD VESSEL
STRUCTURE
ARTERIES
- carry blood AWAY from the heart
- Oxygenated blood
CLASSIFICATION:
1. ELASTIC – largest diameter and have the
thickest walls
2. MUSCULAR – medium-sized and small
diameter
- called DISTRIBUTING ARTERY because it
can control blood flow to diff. regions of the
body
3. ARTERIOLES – smallest artery; transport blood
from small artery to capillary
- Site where exchange occurs between blood and tissue
fluids; has thinner walls
ENDOTHELIUM – makes up capillary walls
PRECAPILLARY SPHINCTERS – regulates blood
flow
VEINS
- Carry blood TOWARD the heart
- Deoxygenated blood
- From capillaries; thinner walls & has less elastic tissue
CLASSIFICATION:
1. VENULES – tubes with a diameter slightly
larger than that of capillary
2. SMALL VEINS – slightly larger than venules;
has 3 tunics
3. MEDIUM-SIZED VEINS – collect blood from
small veins and deliver it to large veins
3 TUNICS OF BLOOD VESSELS
1. TUNICA INTIMA – innermost; basement
membrane; composed of Endothelium
2. TUNICA MEDIA – middle layer; smooth
muscles arranged circularly
3. TUNICA ADVENTITIA – outer portion
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PULMONARY
CIRCULATION
• Pulmonary Trunk
• Right and Left pulmonary arteries
• Pulmonary veins
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION – ARTERIES
AORTA – where all arteries of the systemic circulation
branch directly or indirectly
3 PARTS:
1. ASCENDING AORTA – passes superiorly from
LV; where R and L coronary arteries arise from
its base
2. AORTIC ARCH – aorta arches posteriorly and
to the left
3 major arteries that carry blood to the head
and upper limbs:
• BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY
• L COMMON CAROTID ARTERY
• L SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY
3. DESCENDING AORTA – longest part
• THORACIC AORTA – extends through the
thorax and diaphragm
• ABDOMINAL AORTA – extends through the
diaphragm
• ARTERIAL ANEURYSM – localized dilation
of an artery that usually develops in response
to trauma or a congenital weakness of the
artery wall
ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK
BRACHIOCEPHALIC ARTERY – first vessel to
branch
from the aortic arch
• R Common carotid artery and R Subclavian
artery; L Common carotid artery and L
Subclavian artery – 2nd and 3rd branches
COMMON CAROTID ARTERY – internal and external
CA
VERTEBRAL ARTERY – supply blood to the brain
BASILAR ARTERY – supply blood to the pons,
cerebellum and midbrain
ARTERIES OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. AXILLARY ARTERY – axilla (armpit)
2. BRACHIAL ARTERY – arm
3. ULNAR AND RADIAL ARTERY – forearm
and arm
a. RADIAL A – commonly used for taking a
pulse
ACPS.
THORACIC AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VESCERAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
ORGANS
2. PARIETAL ARTERY – supply the THORACIC
WALL
MAJOR PARIETAL ARTERIES:
• POSTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY – from
thoracic aorta and extend bet the ribs
• SUPERIOR PHRENIC ARTERY – supply the
diaphragm
• INTERNAL THORACIC ARTERY – descend
along the internal surface of the anterior thoracic
wall
• ANTERIOR INTERCOSTAL ARTERY –
extend bet ribs to supply the anterior chest wall
ABDOMINAL AORTA AND ITS BRANCHES
1. VISCERAL
a. PAIRED BRANCHES
i. RENAL ARTERIES – kidneys
ii. SUPRARENAL A. – adrenal glands
iii. TESTICULAR and OVARIAN A. – testes
and ovaries
b. UNPAIRED BRANCHES
i. CELIAC TRUNK – supply blood to stomach,
pancreas, spleen, upper duodenum and liver
ii. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC A. – small
intestines and upper portion of the large
intestines
iii. INFERIOR MESENTRIC A. – remainder of
the large intestines
2. PARIETAL
a. INFERIOR PHRENIC A. – diaphragm
b. LUMBAR A – lumbar vertebrae and back
muscles
c. MEDIAN SACRAL – inferior vertebrae
ARTERIES OF THE PELVIS
1. EXTERNAL ILIAC A – enters lower limbs
2. INTERNAL ILIAC A – supplies the pelvic area
a. VISCERAL BRANCHES – supply
urinary bladder, rectum, uterus, vagina
b. PARIETAL BRANCHES – walls and
floor of the pelvis; lumbar, gluteal and
proximal thigh muscles; external
genitalia
ARTERIES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
1. FEMORAL ARTERY – thigh
2. POLITEAL ARTERY – popliteal space, posterior
region of the knee
a. ANTERIOR TIBIAL A. – dorsalis pedis A.
(ankle)
b. POSTERIOR TIBIAL A. – fibular/peroneal A.
(supply blood to the leg and foot)
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION – VEINS
SUPERIOR VENA CAVA – head, neck, thorax, upper
limbs
INFERIOR VENA CAVA – abdomen, pelvis, lower
limbs
VEINS OF HEAD AND NECK
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL JUGULAR VEINS – 2
major veins that drain blood from head and neck
1. EXTERNAL – more superficial
2. INTERNAL – larger and deeper
VEINS OF THE UPPER LIMBS
1. DEEP VEINS – drain deep structure of upper limbs
• BRACHIAL VEIN – only noteworthy deep vein
which accompany the brachial artery and
empties the axillary vein
2. SUPERFICIAL VEIN – drain the superficial
structure of the upper limbs
MAJOR SUPERFICIAL VEINS:
• CEPHALIC VEIN – empties in the axillary vein
• BASILIC VEIN – becomes the axillary vein
• MEDIAN CUBITAL VEIN – connects the
Cephalic w/ Basilic vein
o CUBITAL FOSSA – site for draining
blood
VEINS OF THE THORAX
1 – 2. R and L BRACHIOCEPHALIC VEINS
3. AZYGOS VEIN
VEINS OF THE ABDOMEN AND PELVIS
INTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – drain the pelvis
EXTERNAL ILIAC VEINS – from lower limbs
COMMON ILIAC VEINS – combine to form the IVC
PORTAL SYSTEM – Vascular system; has no pumping
mechanism
HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM – begins w/ capillaries in
the viscera and ends w/ capillaries in the liver
• MAJOR TRIBUTARIES:
1. SPLENIC VEIN
2. SUPERIOR MESENTRIC VEIN
a. SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR MV – carry
blood from intestines
b. SPLENIC AND SUPERIOR MV – enters the
liver
OTHER VEINS:
• RENAL VEINS – drain the kidneys
• SUPRARENAL VEINS – adrenal gland
• TESTICULAR AND OVARIAN VEINS –
testes and ovaries
ACPS.
VEINS OF THE LOWER LIMBS
SUPERFICIAL VEINS:
• GREAT SAPHENOUS VEIN – dorsal and
medial side of foot
• SMALL SAPHENOUS VEIN – lateral side of
foot
PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
FUNCTION OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
- To maintain adequate blood flow
- Blood flows through arterial system primarily as a
result of the pressure produced by the contraction of the
heart.
BLOOD PRESSURE – measure of the force of blood
exerted against the blood vessel walls
• SYSTOLIC PRESSURE – maximum value
• DIASTOLIC PRESSURE – minimum value
• mmHg – standard unit for BP
• KOROTKOFF SOUNDS – can be heard through a
stethoscope
PRESSURE AND RESISTANCE – if blood vessels
constrict, resistance to blood flow increases and blood
flow decreases
PULSE PRESSURE – can be detected on large arteries
near body surface
CAPILLARY EXCHANGE – most exchange across the
wall of the capillary occurs by DIFFUSION
CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW IN TISSUES
LOCAL CONTROL – periodic contraction and
relaxation of pre-capillary sphincters
NERVOUS CONTROL
• SYMPATHETIC NERVE FIBERS – innervate most
blood vessels of the body
• VASOMOTOR CENTER – controls blood vessel
diameter
• VASOMOTOR TONE – state of partial constriction
of blood vessels
REGULATION OF ARTERIAL PRESSURE
MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE – controlled by min. to
min. basis by changes in heart rate, stoke vol and pulse
rate
BARORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to stretch in
arteries caused by an increased in pressure
CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEXES – respond to changes
in blood oxygen and CO2 concentration and pH
HORMONAL MECHANISM
• ADRENAL MEDULLARY MECHANISM
• RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE
MECHANISM
• VASO PRESSIN MECHANISM
• ARTRIAL NATRIURETIC MECHANISM
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE BLOOD VESSELS
ARTERIOSCLEROSIS – arteries become narrowed and
blood flow decreases
ATHEROSCLEROSIS – type of arteriosclerosis
LYMPHATIC  SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
1. Fluid Balance
2. Fat absorption
3. Defense
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND VESSELS
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES – tiny, closed-ended
vessels consisting of simple squamous epithelium
LYMPHATIC VESSELS – resemble small veins;
formed
when lymphatic capillaries join together
RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT – lymphatic vessels
from
the right upper limb and the right half of the head,
neck
and chest; empties into the right subclavian vein
THORACIC DUCT – lymphatic vessels from the
rest of
the body; empties into the left subclavian vein
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
LYMPHATIC TISSUE – consists of many
lymphocytes
and other cells, such as macrophages; found within
lymphatic organs
TONSILS
1. PALATINE TONSILS – located on each side of
the
posterior opening of the oral cavity
Ø Usually referred to as “the tonsils”
2. PHARYNGEAL TONSILS – located near the
the internal opening of the nasal cavity
Ø Adenoid – enlarged pharyngeal tonsil
3. LINGUAL TONSIL – on the posterior surface of
the
tongue
LYMPH NODES
Ø Rounded structures, varying from the size of a
small
seed to that of a shelled almond
CAPSULE – dense CT that surrounds each lymph
node
TRABECULAE – extensions of the capsule
LYMPHATIC NODULES – dense aggregations of
tissue
form from lymphocytes and other cells
LYMPHATIC SINUSES – spaces between the
lymphatic
tissues that contain macrophages on a network of
fibers
GERMINAL CENTERS – lymphatic nodules
containing
the rapidly dividing lymphocytes
SPLEEN
Ø Roughly the size of a clenched fist and is located
in
the left, superior corner of the abdominal cavity
Ø Has an outer capsule of dense CT and a small
amount of smooth muscle
TRABECULAE – divide the spleen into small,
interconnected compartments containing 2
specialized
types of lymphatic tissue
WHITE PULP – surrounds the arteries within the
spleen
RED PULP – associated with the veins
THYMUS
Ø Bilobed gland roughly triangular in shape
Ø Site for maturation of lymphocytes
CAPSULE – thin CT that surrounds each lobe
TRABECULAE – divide each lobe into lobules
CORTEX – dark-staining areas where lymphocytes
are
numerous
MEDULLA – lighter-staining, central portion of the
lobules; has fewer lymphocytes
OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Ø The lymphatic system removes fluid from tissues,
absorbs fats from the small intestine, and produces
B cells and T cells, which are responsible for much
of immunity.
IMMUNITY
Ø The ability to resist damage from foreign
substances – such as microorganisms, harmful
chemicals, and internal threats
INNATE IMMUNITY – nonspecific resistance; the
body
recognizes and destroys certain foreign substances,
but
the response to them is the same each time the body
is
exposed.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY – specific immunity; the
body
recognizes and destroys certain foreign substances,
but
the response to them improves each time the foreign
substance is encountered.
Ø SPECIFICITY – ability of adaptive immunity to
recognize a particular substance
Ø MEMORY – ability of the adaptive immunity to
“remember” previous encounters with a particular
substance
INNATE IMMUNITY
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Ø Prevent microorganisms and chemicals from
entering
the body in two ways:
1. Skin and mucous membranes form barriers that
prevent their entry
2. Tears, saliva, and urine wash these substances
from body surfaces
Acps.
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
Ø Are molecules responsible for many aspects of
innate immunity
COMPLEMENT – group of approximately 20
proteins
found in plasma
INTERFERONS – are proteins that protect the body
against viral infections
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
Ø Most important cellular components of immunity
Ø Important chemicals known to attract WBC:
Complement, Leukotrienes, Kinins, Histamine
CHEMOTAXIS – movement of WBC toward these
chemicals
PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
PHAGOCYTOSIS – the ingestion and destruction
of
particles by cells called phagocytes
NEUTROPHILS – small phagocytic cells that are
usually the first cells to enter infected tissues
• PUS – accumulation of fluid, dead neutrophils,
and other cells at a site of infection
MACROPHAGES – monocytes that leave the
blood,
enter tissues, and enlarge about fivefold
MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTIC SYSTEM –
phagocytes ith a single (mono), unlobed nucleus
Ø Dust cells – macrophages in the lungs
Ø Kupffer cells – liver
Ø Microglia – central nervous system
CELLS OF INFLAMMATION
BASOPHILS – motile WBCs that can leave the
blood
and enter infected tissues
MAST CELLS – nonmotile cells in CT, esp. near
capillaries
EOSINOPHILS – produced in red bone marrow;
enter
the blood, and within a few minutes enter tissues
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
Ø Type of lymphocyte produced in RBM, account
up to
15% of lymphocytes
Ø Recognize classes of cells, such as tumor cells or
virus-infected cells in general; causes these cells to
lyse
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
LOCAL INFLAMMATION – confined to a specific
area
of the body
Ø SYMPTOMS: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
loss of function
SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATION – generally
distributed
throughout the body
Ø SYMPTOMS: increase in neutrophil numbers,
fever, and shock.
Ø PYROGENS – stimulate fever production
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
ANTIGENS – substances that stimulate adaptive
immune responses
1. FOREIGN ANTIGENS – introduced from
outside
the body (Ex: bacteria, viruses, chemicals released
by
microorganisms)
Ø ALLERGIC REACTION – caused by foreign
antigens that produce an overreaction of the
immune system
2. SELF-ANTIGENS – molecules of the body
produces
to stimulate and immune system response
Ø AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE – results when
selfantigens
stimulate unwanted destruction of
normal tissue
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY – involves
proteins called antibodies, which are found in the
plasma
B CELLS – lymphocyte that produces antibodies
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY – involves the
actions
of a second type of lymphocyte, called T cells
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS – lyse virus-infected cells,
tumor
cells, and tissue transplants
Ø CYTOKINES – promote inflammation and
phagocytosis
HELPER T CELLS – inhibit the activities of both
AMI
and CMI
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
LYMPHOCYTES
STEM CELLS – Give rise to all the blood cells
CLONES – small groups of identical B cells or T
cells
that are form during embryonic development
ACTIVATION AND MULTIPLICATION OF
LYMPHOCYTES
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION
ANTIGEN RECEPTORS – proteins of the
lymphocytes
Ø B-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on B
cells
Ø T-CELL RECEPTORS – antigen receptors on T
cells
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX
(MHC)
MOLECULES – are glycoproteins that have
binding
sites for antigens
COSTIMULATION – achieved by cytokines
(regulator of neighboring cells)
Ø INTERLEUKIN-1 – is a cytokine released by
macrophages that can stimulate helper T cells
LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION
INTERLEUKIN-2 – binds to interleukin-2 receptors
and stimulates the helper T cells to divide
B CELL PROLIFERATION – when helper T cells
stimulate B cells to divide and differentiate into
cells that
produce antibodies
ANTIBODY-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
STRUCTURES OF ANTIBODIES
ANTIBODIES – proteins produced in response to
an
antigen
VARIABLE REGION – part of the antibody that
combines with the antigen
CONSTANT REGION – the rest of the antibody
GAMMA GLOBULINS – other name for
antibodies
IMMUNOGLOBULINS (Ig) – part of the plasma
where
antibodies and found
EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES
Ø Directly inactivate antigens or cause them to
clump
together
Ø Indirectly destroy antigens by promoting
phagocytosis and inflammation
ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
PRIMARY RESPONSE – results from the first
exposure
of a B cell to an antigen
PLASMA CELLS – produce antibodies
MEMORY B CELLS – responsible of the
secondary
response
SECONDARY RESPONSE / MEMORY
RESPONSE –
occurs when the immune system is exposed to
anantigen against which it has already produced a
primary
response
CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY
Ø A function of cytotoxic T cells and is most
effective
against microorganisms inside body cells
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
Ø Results from natural exposure to an antigen
ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Ø An antigen is deliberately introduced into an
individual to stimulate the immune system
Ø Vaccination // Vaccine (antigen introduced)
PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY
Ø Results hen antibodies are transferred from a
mother to a child across the placenta before birth
PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
Ø Transfer of antibodies from an animal to a person
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
Ø Innate immunity, antibody-mediated immunity,
and cell-mediated immunity can function together
to eliminate an antigen
IMMUNOTHERAPY
Ø Treats disease by altering immune system
function or by directly attacking harmful cells