TLHT Viết 3

A Handbook for Writing 3
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CONTENT
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................iv
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................v
CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF ACADEMIC WRITING.....................................1
A. BACKGROUND TO ACADEMIC WRITING.......................................................2
B. MAIN CONTENT AND TYPES OF WRITING TASKS IN “GREAT WRITING 3”
...................................................................................................................................... 7
C. BRIEF RECOMMENDATION FOR A GOOD WRITING ESSAY.......................8
CHAPTER 2: STUDYING MATERIALS..................................................................10
UNIT STRUCTURE...................................................................................................11
SECTION 1: LETTERS AND EMAILS...................................................................12
Unit 1: Letter/ email writing………………………………………………………….13
Unit 2: Informal letters/ emails ………………………………………………………25
Unit 3: Formal letters/ emails......................................................................................39
Unit 4: Semi-formal letters/ emails.............................................................................60
SECTION 2: FROM PARAGRAPHS TO ESSAY.....................................................73
Unit 1: Introduction to paragraphs..............................................................................74
Unit 2: Five elements of good writing.........................................................................88
Unit 3: Types of paragraphs......................................................................................100
Unit 4: Descriptive essays: Moving from paragraphs to essays................................119
Unit 5: Comparison Essays.......................................................................................133
Unit 6: Cause – effect essays……………………………………………………… 146
Unit 7: Classification essays.....................................................................................162
CHAPTER 3: TEST - TAKING STRATEGIES & SAMPLE TEST........................171
A. AN OVERVIEW OF VSTEP STANDARDIZED WRITING TEST AT UNETI 172
1. Key concepts………………………………………………………………………172
2. Exam format……………………………………………...……………………….172
3. Band score and Rubrics for assessment……………………...……………………173
4. Writing exam……………………………………..……………………………….175
B. TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES...............................................…….……………177
1. General test-taking tips………………………………..…………….…………….177
2. Getting to know the test…………………………………………...………………178
3. Practicing for specific sections of the test………………………………...………179
C. WRITING TEST SAMPLES.............................................................................. 181
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D. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS AND CONVENTIONS IN ACADEMIC

WRITING……………………………………………………………………………189
CHAPTER 4: PRACTICE TESTS............................................................................194
ANSWERS...............................................................................................................205
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................230
APPENDICES..........................................................................................................233
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
No. Abbreviation Meaning
1 adj adjective
2 adv adverb
3 v, V verb
4 n noun
5 prep preposition
6 phr v phrasal verb
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INTRODUCTION
To the students,
A Handbook for Writing 3 is the main textbook which linguistics students at University
of Economics and Technology for Industries (UNETI) are required to accomplish in the
fourth school term. This supplementary book gives an overview of Writing 3 syllabus in
line with the main textbook “Great Writing 3 – From great paragraphs to great essays”
and its place within Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP).
Goals
The first goal of this book is to provide students with a general revision of essential
elements in paragraph writing. Secondly, this authentic printing analyzes the connections
between these paragraphs and longer essays. Last but not least, it emphasizes essay
writing in which students are instructed to employ a variety of rhetorical patterns. With
the practical purposes, this material offers users develop their academic writing skills
through a great deal of extensive exercises and activities in paragraph and essay writing
as well. It is assumed that the students can understand the basics of paragraph writing and
can move on to the creation of original essays.
In addition, this handbook apparently provides students with a detailed background of

examination form and strategies about what to expect and how best to succeed in the test.
Writing exam information is presented in clear, easy-to-read chunks. Moreover, “exam
tips” will be highlighted with essential exam techniques or test-taking strategies and can
be rapidly reviewed at a glance.
Content
This essential studying material is designed scientifically, clearly and attractively to

students with three chapters.
Chapter 1 sheds light on the importance of academic writing skills, the purpose of
writing academically and the features of a good academic essay. Furthermore, a brief
comparison between paragraphs and essays is described to supply students with a
background in two types of writing. Process-writing technique is also introduced in this
chapter serving the aim of encouraging students to follow particular step so as to achieve
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the target knowledge. Last but not least, specific types of paragraphs or essays in this
self-studying material are described as well.
Chapter 2 emphasizes on the importance of academic writing skills and leading students
through the unique tutorials and related practice workouts for every single unit of Writing
3. In particular, the target aim is embraced in the first part of the unit. The necessary
knowledge concerning grammar for writing, language development; and academic
writing skills are definitely explained in order for students to comprehend and produce in
their own writing. Last but not least, students are given chances to reflect how they apply
the language through objective review. These steps, as a consequence, encourage them to
study at their own pace and develop either their self-esteem or autonomy.
Chapter 3 firstly describes the examination structure and the different task types so
candidates know what to expect when taking the exam. Additionally, it explains how the
test is evaluated and helps participants to know what to concentrate on and how to avoid
typical mistakes. Additionally, this chapter sheds the light on addressing a variety of test-
taking techniques that are ideally useful not only for this course, but also for various
international examinations related to writing skills. Lastly, this chapter also includes the
revision covering the nuclear contents for the final test which is also analyzed for
students to get throughout understanding on how the writing paper is evaluated.
Chapter 4 is functionally presented with sample practice tests serving the aim of helping
students prepare for the final examination.
This book is compiled elaborately and expected to be a rich and powerful source for both
EFL teachers and students in writing class. We would be grateful to welcome the
constructive suggestions and recommendations to improve the book. Please send all the
responses to nttha.khoann@uneti.edu.vn.
Thank you!
Nguyen, T. T. H, Nguyen, T. N & Pham, T. T. (2021)
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CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF ACADEMIC WRITING
A. BACKGROUND TO ACADEMIC WRITING
1. Definition of academic writing
Academic writing is writing which is done by scholars (students or academic) for other
scholars to read. It can take many forms: journal articles, textbooks, dissertations, group
project reports, etc. Although students are increasingly being asked to write different
types of academic text, the essay still remains the most popular type of assignment.
Essays are written by students and are likely to be read by one person only: their tutor.
The essay can be set as a course book assignment to assess a students’ understanding of a
module, or as an exam question.
2. The purposes of academic essays
Essays are a common form of assessment, for example in disciplines such as Business,
International Relations, Law, History, Geography, Theology, Communication Studies,
Education and Economics.
There are many reasons why essays are still the most popular type of assignment. One of
them is that they ask students to demonstrate more than just knowledge. To demonstrate
the purpose of essays, let’s have a look at the difference between an ordinary question
and an essay question.
Ordinary question: Why did William of Normandy win the Battle of Hasting?
Essay question: William of Normandy’s victory at the Battle of Hasting has often
been attributed to his large and well-prepared army. However,
without strategy and good fortune, he might well have lost the
battle.
Discuss.
The answer to the ordinary question could be a list of items, in no particular order of
importance. The essay question directs the writer more: the student has to mention the
size and the preparedness of the army, describe William’s strategy and the fortunate
circumstances, and decide how important these elements were for the victory. In order to
come to a conclusion about this, the writer has to do research. This is indicated in the
language: in the first sentence “has often been attributed to” tells the student that there are
a lot of sources which she should look at to explain this point of view, and “However” in
the second sentence suggests that there is also evidence available for a contrasting
opinion. The word “Discuss” makes it clear that there are different points to be made,
which should be mentioned and commented on, so that the writer can make a decision
about which side she is on.
Clearly, a finished essay demonstrates more than just the knowledge students were taught
about a subject. The writer will have:
 Found out much more than what they were taught in lectures and seminars;
 Weighed up the evidence about different points of view;
 Developed their own point of view;
 Increased their knowledge and their depth of understanding;
 Trained their memory to remember the important facts;
 Undertaken activities that prepare them for their future profession.
By writing the information down in essay form, they will have:
 Organized their thoughts;

 Practiced and improved their ability to communicate in writing;
 Shown awareness of the reader, of academic conventions and the way others write
in their discipline.
If you plan your time so that you can read up on a topic, think critically about it, follow
the essay instructions, and express your view clearly in a well-organized text, you
deserve a good grade.
3. Features of academic writing
Academic writing is a formal style of writing. This means it is different to other types of
writing, and different from spoken English. There are 10 feature students can apply to
make their own writing more formal and professional.
1. Use formal Use formal language rather than every day common language.
vocabulary Start by checking the Academic Word List (Appendix 1). This is
a list of the most frequently used words in academic writing.
2. Use formal Use formal verbs and avoid two-word verbs. For example, use
verbs “establish” instead of “set up”, and “decrease” instead of “go
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down”.
3. Use useful Use the full form of verbs and avoid using contractions. For
verbs example, use “cannot” instead of “can’t”, and “will not” instead
of “won’t”.
Use formal structures/ more complicated sentences such as
4. Use formal clauses and noun phrases not just short simple sentences.
grammar e.g. It is important to consider all shareholders in this matter,
structures they have the final vote.
The internationalization of the economy has created growth
opportunities.
5. Use statements Make very clear and definite statements. Avoid using rhetorical
questions because they make the writing seem weak.
6. Use impersonal Use language such as “there is” or “it is likely that” rather than
language “I think” or “I feel”.
7. Be precise Provide concise, clear and accurate statements, avoid vague or
ambiguous statements. Use data wherever possible
e.g. Use “The Coalition was formed in 1923, some 24 years ago,
and have a conservative ideology” rather than “The Coalition
has been destroying the country for about a century”.
8. Use references Support your statements with evidence, and ensure you reference
and evidence these clearly.
Use hedging statements or tentative language such as “may”,
9. Use hedging “It’s possible that”, “appear to” to qualify statements. This
statement avoids absolute statements, which may be in error “It is possible
that the Liberal government is responsible for increased habitat
destruction and environmental degradation”
Use transition words at the start of some sentences to connect
10. Use transition ideas together in an explicit and logical way
words “In addition”, “in contrast”, “for this reason”
Do not use “but”, “and”, “so” at the start of the sentence
4. The difference between writing paragraphs and writing essays
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The relationship between a paragraph and an essay is symbiotic; you can’t write an essay
without using paragraphs, and four or more consecutive paragraphs about the same
subject matter become an essay. Following are some typical differences between
paragraphs and essays
Both paragraphs and essays have a distinct beginning, middle and end. They’re also both
composed of five sections: A paragraph typically has five sentences, and an essay, five
paragraphs.
Paragraphs Essays
1. Structure Have a distinct beginning, middle and end.
From five to seven sentences. Five paragraphs.
Start with a topic sentence or a thesis statement, that explains to the
reader what the paragraph/ essay is about.
The topic sentence stands at the The thesis statement stands in the
beginning of the paragraph. introductory paragraph.
2. Topic e.g. A lasting marriage requires e.g. The gravity of marriage
sentence many levels of compromise. becomes more apparent over

time; newlyweds imagine a
glamorous life ahead and cannot
yet imagine the test their love will
endure, while couples married for
a decade or more are beginning
to understand the depth of their
promise.
Both require supporting details that elaborate on the statements made
in the topic sentence or thesis statement.
- Each subsequent sentence builds The first sentence in each
3. Supporting
upon the point made in the topic paragraph discusses points made
details
sentence. in the thesis statement.
- The sentences following the - The paragraphs following the
topic sentence are called thesis statement are called
“supporting details” “supporting paragraphs”. Each
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supporting paragraph has its own

supporting details.
Differ in their length
- Paragraphs are typically - Essays contain at least four
between five and seven sentences paragraphs; they’re composed of
4. Length
long. an introductory paragraph (which
- They’re composed of a topic includes the thesis statement), at
sentence and five or six least two supporting paragraphs
supporting details. and a conclusion paragraph.
End with a conclusion, but the type of conclusion differs
- Paragraphs must end with a - Essays end with a conclusion
concluding sentence that states paragraph that summarizes the
the basic point of the paragraph. content of the essay and reiterates
5. Conclusion - It should not rephrase or the thesis statement with different

reiterate the topic sentence. phrasing.
- The conclusion paragraph
usually revisits the points
introduced in the supporting
paragraphs to prove to the reader
that, from the writer’s point of
view, the thesis statement was
correct.
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B. MAIN CONTENT AND TYPES OF WRITING TASKS IN “GREAT WRITING 3”
1. Section 1: Letter Writing
One fundamental type of writing absolutely deals with writing emails or letter. It is
undeniable that with the level B2 students have to master in this current period, they are
required to take the V-step standardized writing tests which consists of writing emails/
letters for task 1 and an essay for task 2. Therefore, the first section in this reference is a
revision of writing emails/ letters in terms of letter writing, informal letters, formal
letters and semi-formal letters.
2. Section 2: Paragraph and Essay Writing
Great Writing 3 consists of two main parts
The first one comprised from Unit 1-3 which highlight the elements of a good paragraph.
Specifically, some suggestions for constructing a good paragraph with a good topic
sentence, supporting details and concluding sentences. Besides, cohesion and audience
play a significant role in writing a paragraph are also emphasized. Moreover, a variety of
rhetorical styles of economic writing using paragraphs as the sample elements are
exposed to students.
Secondly, after getting a quite general background of paragraph, the book transits readers
to writing an essay. The next four lessons shed a light on four basic types of essay which
is known as description, comparison, cause-effect, and classification.
Serving the aim of being a supplementary reference for Great Writing 3, this material
will respectively examine the underlying meaning, function and structure of the target
knowledge in order for students to self-study and develop their writing knowledge as well
as their writing skill.
C. BRIEF RECOMMENDATION FOR A GOOD WRITING ESSAY
Many scholars and professors had rounds of heated discussion on the product-oriented
approach and process-oriented approach in English writing classes.
In the product approach, compositions are judged as final products and the evaluation of
writing skills is done on the basis of timed production of grammatically and lexically
accurate texts. The tasks are those in which the learner imitates, copies and transforms
models provided by the teacher or the textbook.
In process approach to writing, teaching focuses on the writing process rather than the
final product. The most important principle of process approach is that writing is a self-
discovery process and the result is very complex, highly individualized process, it is a
form of self-expression, an idea-making activity and ideas develop as one writes. Writing
is itself an idea-formation process which involves communicating with readers.
Under the light of those definitions, students are encouraged to follow the oriented-
process approach. In order to do that, it is essential for good writers to go through several
steps to produce a piece of writing.
Pre-writing
STEP ONE: Choose a topic. Before you write, your teacher gives you a specific
assignment or some ideas of what to write about. If not, choose your topic yourself.
STEP TWO: Gather ideas. When you have a topic, think about what you will
write about that topic.
STEP THREE: Organize. Decide which of the ideas you want to use and where
you want to use them. Choose which idea to talk about first, which to talk about
next, and which to talk about last.
Drafting
STEP FOUR: Write. Write your paragraph or essay from start to finish. Use your
notes about your ideas and organization
Reviewing and revising
STEP FIVE: Review structure and content. Check what you have written. Read
your writing silently to yourself or aloud, perhaps to a friend. Look for places where
you can add more information, and check to see if you have any unnecessary
information. Ask a classmate to exchange texts with you. Your classmate reads
your text, and you read his or hers. Getting a reader’s opinion is a good way to
know if your writing is clear and effective. Learning to give opinions about other
people’s writing helps you to improve your own. You may want to go on to step six
and revise the structure and content of your text before you proofread it.
Rewriting
STEP SIX:
Revise structure and content. Use your ideas from step five to rewrite your text,
making improvements to the structure and content. You might need to explain
something more clearly, or add more details. You may even need to change your
organization so that your text is more logical. Together, step five and six can be
call editing
Proofread. Read your text again. This time, check your spelling and grammar and
think about the words you have chosen to use.
Make final corrections. Check that you have corrected the errors you discovered
in steps five and six and make any other changes you want to make. Now your
text is finished.
Step five and six can be repeated many times.
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CHAPTER 2: STUDYING MATERIALS
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Chapter 2: Studying Materials A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT STRUCTURE
Each unit starts with the objectives of the unit. They outline the key language and skills
covered.
Part A - Grammar for Writing: provide grammatical phenomenon used for the target type
of writing. Clear structures are provided
Part B - Academic Writing Skills: provides step-by-step exercises and guidance on the
type of writing answer required and the key stages of the writing process. The particular
requirements of each type of writing and the different formats for presenting information.
Part C - Language Development: provide useful vocabulary and phrases related to the
topic.
Part D - Writing Tasks: provide some practice writing exercises.
Part E - Online Discovering: aim to expand students’ knowledge on the particular type of
writing in that unit by supplying them the online authentic material for further studying
and self-esteem.
Finally, an objective review helps students to check whether they have covered the key
points in the unit or not.
Chapter 2: Studying Materials A Handbook for Writing 3
SECTION 1: LETTERS AND EMAILS
SECTION 1:
LETTERS & EMAILS
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section A – Unit 1: Letter Writing A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT 1: LETTER/ EMAIL WRITING
Unit 1: Letter writing
After this unit, students will be able to:

 Understand and differentiate three types of letter: informal, formal and semi-
formal.
 Get a revision of a letter structure.
 Understand the characteristics of letters.
 Use adverbial clauses.
 Use some appropriate vocabulary for opening and closing remarks in letter
writing.
 Write a letter with clearly different-oriented paragraph.
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 1 – Unit 1: Letter Writing A Handbook for Writing 3
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses usually begin with conjunctions such as “although, because, when”.
The conjunction shows the relationship between the adverbial clause and the rest of the
sentence
e.g. Although the sun’s shining, it’s freezing outside this morning. I’m not going out
because it’s so cold.
We can use adverbial clauses (I might go out when it gets warmer) to provide additional
information about an action or situation in a way that is similar to adverbs (I might go out
later) and prepositional phrases (I might go out in the afternoon).
1. Time clauses
- We can use When at the beginning of an adverbial clause describing a period of time or
a point in time. E.g. when I was young, we didn’t watch TV.
- We can use a clause with While or When to describe a period of time with another
clause to describe what happens at some point in that period of time. E.g. While/ when
you were out, your mother called
- We can use As like When and While for a period of time during which something
happen. We can use as/ just as (not while) to focus on the precise moment that something
happens. E.g. As/ when/ while I was getting ready to leave, I heard that my flight had
been cancelled.
- We use after in the adverbial clause when the other clause describes something that
happens later. We use before in the adverbial clause when the other clause describes
something that happens at any time earlier. E.g. After they left, we cleaned up and went
to bed.
- We use until to focus on the end point or outcome of something. We use since to talk
about a starting point for something in another clause that happens later or that is still
true. E.g. We’ll wait until you’re ready.
- When we want to say that one thing happens very quickly after another, we can use as
soon as/ immediately to introduce the clause with the first action. E.g. I came as soon as
I heard the news
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in

meaning to the sentence above it.
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1. I watched Maurice drive by in his new car while I was standing at the bus stop in the
rain. (When)
2. You’ll know that the fruit is getting ripe when the skin starts to turn yellow (As)
3. We shouldn’t talk about anything to do with work during lunch (While)
4. I was getting out of the shower when the phone rang in the other room (Just as)
Exercise 2: Complete these sentences with “have/’ve been or will/’ll be”
1. Where will the refugees go after the camps ……… closed?
2. I’m sorry about the delay, but I ……… back as soon as I have checked this.
3. My back still hurts and it will soon be two weeks since I ……… at work.
4. I’m sure we ……… in London in August before we go to the Edinburgh Festival, so

we can visit your new house then.
5. The moment we hear that the airport is open, relief supplies ……… loaded on to the
waiting aircraft.
6. New students should not register for classes until they ……… given their registration
numbers.
7. Once you ……… here for a few weeks, you won’t want to leave.
8. The children ……… hungry when they come back from swimming this morning.
2. Reason clauses with because, as, since, etc.
- We use because/ as/ since at the beginning of a clause to give a reason or explanation
for something or to support a statement in an earlier clause. E.g. Because/ as/ since there
had been an accident, we all arrived later
3. Manner clauses with as, as if, as though, etc.
- We can use manner clauses beginning with as/ just as when we are describing how
something was or how something was done. E.g. The film depicts life as it was in 1900
- We use as… as to say that two actions or situations are similar or different in some way.
Between the first and the second as we can put adjectives and adverbs or quantifiers such
as many/ much. E.g. Is Max still as funny as he used to be?
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Exercise 3: Add one of these clauses, introduced by “as though, just as, as… as” to the
following sentences. Make any other necessary changes.
Everyone has been saying it really is the guidebook had described it
I remembered it it was made yesterday they have done Nothing had

happened
E.g. Is the new Italian restaurant as good as everyone has been saying?
1. No one talked about it. They all behaved …………….
2. I went to see my old school and it hadn’t changed. It was still …………….
3. This tea is terrible. It tastes …………….
4. When you emulate someone successful, you try to do well …………….
5. We found the little church hidden in the forest, …………….
6. If you underestimate the cost of something, you think it isn’t much …………….

meaning to the pair of sentences above it.
1. All the banks will be closed on Monday, it’s a holiday. (As)
2. She has had to use crutches. She had an operation on her foot. (Since)
3. We’re all together today. We should decide on a date for the Christmas party. (While)
4. I wonder what he’ll do next. He has finished his exams. (Now that)
Exercise 5: Match a sentence from the first group (1-4) with one from the second
group (a-d) with a similar meaning and add “as if, because”
1. It’s more expensive to eat in a restaurant, but I don’t like to cook.
2. If I wanted to avoid doing something, I pretended to be ill.
3. The cost of meat is higher now, but I don’t eat it, so my food bill hasn’t increased.
4. No matter what the discussion is about, no one ever pays attention to my suggestions
a. …………. I’m a vegetarian, I’m spending less than other people these days.
b. I acted …………. I wasn’t feeling well when I didn’t want to do things.
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c. I spend more money on meals …………. I don’t make them myself at home.
d. They always treat me …………. I have nothing useful to say.
TYPES OF LETTERS
There are various types of letters, such as: letter of application, letter of complaint, letters
to the editor and etc. The type of letter you should write depends on the reason for
writing.
e.g. to give your news, to invite somebody to a party, to make a complaint or to apply for
a job
sd
Depending on the rubric, you may be asked to write a letter for more than one reason.
The most common reasons for writing a letter are:
 Giving/ asking about news  Congratulating someone
 Giving/ asking for advice  Inviting someone
 Giving/ asking for information  Accepting/ refusing an invitation
 Apologizing for something  Making suggestions, etc.
 Thanking someone
PRACTICE
Exercise 6: Read the extracts (A – F) and decide what type of letter each is from (1 –
6). Which key words helped you decide? Underline them.
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Exercise 7: The paragraphs in the letter below are in jumbled order. Put them into the
correct order, then identify the type of letter
Order: ……………………………………………………………………………………
WRITING STYLE IN LETTERS

The writing style you should use (informal, formal or semi-formal) depends on who you
are writing to. More specifically:
 When you are writing to someone you know well (e.g. close relative, your best
friend, etc.), you should use informal style.
 When you are writing to someone you do not know, or to someone who is in
authority (e.g. the manager of a hotel, a doctor, etc.), you should use formal style.
 When you are writing to someone you do not know very well, or someone you
want to be polite and respectful to (e.g. a friend’s parents, your teacher, etc.), you
should use semi-formal style.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF
a. Informal letters
 Address and date: your address in the top, right-hand corner, followed by the date
 Greeting: Dear John, Dear Mum, etc.
 Informal language: I’ve been meaning to write to you for ages; Don’t worry; By
the way; It was a piece of cake; I’ll pick you up; We can give it a try, etc.
 Ending: Yours/ Love/ Best wishes/ Regards/ Etc. + your first name)
b. Formal letters
 Address and date: your address as well as the recipient’s address. You address in
the top, right-hand corner, followed by the date. The recipient’s position, the name
and address of the company, organization, etc. on the left-hand side.
 Greeting: Dear Mrs. Davis – when you know the person’s name; Dear Sir/ Madam
– when you do not know the person’s name.
 Formal language: I am writing with regard to your advertisement; I would
appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience; The product which was delivered,
proved to be faulty, etc.
 Ending: Yours sincerely/ faithfully + your full name.
 Note: when you begin with Dear Mr./ Mrs./ Ms. Marcus, you should end with
Yours sincerely + your full name. When you begin with Dear Sir/ Madam, you
should end with Yours faithfully + your full name.
c. Semi-formal letters
 Address and date: your address in the top right-hand corner, followed by the date
 Greeting: Dear Mr./ Mrs./ Ms. + person’s surname
 Ending: Regards/ Best wishes/ etc. + your first name or full name.
PRACTICE
Exercise 8: Mark the phrases as F (for formal) or I (for informal)
....... 1. I would also appreciate some information about….
....... 2. Well, I must go now.......
....... 3. Please accept my sincere apologies.......
....... 4. You are cordially invited to attend.......
....... 5. I am writing in response to your advertisement.......

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....... 6. Thanks for the invitation to your dinner party.......
....... 7. I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction with.......
....... 8. I look forward to meeting you in person.......
....... 9. Just a quick note to tell you.......
....... 10. I am writing to bring to your attention the.......
....... 11. Please do not hesitate to contact me.......
....... 12. I’m so sorry to hear you’re having problems with.......
....... 13. Write back soon.......
....... 14. We regret to inform you that.......
....... 15. I won’t take no for an answer.......
Exercise 9: Read the situation below and answer the questions that follow
This is your last year at school and you are unsure of what course to take at university.
You have decided to write a letter to …., asking for advice.
a. What style should you use if you are writing to:
A. a friend B. your former teacher C. a careers advisor
b. First match the beginnings and endings and then say which of the people in part
a) each letter is addressed to
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Exercise 10: Read the pairs of expressions (1-10) and the letters which follow, then
choose the most suitable expression to complete each gap.
1. Hi – just a quick note/ I am writing 6. played a big part/ was very important
2. Thank you very much/ say thanks a lot 7. making sure/ ensuring
3. all your help/ your kind assistance 8. occasion/ whole thing
4. getting ready/ preparations 9. went so well/ was such a success
5. Your contribution/ What you did 10. tell you how much I appreciate/ thank
you enough for
21
Which letter is informal, and which letter is semi-formal? What type of letter are they?
Exercise 11: Match the beginnings to the endings, then identify what type of letter
each pair is from. Finally, say whether each pair has been written in formal or
informal style.
Exercise 12: Read the rubrics below and identify the type of letter
22
1. What type of letter should you write for each rubric?

2. Who is going to read your letter?
3. What style should you use in each letter?
4. How would you begin and end each letter?
5. Can you suggest appropriate opening and closing remarks for each letter?
Choose one of those topics to write your letter
(1) Write the type of each letter.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your answer
TASK AND LANGUAGE CHECKLIST
23
Have you identified the type of each letter?
Have you figured out who is going to read the letter?
Have you identified the appropriate style you should use in each letter?
Have you thought of how you would begin and end each letter?
Have you suggested appropriate opening and closing remarks for each
letter?
Have you used adverbial clauses in your letter?
(3) Rewrite the type of letter after you use the task and language checklist.
A letter is written in response to a situation outlined in the question. You can expect to be
asked to write letters to an English-speaking friend or colleague, a potential employer, a
college principal or a magazine editor. The letter will require a response which is
consistently appropriate in register and tone for the specified target reader.
In order to get more knowledge on this issue, click the link below to further study on
letter writing
https://test-english.com/writing/b1-b2/formal-email-letter-asking-information/
https://www.esleschool.com/writing-section-new-attraction-letter/
Check your objectives by tick the number from 1 to 5:

1 – not very well 2 – not well 3 – average 4 – well 5 – very well
I can…
24
1 2 3 4 5
1 Identify and distinguish three types of letter:

informal, formal and semi-formal.
2 Get a revision of a letter structure
3 Understand the characteristics of letters
4 Use some appropriate vocabulary for opening and

closing remarks in letter writing
5 Write a letter with clearly different-oriented

paragraph
25
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 1 - Unit 2: Informal letters A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT 2: INFORMAL LETTERS/ EMAILS
Unit 2: Longer emails
 Get clearer understanding on opening/ closing remarks and main body structure of
an informal letter.
 Use should/ ought to/ had better to give advice.
 Know how to make a suggestion or an arrangement.
 Use useful and appropriate vocabulary of getting and giving advice.
 Write a letter of giving advice.
26
SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER

Should, ought to, had better are often used to give advice
1. Forms:
2. Using Should, ought to, had better for advice

a. Should, ought to: general advice
e.g. You should assess yourself before you look for a job
She ought to look for a new job
b. Had better (not): very strong advice and warnings, it is much stronger than “should,
ought to”. It suggests that something negative will happen if you don’t take the advice. It
is usually used in spoken language
e.g. You had better finish this project, or you might lose your job.
27
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Unscramble the words and add “you” to write sentences that give advice.
Sometimes more than one answer is possible
1. Decide what you want from a job/ should/ really
 You really should decide what you want from a job/ You should really decide what
you want from a job.
2. had better/ think about the hours you prefer/ really.
3. ought to/ decide if you want to be on call 24-7/ perhaps
4. maybe/ look for job advertisements online/ should.
5. tell your family about your plans/ ought to/ probably
6. really/ shouldn’t/ get discouraged.
7. should/ ask for advice from a career counselor/ I think
8. really/ take a job you don’t like/ had better not.
Exercise 2: Add these nouns and verbs to these sentences
Cat mirror shoulder had better ought not should be
Ladder person umbrella is supposed to shouldn’t should have
28
If you listen to the advice of a superstitious (1) ………., you (2) ………… be ready to
pay a lot of attention to what you’re doing each day. Be careful with that (3) ……….
You’ll be told that you (4) ……… open it indoors. When you’re walking along the street,
watch out for a (5) ………. You (6) ……… careful not to walk under one. Did you spill
any salt recently? You know that you (7) ……… immediately thrown some of it over
your (8) ………, don’t you? And remember that you (9) ……… to be careless with a
(10) ……… because if you break one, you’ll have seven years of bad luck. However, if
you see a black (11) ………, that’s good, because it (12) ……… be lucky.
Informal letters are sent to people you know well (e.g. friends, relatives, etc.) about your
recent news, personal problems, information you need, etc. They are written in an
informal style with a chatty, personal tone.
An informal letter should consist of:
 An informal greeting: Dear Kent/ Aunt Joan/ etc.

 An introduction/ opening in which you write your opening remarks (e.g. asking
about your friend’s health, etc.) and mention your reason for writing. E.g. Hi, how
are you? I thought I’d write and let you know that….
 A main body/ content in which you write the main subjects or answer the key
points in detail, starting a new paragraph for each topic;
 A final comment in which you write your closing remarks. E.g. That’s all my
news for now. Write back soon, …
 An informal ending/ closing: e.g. Lots of love/ Best wishes/ etc. + your first
name.
PRACTICE
Exercise 3: a. Read the letter and underline the correct tenses in bold. Then, label the
paragraphs with the headings below.
 Opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing
29
 Writer’s feelings about the change

 Closing remarks
Dear Sharon,
& Introduction
How are you? Sorry (1) I’m taking/ I’ve taken so
Greeting
long to write, but I’ve been busy settling in. Anyway, I

thought (2) I’d drop/ I’ve dropped you a line to let
you know how I’m getting on here
Birmingham is a really exciting city with millions of

things to do. There’s so much to choose from, I
sometime find it hard to make up my mind where to
go! Although I still (3) didn’t get/ haven’t got used to
the traffic, the noise and the huge crowds. I think it’s
a great city.
Main body
I like living here now, but I sometimes feel homesick

as I muss lots of things about Gowrie. (4) I’ll never/
don’t forget the beautiful countryside and the old
stone cottages. Living in the city means I can’t go for
long walks by the sea, either. Most of all, I miss my
friends – especially you, of course! We always (5)
had/ were having such a great time together. (6)
haven’t/ didn’t we?
Well, that’s all my news for now. Please write back

Final comments
and let me know what (7) you were/ you’ve been up

to since I (8) heard/ have heard from you last. Say
“hi” to Tom and Joanna, too. I promise I’ll come back
and visit all of you as soon as I can.
Lots of love,
Conclusion
Angela.
30
b. Underline the topic sentences in the main body paragraphs, then suggest other
appropriate ones.
OPENING/ CLOSING REMARKS
Opening remarks in informal letter may include:
a. Questions/ wishes about recent events, the person’s health, etc.

b. A thank you to the person for their last letter, comments about their news
c. An apology for a delay in writing/ replying.
d. The reason why you are writing.
Closing remarks in informal letters may include:
e. The reason why you must end the letter

f. Greetings to the person’s family/ friends
g. Wishes, a promise (e.g. to write again soon), an invitation, etc.
h. A request to the person to reply soon.
Exercise 4: Match the sentence 1-8 to points a-h in the box above:
1. …… Hello – how are you? I hope you’re feeling better.
2. …… I was sorry to hear that you aren’t going to ……
3. …… I’ll write as soon as I can and let you know about ……
4. …… Please write soon and tell me all your news.
5. …… Well, that’s all my news. I’d better end now, because ……
6. …… The reason I’m writing is to ask you if ……
7. …… Give my best wishes to your parents.
8. …… Sorry I’ve taken so long to put pen to paper, but ……
31
MAIN BODY PARAGRAPHS
In informal letters you usually talk about more than on topic.
 The rubric gives you information about the subject of the letter and often tells you
specific topics which you must write about. E.g. You have just passed an
important test or examination. Write a letter telling a pen friend about your
success and describing your plans for the future.
 These topics will be discussed in the main body of the letter. You should begin a
new paragraph for each topic.
Para 1: Opening remarks.
Para 2: Tell friend about success.
Para 3: Describe plans for future.
Para 4: Closing remarks.
Exercise 5: Read the rubrics below. How many main body paragraph would each letter
have? What would each paragraph be about?
32
Exercise 6: Read the rubrics and underline the key words, then answer the questions
You want to go on holiday in the summer but don’t have enough money.
Write a letter to a friend asking for his/ her advice about ways to earn
extra money.
1. Why are you writing the letter?
3. How many paragraphs should you include in the main body?
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS FOR MAKING SUGGESTIONS
 I think I/ you/ we should ….  How do you feel about + V-ing?

 Perhaps I/ you/ we could ….  How about + V-ing?
 What do you think about + V-ing?  Why don’t I/ you/ we ….?
 What about + V-ing?  Would you like me/ us to ….?
 Would you like to ….
PRACTICE
Exercise 7: Read the rubric and underline the key words, then answer the questions
You recently moved to a big city and have decided to write to a friend from
your old neighborhood. Write a letter describing life in your new city and
your feelings about the change.
33
2. Where is this person now?
3. Where are you now?
5. What topics should your letter include?
6. How will you begin and end the letter?
7. Which of the following are positive aspects of life in a big city? Which are negative?
 Lots of café, cinémas, etc. ;

 Heavy traffic;
 Constant noise from cars ;
 Ugly grey building ;
 Plenty of sports facilities ;
 Wide choice of things to do;
 Huge crowds;
 Good public transport system;
 Large modern shops.
Exercise 8: Use the prompts below and expression from the table above to make
suggestion
1. come/ dinner/ my house/ next Monday.
2. spend/ weekend/ in/ mountains.
3. go shopping/ in/ city center.
4. visit/ art gallery/ while/ be/ in London.
Exercise 9: a. Read the following rubric and answer the questions
A friend of yours, who has been living in another country for some
time, is going to visit you for a week. Write a letter suggesting
what you might do together and what sights you might visit.
1. Where would you take your friend?

2. What is the most popular attraction in your city/ town?
3. Are there any bazaars, outdoor markets, fairs, restaurants, etc. which are worth
visiting?
34
4. What kind of traditional dishes would you suggest your friend should try?
b. Use your answers from question 1-4 and appropriate expressions to write the main
body paragraphs of this letter.
ASKING FOR ADVICE
To ask for advice, you can use phrases such as:
 Do you think I should….? Should  I’d like to know what you think
I….? about….?
 What do you think I should do?  Can you think of anything that…?
 Do you have any idea about…?  I was wondering if you….?
GIVING FOR ADVICE
An informal letter giving advice should offer sympathy and encouragement, as well as
specific advice with reasons. Each piece of advice is written in a separate paragraph.
Opening remarks… Giving advice
 I was sorry to hear that….  If I were you/ in your position, I’d/

 Cheer up! Don’t worry too much. wouldn’t ….
 Don’t let it get you down.  It would(n’t)/ might be a good idea
 I’m only too glad to help. (for you) to ….
Result  Have you thought of/ about… V-

ing?
 This will/ would mean that ….
 Another good idea is to ….
 Then/ that way ….
 If you do this, you would …. so Closing remarks
that you could/ would….  I hope that this/ my advice helps.
PRACTICE:
Exercise 10: Read the letter and underline the phrases that Mary uses to ask for
advice.
35
Exercise 11: Match the problems to the advice, then make sentences
1. I can’t stop eating junk food every day. a. Talk to your teacher. You will get extra
I’m overweight. help.
2. I haven’t got any friends. I’m lonely. b. Join a gym. You will lose weight.
3. I’m very bad at Maths. I’m going to fail c. Apologize to him/ her. You’ll be friends
my exam. again.
4. I haven’t got much money. I can’t go d. Join a club. You will meet new people.
out with my friends.
e. Get a part-time job. You will earn some
5. I argued with my friend. He/ she won’t money.
talk to me now.
Exercise 12: Read Pam’s reply and replace phrases 1-6 phrases A-F
A. I’d be happy D. how things go
B. Don’t let it get your down E. if I were you, I’d
C. How about F. Perhaps you could also
36
What advice does Pam give to Mary? What other advice could you give to Mary? How
else could you start and end the letter?
Exercise 13: Read the rubric, underline the key words, and answer the questions:
Your pen friend has written you a letter asking for advice on how to
improve his/ her eating habits and get fit. Write a letter offering
advice.
1. What is the reason for writing? Who is going to read your letter?
2. How many paragraphs should you include in the main body?
3. What opening and closing remarks should you write in your letter?
4. Match the advice in column A to the results in column B. Then, use appropriate
expressions to make sentences, as in example
A B
1. join a gym – exercise regularly a. follow balanced diet, won’t put on

weight.
2. try not to eat so much junk food,
sweets, etc.
37
3. eat plenty of fish, fruit and vegetables b. body won’t become lazy
4. don’t go everywhere by car/ bus c. body won’t store so much sugar and fat
d. soon get in shape and feel fitter.
E.g. If I were you, I would join a gym and exercise regularly. This will mean that you’ll
soon get in shape and feel fitter.
Use the suggestions to write your letter.
(1) Write a first draft of your letter.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your email for content and
structure
Have you written five parts in your letter?
Have you broken your main body into different paragraphs?
Have you used opening and closing remarks in your letter?
Have you used suitable vocabulary for giving advice?
Have you read your email again to check spelling and grammar?
(3) Write the second draft of your email/ letter: Make any necessary changes to your
sentences.
Letter writing is an essential skill. Despite the prevalence of text messages, everyone has
to write letters at some point. Letters of advice, thank you letters, letters requesting
changes or making suggestions – the list goes on and on. The process of writing letters
will help to improve the writers’ communication, social and writing skills; hence, they
need to know about writing and structuring letters
38
In order to get more knowledge on this issue, click the link below to further study on
informal letters.
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2-writing/
informal-email.

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Get clearer understanding on opening/ closing

remarks and main body structure of an informal
letter.
2 Use should/ ought to/ had better to give advice.
3 Know how to make a suggestion or an arrangement.
4 Use useful and appropriate vocabulary of getting

and giving advice.
5 Write a letter of giving advice.
39
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 1 - Unit 3: Formal letters A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT 3: FORMAL LETTERS/ EMAILS

Unit 3: Formal letters
After the unit, students will be able to:
 Get deeper understanding on formal letters, especially application and complaint

letters.
 Use contrast clauses.
 Know how to reduce adverbial clauses.
 Use some appropriate vocabulary for opening and closing remarks in formal
letters.
 Write a letter with clearly different-oriented paragraph.
40
CONSTRAST CLAUSES
- We use although/ though/ even though at the beginning of a clause which contains
information that contrasts in an unexpected or surprising way with information in another
clause. E.g. Although the sun was shining, it was cold.
- In formal situation, other conjunction such as whereas/ while are sometimes used to
express a contrast between two clauses.
E.g. Boys were encouraged to be adventurous whereas girls were always told to stay
clean.
While no one doubts his ability, his arrogant attitude has been difficult to accept.
- We use “however” to indicate a contrast or contradiction
e.g. That man has much money. However, he isn’t happy at all.
I respect my best friend’s ideas however we do not have the same thoughts
PRACTICE:

meaning to the sentence above it.
1. I disagree with his point of view, but I understand why he thinks that way (Although)
2. Jack is still unemployed in spite of applying for about a dozen different jobs. (Though)
3. While most people agreed that the car was a bargain, none of them wanted to buy it
(Even)
4. Though it seems unlikely, the children may not want to go to the zoo on Saturday.
(Unlikely)
5. The old people didn’t have very much money, but they were really generous (Despite)
Exercise 2: Use the prompts to make sentences, as in example
41
 Streets are crowded – I soon got  Not many shops – you can find
used to it (even though) almost everything you need (but)
 Lots of things to do – heavy  Few buses and trains – always
traffic makes it difficult to get arrive on time (nevertheless)
around (however)  No restaurants – a few inns that
 Plenty of sports centers – serve delicious homemade food
expensive to join (although) (although)
e.g. Even though the streets are crowded, e.g. There aren’t many shops, but you
I soon got used to it. can find almost everything you need.
REDUCED ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
An adverbial clause formed with a present participle is called a reduced adverbial clause.
Reduced adverbial clauses are also called participle clauses and are typically used in
formal situation
E.g. When he looked outside, he saw the police car  Looking outside, he saw the
police car.
Because she didn’t feel very well, she sat down  Not feeling very well, she sat down.
- We can form reduced adverbial clauses with having + past participle for an earlier
action, usually instead of a past perfect, we use being + past participle instead of a
passive
E.g. After he had retired, Cecil decided to travel  Having retired, Cecil decided to
travel
42
REDUCED ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
- We can only use reduced adverbial clauses when the subjects of the main clause and the
adverbial clause are the same. We avoid reduced adverbial clauses when the subjects are
different
E.g. Because it was barking loudly, the dog scared us  Barking loudly, the dog scared
us.
- We can also form reduced adverbial clauses by using subordinating conjunctions such
as before/ as if with a present participle
E.g. Before you leave, switch off all the lights  Before leaving, switch off all the lights
- When we use a subordinating conjunction such as although, though, when, while with
an adjective or a prepositional phrase, or with the past participle of a passive, we can
leave out the subject + be
E.g. Although (they are) small¸ terriers are tough
Exercise 3: Add reduced versions of these adverbial clauses to the following sentences
Although it manages as if they were trying until they make sure
Although they were frustrated once it has been broken since it opened
1. …………, most people just shrugged and went back to their newspapers, ………… to
ignore this latest inconvenience.
2. ………… in 1863, the Underground has grown into a sprawling network of tracks,
some of which are in desperate need of repair.
3. ………… to cover its operating costs from fares, the Underground never seems to
have enough money for long-term investment and maintenance.
4. The government’s argument is that, ………… into several private companies, each of
the system’s smaller parts will be better able to attract new investment.
43
5. Opponents of the government’s plan to sell parts of the Underground say that they
should not be allowed to proceed ………… that all existing lines are safe for passengers.
FORMAL LETTERS
Formal letters are normally sent to people in an official position or people you don’t
know well. (e.g. Director of Studies, Personnel Manager, etc.). They are written in a
formal style with a polite, impersonal tone.
You can write a formal letter to apply for a job/ course, make a complaint, give/ request
official information, etc.
A formal letter should consist of:
 A formal greeting (e.g. Dear Sir/ Madam – when you do not know the person’s
name; Dear Ms. Green – when you know the person’s name);
 An opening/ introduction in which you write your opening remarks and mention
your reason(s) for writing. E.g. I am writing to apply for the position of…;
 A main body/ content in which you write about the main subject(s) of the letter
in detail, starting a new paragraph for each topic;
 Final comment(s) in which you write your closing remarks. E.g. I look forward to
hearing from you as soon as possible…;
 A formal ending/ concluding (e.g. Yours faithfully – when you do not know the
person’s name; Y – when you know the person’s name);
FORMAL STYLES
Formal style is characterized by the use of advanced vocabulary, formal linking

words/ phrases, passive voice and polite forms without contractions
Colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms and short forms are not used in formal
style.
PRACTICE:
44
Exercise 4: a. Read the questions below, then listen to the beginnings and endings of
three letters and tick the correct box for each letter
1 Why has the letter been written? Letter 1 Letter 2 Letter 3
A. To apply for a job ………………
B. To ask for information ………………
C. To make a complaint ………………
Listen again and tick the correct boxes for each letter
2 How does the letter begin? Letter 1 Letter 2 Letter 3
A. Dear Advertiser,
B. Dear Sir/ Madam,
C. Dear Mr. Williams,
3 Which of the following expressions have been Letter 1 Letter 2 Letter 3

used in the opening/ closing remarks?
A. With reference to your advertisement ……
B. I am writing to apply for the position ……
C. I am writing to express my dissatisfaction...
D. I look forward to hearing from you ……
E. I must insist on a full refund ……
F. Thank you in advance ……
4 How does the letter end? Letter 1 Letter 2 Letter 3
A. Yours faithfully,
B. Lots of love,
45
C. Yours sincerely,
46
LETTERS OF APPLICATION
When you write a letter applying for a job or a course, you should include the following
information:
A. in the opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing
 The name of the job/ course, where and when you saw it advertised
e.g. … the position of manager advertised in yesterday’s Herald.
B. in the main body paragraphs
 Age, present job and/ or studies (e.g. I am a nineteen-year-old university student)
 Qualifications (e.g. I have a BA in French)
 Experience (e.g. I have been working as a waiter for the last two years)
 Skills and personal qualities that are suitable for the job/ course. (e.g. I am a good
and careful driver. I consider myself to be mature and responsible)
C. in the final comments
 Any other important information (e.g. when you are available for interview, where
and when you can be contacted, references you can send, a remark that you hope
your application will be considered, etc.).
e.g. I will be available for interview in September.
I enclose references from my last two employers.
I look forward to hearing from you.
You usually use:
The present simple to describe skills/ personal qualities: I am a patient and
reliable person
The past simple to talk about past experiences: I left school in 1994. I worked for
General Motors for four years
The present perfect to talk about recent work/ studies: I have recently finished
secondary school.
PRACTICE:
47
You saw this advertisement in a local newspaper and have decided to apply for the job.
St. George’s Primary School is looking for a

young, energetic and experienced
schoolteacher to join us in September. Must be
a good organizer and keen on sports.
Please apply in writing to Mrs. Hunter, giving

details of qualifications, skills and previous
experience and saying why you think you are
suitable for the job. Closing date 12th May.
Answer the following question and write your letter of application. Do not write any
address.
1. Who is going to read your letter? 2. Do you know this person at all?
3. What style should you use? 4. Why are you writing this letter?
5. How should you begin and end the letter? Choose A to C
A. Dear Madam, Yours faithfully,
B. Dear Head teacher, Kind regards,
C. Dear Mrs. Hunter, Yours sincerely,
Which of the following points should you include in your letter?
A. Your favorite subjects at school

B. Your qualifications
C. Your present and previous jobs
D. A description of your appearance
E. Your personal qualities
F. Your plans for the summer
What do you think the successful candidate should be?
A. patient B. enthusiastic C. athletic
D. artistic E. hard-working F. fair
48
What experience would someone need for this kind of job?
A. experience with children

B. experience in public relations
What qualifications would someone need to apply for this job?
A. A driving license
B. A BA in Education
C. A degree in Media Studies
D. A certificate in gymnastics
E. A diploma in interior design
Exercise 6: Read the letter and label the paragraphs with the headings below. Say what
qualifications, experience and personal qualities Steven has. Do you think he will get
the job?
Closing remarks personal qualities age/ present job/ qualifications
Opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing experience final comments
Dear Mrs. Hunter,

& Introduction
With reference to your advertisement in Thursday’s

Greeting
edition of the Daily Star, I am interested in applying

for the position of primary school teacher.
I am 28 years old and currently teaching in Margate.

I have a BSc degree awarded by Glasgow University
in 1997. I completed my certificate in Education at
Preston Teacher Training College in 1998.
Main body
I have been working for Margate Education

Department since 1999. During this time, I have
enjoyed teaching a variety of subjects, including
English, General Science and Games.
49
I consider myself to be punctual, hard-working and

fair. I enjoy working with children and have good
organizational skills
I enclose a reference from my present employer. I

would be grateful if you would consider my
application. I am available for interview any
weekday morning. I look forward to hearing from
you.
Yours sincerely,
Conclusion
Mary Jane
Exercise 7: Read the letter again and find formal expressions to match the informal
ones in the table, as in the example
Informal style Formal style
About your advert ……………………. With reference to your advertisement

…………………………………………
I want to apply for …………………….
…………………………………………
I got my teaching certificate ……………
…………………………………………
I’ve had a job in ……………………….
…………………………………………
I think I’m always on time ………………
…………………………………………
I like working with kids …………………
…………………………………………
There’s a note from my boss ……………
…………………………………………
I’d like it if you hired me ………………
…………………………………………
I’m free to talk to you …………………
…………………………………………
Drop me a line sometime ………………
50
Exercise 8: Fill in the correct form of the verbs in the list
Study be a member graduate join attend award
1. I graduated from Lancers University in 1998 with a first class degree in Physical
Education.
2. At the moment, I …………… courses at Southfield College.
3. After leaving high school, I …………… Art at the School of Fine Art in Paris.
4. I am keen on sports, I …………… Barton football club three months ago.
5. I …………… of the local orchestra, where I play the violin.
6. I was …………… a grade A in Maths.
Exercise 9: a. Read the letters below and label the paragraphs with the headings
Opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing experience, personal qualities
Closing remarks age/ qualifications other information final comments
(A)
Dear Sir/ Madam,

& Introduction
I am writing to apply for the position of part-time

Greeting
shop assistant which was advertised in this week’s

edition of the Frankfurt English News.
I am a 16-year-old student. In December, I passed

the examination for the First Certificate in English
Main body
with grade A. It is my ambition to become a teacher

of English. Therefore, employment in an English
language bookshop particularly appeals to me.
51
Despite my lack of formal work experience, I feel

that I would be well-suited for the position. For the
past two years I have been a volunteer helper in our
school library. In my school report, I was described
by the librarian as enthusiastic, dedicated and
reliable.
Since the school holidays include the months of July

and August, I will have no other commitments and
would be available to work at any time, excluding
Saturdays, for as many hours as needed.
I may be contacted at the above address, or by

telephone on 4351708. I look forward to receiving a
reply in due course.
Yours faithfully,
Conclusion
Joanna Roberts
(B)
Dear Manager,
Hi! I’ve decided to drop you a line about the job you advertised in the Frankfurt English
News.
I’m a 16-year-old student, and my English isn’t bad. I got an A in the First Certificate
exam! I want to be an English teacher, so it would be lots of fun to sell English books.
I haven’t worked before, but I’m sure I’d be good at the job. I’ve helped out in our school
library for ages, and the librarian says you can count on me to work hard.
I won’t be doing anything in July and August. We’ve got our school holidays them so I
can work any hours you like (but not Saturdays)
You can get in touch with me at the above address, or give me a ring on 438 1708. Let
me know soon!
52
All the best,
Joanna Roberts
b. Compare the two letters. Which one has an appropriate greeting and closing? Then,
underline the phrases in Letter A which mean the same as the phrases in bold in Letter
B. Which style is more suitable in a formal letter applying for a job? Why?
c. Read the advertisements below. Which job did Joanna apply for?
A B
Hard-working young assistant wanted Large department store seeking
for part-time work in a bookshop during ambitious and experienced floor manager
July/ August. no sales experience needed, to work on a full time basis. computer
but a good understanding of English is skills an asset.
essential. For more information call J.T. Reeves
Apply in writing to Bookworms at 217 - 3233.
Exercise 10: In which letter (A) or (B) can you find each of these features? Label each
point as A or B
1. Short form …………………………..

2. Passive voice
…………………………..
3. A friendly, personal tone
4. Everyday vocabulary …………………………..
5. Formal linking words/ phrases …………………………..

6. Phrasal verbs or idioms
…………………………..
7. Longer, more complex sentences
8. Advanced vocabulary …………………………..
9. Colloquial expressions …………………………..

10. A polite, impersonal tone
…………………………..
LETTERS OF COMPLAINT
In a formal letter making a complaint, you may use a mild tone, for complaints about
mirror problems, or a strong tone, for complaints about more serious matters, especially
when you are extremely upset or annoyed. However, the language you use should never
be rude or insulting. 53
A. in the opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing, you should state your complaint,
including details of what has happened and where/ when the incident took place.
LETTERS OF COMPLAINT
 (Mild)
e.g. I am writing in connection with…/ to complain about… the terrible behavior/
attitude/ rudeness of…
 (Strong)
e.g. I wish to bring to your attention a problem which arose due to your staff…
I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction at…
B. in the main body paragraphs, you present each of the specific points you are
complaining about. You start a new paragraph for each point and justify these points by
giving examples/ reasons.
e.g. Although you advertise “top quality”, I felt that the product I purchased was
well below the standard I expected.
C. in the final comments, you should explain what you expect to happen
 (Mild)
e.g. I hope you will replace…
PRACTICE
You recently bought a calculator, but you were given the wrong model by mistake. When
you complained, the shop assistant was rude to you. Write a letter to the company’s
complaints department, explaining the reasons for your dissatisfaction and saying what
action you expect the company to take.
2. Do you know the person you are writing to?
3. Why are you writing this letter?
4. Would you use a mild tone or a strong tone? Why?
54
5. What opening and closing remarks would you write?
Exercise 12: a. Read the letter opposite, and fill in the gaps with words/ phrases from
the list
But also furthermore not only however in addition to
Firstly to make matters worse
Dear Sir/ Madam,

& Introduction
I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction at

Greeting
the disgraceful treatment I received at the Walford

branch of Stimpson’s Electronics yesterday
afternoon.
(1) ……………., the product I was given was not the

model I had asked for. The new X-40 calculator was
demonstrated to me by the sales assistant, and I
agreed to buy it. (2) …………., on unpacking my
purchase, I saw that I had been given the smaller C-
201 model instead.
(3) …………., this calculator was much cheaper than

the model I requested and paid for. It didn’t have
Main body
many of the feature I needed and was much more

basic than the one I was shown to begin with.
(4) …………., I was deeply offended by the

behavior of the sales assistant when I went back to
the shop to complain. He was (5) ………….
Impolite, (6) …………. Unhelpful. He refused to
contact the manager when I asked to speak to him
about the incident.
55
As you can imagine, I am extremely upset. I must

insist on a full refund, (7) …………. a written
apology from the local manager, or else I shall be
forced to take further action. I expect to hear from
you as soon as possible.
Yours faithfully,
Conclusion
Caroline Adams
b. Read the letter again and label the paragraphs with these headings
closing remarks opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing
1st complaint & examples/ reasons 2nd complaint & examples/ reasons
3rd complaints & examples/ reasons final comments
c. Now, answer the questions
1. Why is Mrs. Adams complaining?
2. What are her specific complaints?
3. Does she justify her complaints? If so, how does she justify them?
4. What is Mrs. Adams expecting? Circle.
A replacement A full refund The calculator to be repaired An apology
5. What will Mrs. Adams do if she is not satisfied?
6. Has Mrs. Adams used a milk or a strong tone? Underline the words/ phrases that
justify your answer
56
Exercise 13: Read the situations, and answer the questions that follow, as in the
example
A month ago you You recently You have just come
Part III
Part I
Part II
ordered some skiing bought an air back from a
equipment from a conditioner which package holiday
sport shop and paid had been advertised where you were
by credit card. on TV. On very disappointed
Although you asked
for it to be sent by
receiving it, you by the lack of
courier you have discovered that it facilities and poor
received nothing. was nothing like services.
You urgently need the product shown
this equipment. in the
advertisement
b. Which of the following complaints would you include in each letter? Write full
sentences.
A. have already paid – equipment still not delivered – urgently need it.
B. contrary to advertisement – no swimming pool – rooms extremely small – no maid

service.
c. Match the opening and closing remarks, then say which letter of complaint you
would use them for.
Opening remarks…. Closing remarks

A. I wish to express my dissatisfaction with 1. I feel completely cheated and therefore
your mail – order service. demand a full refund of the money paid to
B. I am writing to express my disgust at the you.
facilities and service offered by your travel 2. I insist that the product be replaced or
agency. else I will be forced to take further action.
C. I feel I must complain about the 3. Unless I receive the equipment by the
misleading advertisement on TV promoting end of this week, I will have no choice but
your product. to cancel my order.
Exercise 14: Read the rubric, underline the key words and answer the questions
57
You saw this advertisement in a local newspaper, and have decided to apply for the job
Young helpers (18-25) needed in our summer

camp for 10-14 year olds. Duties include helping
with games and other activities.
Helpers must speak English or French and

be able to work at any time, including some
evenings, from 5th – 25th July. Apply in writing to
Ben Carroll.
1. What skills/ qualifications and personal qualities do you think would help you get the
job? Circle.
A. energetic and sociable B. can drive a car
C. worked in summer camp last year D. have worked as a waitress
E. like working with children F. good at outdoor activities and sport
G. good cook H. good organizer
I. speak English and French
2. Which of the points above refer to skills, qualifications, experience or personal

qualities?
4. What is your reason for writing?
5. How should you begin and end the letter?
Write your letter of application
You recently went for a meal at Benny’s fast food restaurant, which is part of an
international chain. Unfortunately, the service was very slow and the food was badly
cooked, so you complained to the supervisor. However, he was very rude to you and
insisted on your paying for the meal. You have decided to write a letter of complaint to
the company’s head office. Write your letter, explaining the reasons for your complaint
and saying what you expect the company to do.
58
1. What is your reason for writing?
3. Would you use milk or strong language? Why?
4. How would you begin and end the letter?
5. How many main body paragraphs should you write? What should the topic of each one
be?
6. Read the advertisement and the complaints in the speech bubbles. Then, use the
complaints and suitable linking words/ phrases to explain the reasons why you are
complaining.
Write your letter of complaint.
(1) Write a first draft of your text messages
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your letter for content and
structure
Have you used contrast clauses in your letter?
59
Have you used reduced adverbial clauses in your letter?
Have you used appropriate vocabulary for opening and closing remarks in
your letter?
Have you written your letter in the form of a/ an application/ complaint

letter?
Have you checked your spelling and grammar in your letter?
(3) Write the second draft of your text message: Make any necessary changes to your
sentences.
We live in a world of technology backed communication. E-mails, texts, etc. are most of
our preferred modes of communication. However, letter still have a major use and
importance in our society. Especially formal letters written to authorities or professional
contacts, because they generally stay on records.
So as to gain more knowledge and expand time for practicing, click the link below for
further study:
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2/a-letter-of-
complaint.
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2/a-covering-
email.
60

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Get deeper understanding on formal letters,

especially application and complaint letters.
2 Use contrast clauses.
3 Know how to reduce adverbial clauses

closing remarks in formal letters
5 Write a letter with clearly different-oriented

paragraph
61
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 1 - Unit 4: Semi-formal letters A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT 4:
Unit 4: Semi-formal letters
SEMI-FORMAL LETTERS/ EMAILS
 Identify semi-formal letters;

 Understand semi-formal style;
 Know how to use infinitives and gerunds;
 Use some appropriate vocabulary for opening and closing remarks in semi-formal
letters;
 Write a semi-formal letter with clearly different-oriented paragraph.
62
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS
Infinitives
- We use infinitives and negative infinitives after verbs, adjectives or nouns. We can also use
them after indefinite pronouns and wh-words
e.g. We agreed to meet on Friday, I am happy to be here, you made a promise not to tell any one.
- We can also use infinitives to express purposes (= in order to)
e.g. He only did it to get attention
- We can use infinitives in clauses with objects, prepositional phrases and adverbs. We don’t
usually put adverbs between “to” and the verb unless it is for emphasis
e.g. We’re planning to take the children to the zoo later
I want to really understand Islam
Bare infinitives
We use bare infinitives (base form of the verb) after modals, after perception verbs such as ear,
see” with objects and after the verbs “let, make” with object
e.g. I can’t stay long I didn’t hear Tom come in They won’t let us leave.
Gerunds
- We can use gerunds and negative gerunds after verbs and prepositions. We can also use gerund
as subjects
e.g. I don’t mind waiting Paul enjoys not having a job
Studying makes me sleepy My doctor says that swimming is the best kind of exercise
- We can use gerunds in clauses with objects, prepositional phrases and adverbs. Before gerunds,
we can use nouns, or object pronouns, but possessive nouns and determiners can also be used,
typically in formal situations.
e.g. Talking and action are to quite different things. Have they finished the cleaning yet?
We were talking about money The man talking to Liz is her dad.
63
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Complete each sentence, using an infinitive or a gerund, in such a way

that it is similar as possible in meaning to the sentence above it.
1. You were supposed to do your homework before you went out (Your homework)
2. She had taken the time to help me and I wanted to thank her for that (I wanted)
3. They hadn’t been told about the changes and complained about it (They complained
about)
4. Planning ahead is essential in my kind of job (It’s)
5. Jessica didn’t see any of her friends at the shopping center and she was disappointed.
(Jessica was disappointed)
6. Christopher was so good to come to our rescue when our car broke down (It was so
good)
7. It isn’t easy driving those huge buses along narrow winding roads (These huge buses)
8. It’s sometimes hard finding a place to park. (A place to park)
9. Is keeping all these old files really necessary? (Is it really necessary)
10. He shouldn’t buy a new car now. (It would be a mistake for)
Exercise 2: Complete this text with these infinitives and gerunds
To be burning being held to have visited to have been based
to be using meeting travelling not to have seen
to have been built to have been doing

Did Marco Polo tell the truth when he wrote about (1) ………… to China and (2)
………… the emperor Kublai Khan? Or did the 13th century Italian explorer just make up
stories about places he would like (3) ………… and things he would like (4) …………
instead of (5) ………… captive in prison? According to some experts, his stories appear
(6) ………… on things he had heard about rather than things he had seen himself. In his
account, the Chinese were said (7) ………… paper money and (8) ………… “large black
64
stone” (coal) for heat long before Europeans. However, the Great Wall is known (9)
………… before his travels, yet he appears (10) ………… it.
SEMI-FORMAL LETTERS
Semi-formal letters are sent to people you do not know very well or when you want to be more
polite and respectful (e.g. a pen friend’s parents, a person you do not know very well, a
schoolteacher, etc.). For this reason, they are written in a more polite tone than informal letters.
Some formal language can be used. Compare the following:
INFORMAL: Thanks a lot for the invitation. I’d love to come to your party.
FORMAL: I would be delighted to attend your birthday celebration.
SEMI-FORMAL: Thank you for your kind invitation. I would love to join you on your birthday.
A semi-formal letter should consist of:
a. A formal greeting. E.g. Dear Mr. and Mrs. Baker;

b. An introduction in which you write your opening remarks and clearly state the reason(s)
for writing. E.g. Thank you very much indeed for your kind offer…
c. A main body in which you write the main subject(s) of the letter in detail, starting a new
paragraph for each topic.
d. A conclusion in which you write your closing remarks and final comments. E.g. I am
looking forward to seeing you next month.
e. A semi-formal ending. E.g. Regards/ Best wishes, etc. and your full name.
PRACTICE
Exercise 3: Read the rubric and underline the key words, then answer question 1 to 7
You are going to attend lessons at a language school in Britain. The school has
arranged for you to stay with a local couple called Mr. and Mrs. Jackson. The Jackson
have written a letter to ask for some information. Read the extracts from their letter, then
write a letter in reply, giving them the information they have asked for and including any
questions or requests of your own.
65
... If you could send us details of your travel plans, we would

be happy to meet you on arrival. We could easily come up to
London...
Do you have any special requirements or requests regarding

food? For instance, perhaps there are certain things you are
not allowed to eat, or something which...
If there is any information you need or anything you like us

to do for you, please don't hesitate to ask. Naturally, we
want...
3. How many main body paragraphs should you include in your letter?
4. Which of the following should you mention about your travel plans?
a. date and time of arrival b. flight number
c. number of suitcases d. how you will travel from the airport
e. cost of flight
5. What could you tell them about food? Complete the following sentences:
a. As far as food is concerned, ……………………………………
b. The only thing(s) I don’t eat is/ are ……………………………………
c. My favorite food is ……………………………………
d. I am looking forward to trying ……………………………………
6. What questions could you ask? Think about clothes, the weather, the town/ room,
where you will be staying. Then, complete the following:
a. I was wondering is ……………………………………
b. Perhaps you could tell me ……………………………………
c. I would like to know ……………………………………
d. What is …………………………………… like? It is …………………………
66
e. Do you think I need to bring ……………………………………?
Exercise 4: a. You are going to London next month and must write a letter explaining
your plans, so the people you are writing to can arrange to meet you. What sort of
letter (informal, semi-formal or formal) would you write to each of these people?
1. A businessman you have never met: …………………

2. A friend you have known for several years: …………………
3. A family friend who your father wants you to visit: …………………
b. Read the beginnings and endings of the three letters (A-C) below and match them to
the people (1-3) in part a.
A B C
Dear Mr Crowley, Dear Bill, Dear Mr. Richard,

I am writing to inform Hi! Just a quick note I thought I should
you of the to let you know what write and tell you
arrangement i've planned about my about my travel
concerning.... trip... plans....
.... I look forward to ... See you in a month ... I'm looking forward
meeting you in perosn or so. Until then, take to meeting you while i
during my visit. care am in London.
Yours sincerely, All the best, Best wishes,
Suzanne Leger Suzanne Suzanne Leger
SEMI-FORMAL STYLE
Semi-formal style is characterized by:
 The use of less colloquial language. E.g. Thank you very much for your letter (instead of:
Thanks a million for your letter)
 Less frequent use of short forms, phrasal verbs or idioms. E.g. I am writing to request
information about… (instead of: I thought I’d drop you a line to ask about…
 A polite, respectful tone. E.g. I was wondering if you had… (instead of: Do you have…)
67
PRACTICE
Exercise 5: Read the letter and underline the words/ phrases in bold which are more
polite and respectful. Then, label the paragraphs with the headings below.
Closing remarks final comments food requirements
travel plans opening remarks/ reason(s) for writing further questions
Dear Mr. and Mrs. Jackson,

& Introduction
(1) Thanks a million/ Thank you very much for

Greeting
your letter. (2) I am writing/ I thought I’d drop

you a line to give you the information you asked for.
Firstly, (3) I’d better/ I need to tell you about my

travel arrangements, I am arriving at Gatwick
Airport on 14th July. My flight number is BA 451 and
it lands at four thirty in the afternoon. (4) It is very
kind/ it’s really great of you to offer to pick me up
from London, but I have already arranged to take the
train to Cardiff. Perhaps you could meet me at the
station. I could phone you when I arrive.
(5) As far as food is concerned/ Now, about food,

Main body
please don’t go to any trouble. The only thing I don’t

eat is mushrooms. (6) Anyway/ besides, I am
looking forward to trying British food.
Finally, there are one or two things I would like to

ask you. What is the weather like in Wales in
August? How cold is it? Do you think I need to bring
warm clothes? Also, (7) I was wondering if you
had/ do you have a computer that I could use while I
am staying with you, or should I bring my laptop?
68
Thank you once again for your letter. I am looking

forward to meeting you in July.
(8) Best wishes/ Love and kisses,

Conclusion
Julia Bvitoni
Exercise 6: The beginning and ending below are written in the wrong style. Read the
extracts and replace the informal words/ phrases in bold with more suitable semi-
formal ones from each list.
I apologize for, received, thank you for the invitation, I will be unable to visit, Mrs. Ames,
reply
Dear (1) Alison,
(2) Thanks for asking me to your school’s annual festival, I (3) got your
letter a few weeks ago and (4) I’m really sorry about taking so long to (5) write
back to you. Unfortunately, (6) I can’t come to Hallsford on that date.
Best wishes, telephone me, any help, a great success, the preparations, don’t hesitate
Please (7) feel free to (8) give me a ring if you need (9) a hand with (10) getting
things ready for the special day. I’m sure that the festival will be (11) brilliant.
(12) All my love,
Karen Smith
Exercise 7: Read the semi-formal sentences below and match them to the informal
ones in the box that follows, as in the example
A. It was very good of you to let me stay at your house.

B. Could you tell me where I can get my watch repaired?
69
C. I look forward to seeing you at the barbecue.

D. I hope you find this information about bird-watching useful.
E. Please accept my apology.
F. I am sorry that I will be unable to attend.
Informal Semi-formal
1. Accepting an See you at the barbecue! C – I look forward to

invitation seeing you at the barbecue.
2. Refusing an It’s a pity that I can’t come. …………………………...

invitation
……………………………
3. Thanking Thanks again for letting me stay …………………………...

at your house.
……………………………
4. Apologizing Please say you’ll forgive me. …………………………...
……………………………
5. Asking for Do you know where I can get my …………………………...

information watch repaired?
……………………………
6. Giving Hope this was what you wanted to …………………………...

information know about bird-watching
……………………………
Exercise 8: a. Read the rubric and underline the key words, then answer the question
You have just returned from Britain where you attended lessons at a language
school. The school had arranged for you to stay with a local couple you had not
met before your visit. Write a letter to this couple, thanking them for their
kindness to you during your stay.
1. Who is going to read your letter? How well do you know these people?
2. What style should you use? Give examples.
70

4. How would you begin and end the letter? Choose.
A Yours faithfully,
Dear Sir/ Madam,
(full name)
B Lots of love,
Dear Ben and Andrea,
(first name)
C Best wishes,
Dear Mr. and Mrs Jackson,
(full name)
D Yours,
Dear friends Ben and Andrea,
(full name)
b. Read the prompts and expand them into full sentences. Then, match them to the
topic sentences of the main body paragraphs that follow
A. my room/ be/ very comfortable/ every meal/ be/ delicious.
B. what/ help/ me most/ be/ chance/ practice English/ you/ every day.
C. you/ make me/ feel like/ I/ be part/ of/ family.
D. I / never/ think/ I/ be able/ speak/ English/ so well.
Topic sentences:
Para 1 – I really appreciate all your efforts that made my stay in your home a happy one.
Para 2 – My trip to Britain has certainly improved my English, too.
c. Choose the most suitable phrase to complete the paragraph below. Which paragraph
of the letter is this?
I am writing to tell you that I have arrived home safely, and to (1) A for (2) ………
during my stay with you. (3) ……… I (4) ……….
1. A. thank you both very much 2. A. all the stuff you did
71
B. say thanks a lot B. being so kind to me
C. express my gratitude to you C. the kindness you displayed
3. A. my visit was enjoyable at times, but 4. A. am sure I will always remember
B. it was a wonderful experience which B. won’t forget in a hurry!
C. I really had a great time, so C. shall always have unpleasant

memories of the experience
d. Which of the phrases/ sentences below would be suitable as closing remarks?
A. Thank you again for all your kindness.
B. Well, that’s all my news.
C. My parents send their regards and ask me to tell you that….
D. Mum and Dad say “Hi”
E. By the way, why don’t you come and stay with us here?
F…. you will always be welcome guests if you would like to visit my country.
G. I would love to hear from you whenever you have time to write.
H. Drop me a line sometime, won’t you?
Write your own letter.
(1) Write a first draft of your form
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your form for content and
structure
Have you identified semi-formal letters?
Have you understood and applied semi-formal style in your writing?
72
Have you known how to use infinitives and gerunds in your writing?
Have you used appropriate vocabulary for opening and closing remarks in
your semi-formal letter?
Have you checked your spelling and grammar after you finish your
writing?
(3) Write the second draft of your form: Make any necessary changes to your sentences.
A semi-formal is a type of that is sent to someone you know, but do not share cordial
relationship with. A semi-formal is also used in non-formal relationship, but which
requires polite and respectful approach. Semi-formal letter is in-between formal and
informal letter. Meaning, it is written in more polite tone compared to informal letter
Click the link below to broaden your knowledge and practice more with semi-formal
letter writing
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/email-writing.
73
Chapter 2: Studying Materials - Section 1 - Unit 4: Semi-formal letters A Handbook for Writing 3

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Identify semi-formal letters
2 Understand semi-formal style
3 Know how to use infinitives and gerunds

closing remarks semi-formal letter
5 Write a semi-formal letter with clearly different-

oriented paragraph
Chapter 2: Studying Materials - Unit 1: Introduction of paragraphs A Handbook for Writing 3
SECTION 2: FROM PARAGRAPHS TO ESSAY
75
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 2 - Unit 1: Introduction to paragraphs
UNIT 1: A Handbook for Writing 3
INTRODUCTION TO PARAGRAPHS
Unit 1: Introduction to paragraphs
 Learn the definition of a paragraph;

 Get an overview of a paragraph’s structure and specific parts;
 Know how to identify and write topic sentence, supporting sentences and
concluding sentences;
 Identify verb fragments;
 Understand nouns and noun forms.
76
NOUNS AND NOUN FORMS

There are two kinds of nouns: countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns
Countable nouns can be singular or plural and are normally used to refer to people,
creatures and objects (e.g. actor, bird, car, child, dog, ladder, man, money, mountain,
telephone) or actions and events (e.g. arrival, crash, goal, lesson, mistake, party, punch,
problem), which can be thought of as separate individual things.
Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns are used with singular verbs, but not to refer to individual things.
They are not typically used with a/ an. We use uncountable nouns to talk about
substances and materials (e.g. camping, chess, jogging, photography, research,
shopping), abstract ideas, qualities and states (e.g. anger, bravery, education, evidence,
freedom, honesty, love), or activities (e.g. alcohol, chocolate, cotton, fur, ink, meat, paint,
petrol, rice, salt).
Countable and uncountable uses
Some nouns can be countable or uncountable. It depends whether we’re using the noun to
refer to a single thing (e.g. she owns a business, I saw a chicken) or to a substance or
general idea (e.g. business is booming, do you eat chicken?)
We can also use nouns such as piece, drop in phrases which are countable (e.g. nobody
likes having to move furniture, she had blood on her sleeve) when we want to talk about
separate units or parts of nouns which are uncountable (e.g. there wasn’t a piece of
furniture left in the house, I could see drops of blood on the floor)
Others like this include: an act of bravery, a bit of cheese, a bottle of water, a carton of
milk, a chunk of concrete, items of information, sheets of paper, two slices of bread.
PRACTICE
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Exercise 1: Complete each definition with one set of nouns (not necessarily in this
order) and a/ an or no article.
Bread/ piece/ soup/ toast breakfast/ cereal/ fruit/ milk/ mixture/ nuts
Country/ government
Democracy is a system of (1) ……………… in which everyone in (2) ………………
A crouton is (3) ……………… small square ……………… of (4) ……………… or (5)

……………… fried ………………, usually served with (6) ………………
Muesli is (7) ……………… of (8) ………………, (9) ………………, and (10)

……………… dried ………………, usually eaten with (11) ……………… at (12)
………………
NOUNS AND NOUN FORMS

Plural and singular (+s) nouns
Plural nouns are words with distinct meanings that are not used in the singular
e.g. He said thanks for looking after his belongings/ Good manners are important.
Others include: clothes, congratulations, groceries, outskirts, remains, surroundings
Plural nouns that do not end with “s” include: cattle, clergy, people, police, poultry.
Singular (+s) nouns are words that end in “s” and appear to be plural, but are used with
singular verbs when we talk about areas of study, activities and disease.
e.g. Statistic was a difficult course/ Aerobics is hard work
Others include: athletics, billiards, cards, diabetes, electronics, measles, physics, politics.
We also singular verbs after some phrases with nouns in the plural describing amounts.
e.g. Five miles is a long walk/ Twenty pounds is too much
Exercise 2: Choose an ending (a-f) for each beginning (1-6) and add these nouns plus
“is, are”
Binoculars clergy fortnight mathematics outskirts press
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1. The ……… of a town ……… a. to see things far away
2. The ……… a general term b. the science of numbers.
3. The ……… people c. called a ……… in Britain.
4. ……… described as d. for newspapers and journalists.
5. ……… used e. the parts that are far from the center.
6. Two weeks ……… sometimes f. such as priests and ministers
VERBS AND FRAGMENTS
Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have
become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to
remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation
may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Verb fragments are sentences without a main verb.
1. Verb fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotion.
We can fix it with: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
2. Verb fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
We can fix it with: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
3. Verb fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were hired.
We can fix it with: I’ve noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were
first hired.
A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired
Exercise 3: Complete the following sentences with the appropriate verbs, article or
pronoun
1. Physics ……… an interesting subject at school but I wasn’t very good at ……….
2. Athletics ……… less popular before the Olympics made ……… fashionable.
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3. Politics ……… by no means the only area where women are doing better but
……… is one of the most important.
4. Classics ……… what I wanted to study but my parents persuaded me that
economics ……… more useful so I did ……… instead.
5. I think you hurt ……… feelings when you forgot to invite her to your party.
6. The goods ……… being packed now and ……… will be delivered first thing
tomorrow morning.
7. Could you tell me a bit about ……… likes and dislikes? ……… mathematics your
best subject?
8. ……… police ……… cooperating with ……… authorities in other countries
which have a drugs problem.
9. The Government ……… planning new taxes but ……… don’t know yet whether
their own supporters will accept such a policy.
10. The audience ……… requested not to bring ……… refreshments into the
auditorium.
WHAT IS A PARAGRAPH?
A paragraph is a group of sentences about a single topic. Together, the sentences of the
paragraph explain the writer’s main idea (most important idea) about the topic. In
academic writing, a paragraph is often between five and ten sentences long, but it can be
longer or shorter, depending on the topic. The first sentence of a paragraph is usually
indented (moved in) a few spaces.
PRACTICE
Exercise 4: Read this paragraph. It is the beginning of an article about Switzerland in

a student newspaper. Then answer the questions.
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Switzerland – Something interesting
at Every Turn
By Ken Jones
If you dream of travelling to a country

with beautiful mountains, delicious food,
wonderful places to go sight-seeing and
polite people, you should visit Switzerland
If you look at the map, the first thing you notice is that Switzerland has many
mountains, including some of the highest in Europe. Climbing or skiing down the
mountains is great fun. Another thing you will notice is that Switzerland shares its
borders with five different countries: France, Germany, Italy, Austria and
Liechtenstein. In fact, there are four official languages in Switzerland: German, French,
Italian and Romansch. All these groups of people make Swiss culture very interesting.
Finally, Switzerland has many cities and interesting places to visit. Cities such as Bern
have modern buildings like the Paul Klee Zentrum, yet the traditional alpine refuges in
the mountains show that the country’s old traditions are still alive. All the people,
places and things to see definitely make Switzerland a great place for a holiday.
a. What is the topic of the paragraph?

b. What is the main idea of the topic?
c. What ideas help explain the main idea?
PARAGRAPH ORGANIZATION
What makes a paragraph? A paragraph has three basic parts:
1. The topic sentence: this is the main idea of the paragraph. It is usually the first
sentence of the paragraph, and it is the most general sentence of the paragraph.
2. The supporting sentences: these are sentences that talk about or explain the topic
sentence. They are more detailed ideas that follow the topic sentence.
3. The concluding sentence: this may be found as the last sentence of a paragraph.
It can finish a paragraph by repeating the main idea or just giving a final comment
about the topic.
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Exercise 5: Read the paragraph about Switzerland in exercise 3 again. Circle the topic
sentence, put one line under the supporting sentences, and put two lines under the
concluding sentence.
Exercise 6: Choose the group of sentences that makes a good paragraph. Why are the
other groups of sentences not good paragraphs?
A C
My best friend has many different One good way to learn another language
hobbies, such as skiing, cooking and is to live in a country where that language
playing the piano and she is very good at is used. When you live in another
all of these activities. For example, she country, the language is around you all
has played the piano for ten years and has the time, so you can learn to listen to and
won three piano competitions. She also speak it more easily.
likes to spend time travelling, and she has
been to many different countries in the
world. She grew up speaking Spanish and
English, but now she can also speak
French and Italian. I like my best friend
very much.
B
Classes in literature are useful no matter what job you intend to have when you finish
university. Books are about life. People who study literature learn the skill of reading
carefully and understanding characters, situations, and relationships. This kind of
understanding can be useful to teachers and business people alike. Literature classes also
require a lot of writing, so they help students develop the skill of clear communication. of
course, a professional writer needs to have this skill, but it is an equally important skill
for an engineer. Finally, reading literature helps develop an understanding of many
different points of view. reading a novel by a Russian author, for example, will help a
reader learn more about Russian culture. For anyone whose job may bring them into
contact with Russian colleagues, this insight can help encourage better cross-cultural
understanding. studying literature is studying life, so it is relevant to almost any job you
can think of.
THE TOPIC AND THE MAIN IDEA
The topic sentence….
 Usually comes first in a paragraph.

 Gives the writer’s main idea or opinion about the topic and helps the reader understand
what the paragraph is going to talk about.
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Exercise 7: Circle the topic of the sentence. Underline the main idea about the topic
a. Switzerland is a very interesting country to visit

b. Dogs make excellent pets.
c. A really good place to study is the library at my school.
d. Learning a foreign language creates job opportunities.
e. Football is my favorite sport because it is exciting to watch.
f. One of the most valuable tools for students is the computer.
g. My sister and I have very different personalities.
h. Summer is the best time to travel in my country.
i. My hometown is a friendly place to live.
Exercise 8: For each of these paragraphs, choose the sentence from the list below that
would make the best topic sentence.
a. …………………………………………………...........
……………………………………… When Ken wanted

to enter a good university, he studied hard to pass the
examination. The first time he took the exam, he did
not do well, and he felt very discouraged. But he knew
he wanted to study at that university, so he studied
more. The next year, he tried taking the exam again.
The second time, he did very well, and now he is
studying engineering. I believe Ken is a good role
model for me, and he has taught me that never giving
up is the best way to succeed.
1. One of my closest friends, named Ken, is a person I can trust.

2. My friend Ken is a very successful student.
3. I admire my friend Ken because he doesn’t give up.
b. ……………………………………………
……………………………………… Many
children begin learning to play football when
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they are very young. You can often see them
playing at school or in the streets around their
houses. At secondary school, students may
play football in a team and complete in
championships. If a player is very good, he
might go on to play for a professional team. People in my country love watching

football on television and also go to matches whenever they can. Many people have a
favorite team or player, and everyone loves to talk about matches and competitions.
Football is really like a national sport in my country.
1. I love playing football and I hope I can become a professional player one day.
2. There are many popular sports in my country, but the most popular sport is
football.
3. Football is a difficult sport to learn to play well.
COLLOCATION AND WORDS ASSOCIATION
Many words in academic English are collocations and associations. Many of them are the same
as everyday vocabulary, but they are often also used with a lightly different meaning, which may
be specialized.
Every day or Meaning Academic use Meaning

academic use
Standards of Ability to control Nanotechnology is a Area of study.

discipline in schools oneself or other relatively new
have declined. people. discipline.
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COLLOCATION AND WORDS ASSOCIATION
Underline your Draw a line under it. The research Give emphasis to.
family name on the underlines the
form. importance of
international trade
agreements.
The lake was frozen Not liquid or gas. We have no solid Certain or safe; of a
solid. evidence that good standard.
radiation has caused
the problem.
PRACTICE
Exercise 9: Each word in the box can be used in two days, one an everyday way, the
other a typically academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word
for both sentences and making any necessary grammatical changes
Generate turn solid confirm identify underline
Character pose nature focus
1. A. She loves to ………. for photographs in front of her fabulous house.
B. The events ……… a threat to stability in the

region. VOCABULARY
Fabulous (adj): very good,
2. A. It was difficult to ……… camera on the excellent.
flower as it was so small. Stability (n): a situation in which
something is not likely to move or
change.
B. We should ……… our attention on the most Debate (v): a serious discussion of
a subject in which many people
important issues.
take part.
3. A. I called the airline and ……… my reservation.
B. This issue always ……… a great deal of debate among academics.

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4. A. The power plant ……… electricity for the whole region.
B. This issue always ……… a great deal of debate among academics.
5. A. The murderer was ……… from fingerprints discovered at the scene.
B. In this theory of history, progress is closely ……… with technology.
6. A. She became interested in ……… conservation.
B. The first lecture in the series was on the ……… of human communication.
7. A. Jim’s a very interesting ………. I hope you meet him.
B. The book attempts to explain the fundamental ……… of social life.
8. A. I saw her ……… to her husband and whisper something in his ear.
B. Let us now ……… to the subject of town planning.
9. A. He always ……… every new word when he’s reading.
B. The study ……… the fact that very little research exists.
10. A. The liquid became ……… as the temperature was lowered.
B. The study lacks ……… evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful.
Exercise 10: Read the text and then answer the questions
The production of plastic depends heavily on

VOCABULARY petroleum, but a novel way of making plastics
Substance (n): material with out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil.
particular physical characteristics.
The discovery that a chemical in sugar can be
Reliance (n): the state of
depending on or trusting in converted relatively easily into a substance
something or someone.
similar in structure to the material obtained
from petroleum has led to the claim that
plastics could soon be produced cheaply using the new method.
1. Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as
pairs.
2. Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn
together.
3. What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover, claim?
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Exercise 11: These sentences are mixed up parts of one paragraph. Number the parts
in order: 1. Topic sentence, 2. Supporting sentences, and 3. Concluding sentence
What should I study at university?
a. ........ It wasn't an easy decision, but for the reasons listed above, I have decided to
study journalism.
b. ........ It can be difficult to choose a subject to study at university because there are so
many choices, but by considering my skills and interests, I have decided to study
journalism.
c. ....... I have always enjoyed writing, so it is sensible to choose a subject that involves
writing. When I begin working, I would like to have the opportunity to travel and travel
is often an important part of a journalist’s job. Finally, I am also interested in
photography, and pictures are very important in journalism.
Exercise 12: Choose one of those topics and write a paragraph.
a. A favorite place to relax

b. A grandparent
c. A per I have known
d. A favorite food to eat
e. Playing a musical instrument
(1) Write a first draft of your paragraph
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your paragraph for content and
structure
Have you written the topic sentence and concluding sentence?
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Have you put the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph?
Have you put the concluding sentence at the end of the paragraph?
Has the topic sentence included controlling ideas?
Have you used verb fragments in your paragraph?
Has your paragraph’s vocabulary in collocation?
Have you read your list again to check spelling and grammar?
(3) Write the second draft of your list: Make any necessary changes to your paragraph.
A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets to paragraph writing lay
in four essential elements, which when used correctly, can make an okay paragraph into a
great paragraph. Click the link below to practicing your skills on writing a paragraph.
https://college.cengage.com/devenglish/wong/paragraph_essentials/1e/students/
exercises/ch2_1.html
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I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Learn the definition of a paragraph.
2 Get an overview of a paragraph’s structure and

specific parts
3 Know how to identify and write topic sentence,

supporting sentences and concluding sentence
4 Identify verb fragments
5 Understand nouns and noun forms
5 Write a paragraph with clearly functional sentences
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UNIT 2: FIVE ELEMENTS OF
Chapter 2: Studying Materials - Section 2 - Unit 2: Five Elements of Good Writing
GOOD WRITING
Unit 2: Five elements of good writing
 Promote their skills in writing topic sentence, supporting ideas and concluding
sentence;
 Understand purpose, audience, clarity, unity and coherence;
 Use clear, descriptive language;
 Understand clear pronoun reference.
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PRONOUN REFERENCES
Pronouns are forms such as it, someone, these, they, them, theirs, themselves, each
other that we use instead of nouns and noun phrases.
e.g. There was a five-pound note on the floor of the cafeteria. Someone must have
dropped it. The boys looked at each other.
Substitution is the use of forms such as one, ones, so, do so instead of noun phrases,
verb phrases and clauses
e.g. Is it a real one? asked Barney – “I think so” said Max.
PRACTICE:
Exercise 1: Read through these short texts and find:

VOCABULARY
1. Another example of “it”
Outbreak (n): a time when
2. A sentence with “she” something suddenly begins,
especially a disease or something
A. I was born in 1939. The other big event of that year else dangerous or unpleasant.
was the outbreak of the Second World War, but for the Chimpanzee (n): a small, very
intelligent African ape with black
moment that did not affect me. Sydney in those days or brown fur.
had all of its present attractions and few of the

drawbacks. You can see it glittering in the background of the few photographs in which
my father and I together. Stocky was the word for me.
B. In the 1940s, a couple of American scientists tried to raise a chimpanzee named Viki
in their own home, treating her as a human child. They spent five years trying to get Viki
to say English words by shaping her mouth as she made sounds.
C. They always say that boys are better at maths than girls. When we actually look at the
test results, we find that girls generally do better than boys during the primary school
years, but the advantage shifts to boys in high school. That shift occurs when students are
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given more freedom to select the subject they will study and girls tend not to go for more
maths.
D. You know the feeling. You meet someone for the first time, and it’s as if you’ve
known each other all your lives. Everything goes smoothly. You know just what she
means; she knows just what you mean. You laugh at the same time. Your sentences and
hers have a perfect rhythm. You feel terrific. You’re doing everything right.
E. She took his right hand and placed it against hers, palms touching. He didn’t get the
point at first. Then he realized that she was comparing the size of their hands. The
difference made her laugh
“What’s funny?”
She told him his hand was funny.
“Why mine? Why not yours?” he said “If the difference is great, maybe you’re the funny
one, not me”.
“you’re the funny one”, Lu Wan said.
She matched left hands now and fell sideways to the bed laughing. Maybe she though
they were two different species.
Exercise 2: Choose one of the following as the final sentence of each of the texts A-E
above.
1. And you think she’s terrific too. (…)

2. They are more likely to choose something else (…)
3. One of them was exotic and it wasn’t her (…)
4. Handsome was the word for him (…)
5. Despite their efforts, she never did speak (…)
CLARITY
The clarity of something such as a book or argument is its quality of being well
explained and easy to understand.
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CLARITY
If your writing has clarity, it means that you have expressed yourself clearly and there is
no doubt about what you mean.
Your choice of words needs to be specific and precise
This could help stakeholders to understand the health of public companies, by means of a
Balance Sheet, income statement, statement of changes in Financial Position and other
description.
It is not clear what the student means by the words “description”, as he seems to be
referring to financial information.
We now need to consider how enterprises perform successfully. In my opinion, good

corporate governance is the main reason.
At first sight the two sentences don’t seem to relate as the words “how” and “reason” do
not connect with each other. With careful rereading it becomes clearer that the student is
saying that good corporate governance is the main reason why enterprises that operate
successfully manage to do so. An improvement here would be “In the next section we
will consider the reasons why enterprises are successful and the central role of good
corporate governance.
UNITY
Unity in writing is the connection of all ideas to a single topic. In an essay, all ideas
should relate to the thesis statement, and the supporting ideas in a main body paragraph
should relate to the topic sentence.
Keeping unity in an essay: One way to keep unity in an essay is to edit the outline for
ideas that are not relevant to the thesis statement or topic sentences. Likewise, after you
have written the essay, it is helpful to review the text and look for ideas that do not relate
to the thesis or the topic sentences.
COHERENCE
Coherence is related to unity. Ideas that are arranged in a clear and logical way 93
are
coherent. When a text is unified and coherent, the reader can easily understand the main
points
PURPOSES
Purpose refers to the type of writing you are doing and it ranges from a simple narrative
essay to a more complicated data-driven research paper. Different types of essays are
structured in ways that help the writer achieve the intended effect for a specific audience.
AUDIENCE
Audience is the actual person(s) who will be reading your paper. It is critical to consider
how the writer will articulate the ideas in order to reach the desired objective for that
specific audience.
PRACTICE:
Exercise 3: Read the essay about Chinese medicine, then do the tasks
a. Underline the thesis statement with two lines.

b. Underline each topic sentence with one line.
c. List the supporting ideas in each main body paragraph on a separate piece of
paper.
d. After you have finished, review the topic sentences and supporting ideas. How do
the topic sentences relate to the thesis statement and how the supporting sentences
relate to the topic sentences? Is the essay unified?
Next Time, Try Chinese Medicine
The last time I had a cold, my friend suggested that instead of taking the usual cold
medicines, I visit the traditional Chinese doctor in our city. Although I knew
nothing about Chinese medicine, I decided to try it. When I walked into the
Chinese doctor’s surgery, I was amazed. It was not at all like my usually doctor’s.
There were shelves up to the ceiling full of glass containers filled with hundreds of
different dried plants and other things I could not identify. Could this really be a
doctor’s surgery? It seemed very strange to me. When I met the doctor, he
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explained that Chinese medicine is thousands of years old. The plants in the jars in
his office were herbs. These herbs could be mixed together to make medicines. He
explained the philosophy of Chinese medicine. The philosophy of traditional
Chinese medicine is not the same as the philosophy of modern medicine, but it is
useful for curing many health problems
Modern medicine focuses on illness. If a patient with a cough visits a modern

doctor, then the doctor will give the patient a medicine to stop the cough. If the
patient also has a fever, the doctor may give a different medicine to stop the fever.
For every person with a cough, the doctor will probably recommend the same
cough medicine. The philosophy of modern medicine is to stop problems like
coughing and fever as quickly as possible. Western doctors usually see illness as
an enemy. They use medicines like weapons to fight diseases.
Chinese medicine, in contrast, has a different philosophy. Instead of focusing on a

patient’s whole body well again. Specifically, doctors of Chinese medicine believe
that inside people, there are two types of energy. The first type of energy, called
“yin”, is quiet and passive. The other type of energy, called “yang”, is active.
When these two energies are in equal balance, a person is healthy. When there is
an imbalance – too much yin, for example – a person becomes unhealthy. A doctor
of Chinese medicine doesn’t try to stop a person’s cough by giving a cough
medicine. Instead, the doctor gives a mixture of herbs that will restore balance in
the patient’s body. As a result, when the body is in balance, the cough will stop
naturally.
The Chinese doctor’s herbs seemed strange to me at first, but they made me feel
better. My cold wasn’t cured instantly, but I felt healthy again after a few days. For
a very serious health problem, I would probably visit a modern hospital, but the
next time I catch a cold, I am going back to the Chinese doctor. Chinese medicine
definitely words for some health problems.
Exercise 4: Read the thesis statement and main body paragraph. The writer has begun
to cross out sentences that do not belong. There is still one large piece of the text that
should be removed because it isn’t relevant to the thesis. Can you find it?
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Thesis statement: Sign language, the language used by many deaf people, has a 500-
year history.
The first sign language for deaf people was developed in Europe in the 1500s. In
Spain, a man named Pedro de Ponce was the first person to teach deaf children using
sign language. Another Spaniard, Juan Pablo de Bonet, was the first person to write a
book on teaching sign language to deaf people. Most of his students were from rich
families. Another important teacher who influenced the development of sign language
was a Frenchman named Abbe de L’Epee. L’Epee understood that deaf people could
communicate without speech. He started to learn the signs used by a group of deal
people in Paris. Using these signs, he developed a more complete French sign
language. L’Epee also taught religion classes. Another Frenchman, Louis Braille,
also lived during this time. He invented a system of reading and writing for blind
people, using raised bumps that can be felt with the fingers. In Germany, a man
named Samual Heinicke was another important teacher of the deaf during this time.
However, he did not use sign language for instruction. Instead, he preferred to teach
the deaf to understand other people by looking carefully at other people’s mouths
when they spoke. This is called lip or speech reading.
Speech reading became a popular way of teaching deaf in the United States in the mid
– 1800s. alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was one of the strongest
supporters of teaching deaf people to do speech reading. Bell became interested in
deafness and teaching deaf people. With his interest in science and the production of
sound, he focused on ways of helping the deaf communicate with listening tools and
speech reading. He eventually opened a training school for teachers of the deaf.
Not much is known about the use of sign language among deaf people in the United
States before the 1800s. The early 1800s were an important period in the development
of American Sign Language. In 1815, a man named Thomas Gallaudet became
interested in teaching deaf people. He travelled to Europe to study ways of
communicating with deaf people. He was twenty-seven years old at this time. And he
studied at a school for deaf students in Paris for several months. In 1817, Gallaudet
returned to the United States, and he brought with him Laurent Clerc, a deaf sign
language teacher from Paris. Gallaudet started the first school for the deaf, and Clerc
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became the first sign language teacher in the USA. The school, called the American
School for the Deaf, still exists in Hartford, Connecticut. American Sign Language
developed from the mixture of signs used by deaf Americans and French Sign
Language. Today, it is used by more than 500,000 deaf people in the United States
and Canada. About twenty million people in the United States have hearing problems,
and about two million of these are deaf.
Exercise 5: Look at the essay in exercise 3 and 4, and answer the questions:
1. What type of organizational pattern does the essay use?

2. Why do you think so?
FINDING, RECORDING AND LEARNING COLLOCATIONS
Finding collocations
There are two main ways in which you can find collocation.
 You can train yourself to notice them whenever you read or listen to anything in
English. Look at the collocations that are worth learning from this short text in
English.
After giving Mark a lift to the station, Cathy made her way home. What an
exciting life he led! At times Cathy felt desperately jealous of him. She spent her
time doing little more than taking care of him and the children. Now her sister
was getting divorced and would doubtless be making demands on her too. Cathy
had promised to give her sister a call as soon as she got home but she decided to
run herself a bath first. She had a sharp pain in her side and hoped that a hhot
bath might ease the pain.
 You can find them in any good learner’s dictionary. For example, if you look up
the word sharp you will find some of these collocations:
o A sharp pain A sharp bend/ turn
o A sharp contrast/ difference/ distinction A sharp rise/ increase/ drop.
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Recording collocations
The best way to record a collocation is in a phrase or a sentence showing how it is used.
Highlight the collocation by underlining it or by using a highlighting pen
e.g. I don’t have access to that kind of secret information.
Jim gave me a very useful piece of advice.
Learning collocations
Learning collocations is not so different from learning any vocabulary item. The key
things are to:
 Regularly revise what you want to learn;

 Practice using what you want to learn in contexts that are meaningful for you
personally.
 Learning collocations in groups to help you fix them in your memory. You might
group together collocations relating to the same topic. Or you might group
collocations based on the same word, for example:
o I must find a way to help him.
o Can you find your way back to my house?
o I learnt the hard way that Jack can’t be trusted.
o Please tell me if I’m getting in your way.
o You must give way to traffic from the left.
o I’ve tried every possible way to get him to change his mind.
PRACTICE:
Exercise 6: Underline 11 collocations in this text
My friend Beth is desperately worried about her son at the moment. He wants to
enroll on a course of some sort but just can’t make a decision about what to study. I
gave Beth a ring and we had a long chat about it last night. She said he’d like to study
for a degree but is afraid. He won’t meet the requirements for university entry. Beth
thinks he should do a course in Management because he’d like to set up his own
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business in the future. I agreed that that would be a wise choice.
Exercise 7: Match the beginning of each sentence on the left with its ending on the
right.
1. She’s having 2. She’s taking her duty. a lecture.
3. She’s giving 4. She’s making a party. an exam.

good progress.
5. She’s doing
Exercise 8: Correct the eight collocation errors in this text. Use a dictionary to help
you if necessary.
In the morning I made some work in the garden, then I spent a rest for about an hour
before going out to have some shopping in town. It was my sister’s birthday and I
wanted to do a special effort to cook a nice meal for her. I gave a look at a new Thai
cookery book in the bookshop and decided to buy it. It has some totally easy recipes
and I managed to do a good impression with my very first Thai meal. I think my sister
utterly enjoyed her birthday.
TRANSITION WORDS AND PHRASES
There are many transition words and phrases in English that are used to connect
sentences together or relate ideas to one another. Here are several types of writing and
some common transitions that are used with them.
Chronology Compariso Contrast Additional Examples Cause and Concluding

n information effect ideas
Before Likewise However And For example Therefore In
conclusion
After Compared to On the other Also In general So
hand In summary
Next Similarly In addition Generally Thus
But, yet Finally
Since As … as In fact For instance As a result
In spite of Therefore
First, And Furthermore Specifically Since
second In contrast To include
Moreover In particular Because
While Although To
Another … summarize
When Instead
Is/ was
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Exercise 8: Use transitions from the list above, or others that you know, to connect
these sentences taken from the essay about Chinese medicine in exercise 3.
(1) ………… of focusing on a patient’s health problems, Chinese medicine tries to make
the patient’s whole body well again. (2) …………, doctors of Chinese medicine believe
that inside people, there are two types of energy. The first type of energy, called “yin” is
quiet and passive. The other type of energy, called “yang”, is active.
…. When there is an imbalance – too much yin, (3) ………… - a person becomes
unhealthy. A doctor of Chinese medicine doesn’t try to stop a person’s cough by giving a
cough medicine. (4) …………, the doctor gives a mixture of herbs that will restore
balance in the patient’s body. (5) …………, when the body is in balance, the cough will
stop naturally.
Describe your favorite place.
(1) Write a first draft of your writing.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your invitation list for content and
structure
Has your writing included a topic sentence, supporting ideas and a

concluding sentence?
Has your writing consisted of clarity, unity and coherence?
Have you used pronoun reference in your writing?
Have you used clear and descriptive language?
(3) Write the second draft of your writing: Make any necessary changes to your
sentences.
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In order to write a good paragraph, students need to understand three essential elements
of paragraph writing and how each element contributes to the whole. The three element
essential to good paragraph writing are clarity, unity and coherence.
For further practice, students can click the link below:
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/exams/writing-exams/sentences-and-
paragraphs

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Promote my skills in writing topic sentence,

supporting ideas and concluding sentence.
2 Understand purpose, audience, clarity, unity and

coherence.
3 Use clear, descriptive language.
4 Understand clear pronoun reference
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UNIT 3:
Chapter 2: Studying Materials - Section 2 - Unit 3: Types of paragraphs
TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS
Unit 3: Types of paragraphs
 Understand descriptive, comparison, cause-effect and classification paragraphs;

 Understand subject-verb agreement;
 Understand word forms.
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SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT
It is the subject that determines whether the verb is singular or plural. It is the main
noun as subject, not a prepositional phrase, that makes the verb singular or plural.
e.g. Gregory’s sister lives in Scotland. His parents live near London.
A new pair of shoes doesn’t cost a lot.
A woman with three children was waiting outside.
New shoes don’t always feel comfortable at first.
We use singular verbs after indefinite pronouns (everybody, nobody, etc.) as
subjects. We usually use singular verbs after subjects beginning with none of and
neither of in formal situations. We sometimes use plural verbs in informal situations.
e.g. Everybody in the country wants one of these.
None of the candidates has much support.
She shouted, “None of you have a chance”
We use singular verbs after some subjects that seem to be plural: some nouns ending
in “s”, phrases describing an amount and some combinations with “and”. There are
some nouns such as “people, police” which appear to be singular, but which are used
with a plural verb.
e.g. The news wasn’t too bad.
Fifty pounds is a rather violent cartoon.
The police are trying to stop speeding in the city, but people are still driving
too fast.
We can use a group noun as subject to refer to several people, with a plural verb, or
to refer to the group as a single unit, with a singular verb, depending on our point of
view.
e.g. The Welsh team are getting tired.
The committee hasn’t reached a decision yet.
Other group nouns include: audience, class, crowd, enemy, family, government,
orchestra, staff.
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PRACTICE:
Exercise 1: Add one of these verbs to each of the sentences
Doesn’t has have is isn’t are aren’t was wasn’t won’t
1. To get an A in every class be easy.

2. Lord of the Flies the name of the book we had to read last year?
3. My new pair of jeans pockets on the side of the legs.
4. What they’re doing in Parliament interest me.
5. Being absent from class a lot going to improve his chances of passing.
6. Jan got really angry with us and screamed, “None of you my friends any more”.
7. Never I had to listen to so many boring people.
8. I watched Dances with Wolves, which about dancing at all.
9. Statistics more difficult than Economics?
10. These new sunglasses made of glass or plastic or anything like that.
Exercise 2: Complete each sentence with one of these words, plus “has, have”
Committee darts eggs everybody nobody orchestra police teachers
1. The conductor and the ………. had very little time to rehearse for the concert.
2. Security is just something that ………. To go through in airports nowadays.
3. ………. from the new student group ………. Volunteered to help with the Christmas
party.
4. The planning ………. all been given individual copies of the agenda for the meeting.
5. ………. always been a popular game in English pubs.
6. According to the rules, none of the ………. the right to make students stay after
school/
7. The ………. no idea how the robbers got into the bank.
8. Bacon and ………. been the Sunday breakfast in our house for years.
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WORD FORMATION
Word formation refers to the ways in which new words are formed on the basis of
other words which are also called words families. In other words, word families are
words that look alike but have different endings.
Root words: nation
Endings: -al -ize -ly -ity
Words: national nationalize nationally nationality
These endings change the original word to either a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb.
For example, the word “care” can be made into an adjective (careful) or an adverb
(carefully).
Noun endings: ance, ancy, ence, ation, dom, ism, ment, ness, ship, or, er, ion
Adjective endings: able, ible, al, ful, ish, ive
Adverb endings: ly, ward, wise.
Verb endings: en, ify, ize.
Exercise 3: Make the choice that best completes the sentence
1. We need to _____ the language in this report.

a. Simplify b. simple c. simply d. simplistic
2. In my opinion, her leaving early was a very _____ thing to do.
a. Children b. childish c. childishly d. child
3. We could call the TV stations and _____ the opening of our new store.
a. Publicity b. public c. publicize d. publisher
4. I like my work because I have the _____ to make my own decisions.
a. Freed b. freely c. freedom d. free
5. Our company believes it is the best _____ to handle the account.
a. Organizing b. organization c. organizational d. organize
6. Most meetings are not as _____ as this one was.
a. Interested b. interestingly c. interest d. interesting
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7. A doctor’s _____ manner makes patients feel comfortable.
a. Friendship b. friend c. friendly d. friendliness
8. It was very _____ of the boss to buy us those nice gifts.
a. Thoughtless b. thoughtful c. thought d. thoughtfully
9. One of your duties will be some _____ typing.
a. Light b. lightened c. lighten d. lightness
10. She would like a _____ raise, not just a few dollars.
a. Really b. realist c. real d. reality
DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH
A descriptive paragraph describes people, places and processes. A descriptive

paragraph explains how someone or something looks or feels. A paragraph explains
how something is done.
Using adjectives: Adjectives are words that tell us how things look, feel, taste, sound
or smell. Adjectives also describe how you feel about something.
1. Describing the place around you
A description of a place my answer some of these questions:
 Where is the place? How big is it?

 How warm or cold is the place?
 How does the place make you feel? Why?
 What things can you see in this place?
 What colors do you see?
2. Describing a character
Describing people: here are some common adjectives for describing people
A description of a person may answer some of the following questions:
 Who is the person?

 What does the person do?
 What does he/ she look like?
 How does the person act – what is his/ her personality like?
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 How does he/ she make others feel?
3. Process paragraphs: is a description of how to do something. It explains the steps you

need to follow to complete an activity.
Writing strategies for descriptive paragraphs: students should follow the steps:
(1) Write a topic sentence which gives an overall picture of the topic with the controlling
idea.
(2) Write supporting sentences which should help give a paragraph unity. All supporting
sentences all describe the railroad and show how it was impressive. They use details
to create a picture in reader’s mind of how the railway
(3) to create a picture in reader’s mind of how the railway looked, sounded and smelled.
(4) A common way to organize a descriptive paragraph is by physical location. This is
called spatial organization. For example, you can describe something from bottom to
top, from front to back, or from left to right. Look at these supporting sentences from
a paragraph about trains during the Industrial Revolution. Notice how the writer used
spatial organization, describing the train from front to back.
e.g. The powerful engine was at the front of the impressive train. Passengers sat in long cars
in the middle of the train. There was a person working at the back who would stop the noisy
train.
PRACTICE:
Exercise 4: Read the topic sentences and possible supporting sentences. Choose the
sentence that relates to the topic sentence and describes the topic.
1. Sewing machines changed during the Industrial Revolution.

a. The telegraph became popular during
the Industrial Revolution.
VOCABULARY
b. The machines were not very loud,
Constant (adj): immediately
Industrial Revolution (n): the but they made a constant tapping
period of time during which work
began to be done more by noise.
machines in factories than by hand
at home.
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c. Many people bought the modern sewing machines.
2. Large factories helped drive the Industrial Revolution.
a. They allowed greater production with less cost.
b. They were very smoky and often unclean.
c. The people who worked there were sometimes unhappy.
Exercise 5: Number the sentences in the correct spatial order, from bottom to top, to
form a paragraph describing settler’s clothing.
Woman wore clothing they made by hand on the wild, unsettled lands of the frontier.
______ They wore warm wool socks in cold weather.
______ On their heads, they wore hats made of soft fabric.
______ They wore long cotton skirts.
______ On top of their socks, they wore shoes made from deerskin.
______ Above the skirts, they usually wore simple blouses.
Frontier clothing was not very stylish, but it was practical.
COMPARISON PARAGRAPH
A comparison paragraph means comparing or contrasting. “To compare” means to discuss

how two people, places or things are similar. Both teachers and students need to spend a lot
of time preparing for classes. “
e.g. One main advantage of a bicycle over a car is that a bicycle doesn’t create any pollution.
When you write a topic sentence for a comparison paragraph, name the two things that you
will compare. Also state how they will be compared, by looking at their similarities, for
example. All supporting sentences compare the things or ideas introduced in the topic
sentence to give the paragraph unity.
e.g. E-books and printed books have many similarities. One similarity is that neither e-books
nor printed books caught on immediately. Another similarity is their appearance.
A common way to organize a comparison paragraph is by using point-by-point organization.
First, present one point about both things or ideas, then present another point about both, and
so on. Look at this paragraph. Point 1 is about the text size on e-readers and smartphones.
Point 2 is about how they are used in different ways.
e.g. there are several features that make e-readers and smartphones different. The text on e-
readers can be large, but the text on smartphones is usually small. Unlike smartphones, e-
readers are also used for electronic books. Smartphones, on the other hand, have many uses.
Although they are different, both e-readers and smartphones are useful inventions.
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PRACTICE:
Exercise 6: Read the topic sentence. Choose the sentence that relates to the topic
sentence by comparing the two things introduced.
Topic sentence: Many people find e-books easier to carry than printed books.
a. Not all books are available as e-books.

b. Hardcover books can be very expensive, but sometimes they are on sale.
c. Printed books can be large and heavy, but e-readers are usually small and light.
Exercise 7: Read the paragraphs and answer the questions. Circle the words and
phrases.
1. Many people think that e-books should cost less than

print books, but the cost of producing an e-book is VOCABULARY
about the same as the cost of a print book. Even though E-book (n): an electronic book.
Aspect (n): one part of a situation,
e-books do not require paper, other aspects of making problem, subject.
Likewise (adv): in the same way
e-books cost money. It costs a great deal of money to
edit a print book. Likewise, a lot of money is needed to edit an e-book. It does not matter
that the format is different because both types of books need to be edited. In addition, it
also costs money to promote books. For example, it takes money to create advertisements
for a print book. Similarly, it costs money to advertise an e-book. In addition, an author
receives money for each print book that is sold. The author also receives money for each
e-book that is sold. It may seem cheaper to produce an e-book than a print book, but the
costs may actually not be very different.
How many different words and phrases did the writer use to show similarities?
Three/ five/ seven.
2. Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce both invented the

VOCABULARY
microchip around the same time. However, they did
Microchip (n): a tiny chip.
Invent (v): to design and create not invent it together. Kilby was an electrical engineer
something that has never been made
before.
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who worked for a company in Texas. In contrast, Noyce was a scientist who founded two
companies in California. Both men went to universities, but Kilby got his Ph.D in
Wisconsin, whereas Noyce got his Ph.D in Massachusettes. Unlike Noyce, Kilby won a
Novel Prize for his work on the microchip. Noyce lived to be 63 years old. On the other
hand, Kilby lived a full life, dying at the age of 82. They may have both had the same
idea for an invention, but their biographies are very different.
How many different words and phrases did the writer use to show differences?
Four/ five/ six.
CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH
A cause-effect paragraph explains the reasons for, or the results of, an event or situation. It
answers the question “Why?” or “What happened?”.
A good cause-effect paragraph starts with a clear topic sentence that states a specific event or
situation. The controlling idea should give an overall idea of the causes or effects explained
in the paragraph. All supporting sentences should help explain either reasons why the even
happened or what happened as a result of the event and give the paragraph unity by relating
to the topic sentence.
e.g. Many employees are highly motivated at work, and research shows there are three main
reasons for this. One reason is power. Power motivates some people. Achievement also
motivates some people. They want to succeed at everything they do. Affiliation is a third
motivational factor. Affiliation means having meaningful relationships with others.
Exercise 8: Read the topic sentence and choose the supporting sentence that relates to
the topic by explaining a result.
Topic sentence: NowTech motivates their employees to be successful.
a. In addition, NowTech often asks employees to work late.

b. Most employees got top scores on their job evaluations as a result.
c. Some employees are late to work because they do not feel motivated.
Exercise 9: Read each topic sentence and each supporting sentence from a cause-
effect paragraph. Write C if it gives a Cause, or E if it gives an Effect.
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1. Some people are motivated by money.
______: One reason is that it makes people feel powerful.
2. Jazzy Mart is not a very successful company.
______: They are not successful because of the fact that they do not motivate their
employees.
3. The company Jazzy Mart does not motivate its employees.
______: Therefore, the employees often arrive late to work.
4. Some people have problems being motivated.
______: For example, some people struggle with motivation due to depression.
5. Many people suffer from depression, which can lead to various problems.
______: Consequently, these people may not be as motivated to improve their
performance at work.
6. Recently, many companies lost money and suffered financially.
______: The major reason was the poor economy.
7. Achievement motivates many people to be successful.
______: As a result, these people find rewards at work to be very meaningful.
8. Some people are motivated by fear.
______: For this reason, they are successful, but they also have a great deal of
stress in their lives.
CLASSIFICATION PARAGRAPH
Classification is grouping items into categories according to a certain principle. A

classification paragraph describes various classes related to one category of things.
The same information can be classified into more than one category, but the classification
paragraph sticks to one basis of classification.
Topic sentence: has two parts: the topic and the basis of classification, which is the
controlling idea; it controls how the writer approaches the subject.
Steps to write a classification paragraph:
(1) Select the item to classify, and create categories related to that item. Concreate items
work best for this paragraph type rather than ideas, experiences or other intangibles.
e.g. Sports shoes can be classified into running, walking, football, basketball or tennis
shoes…
(2) Compose a topic sentence that provides an overview for the entire paragraph. Each
sentence within a paragraph relates to the topic sentence. 112
e.g. Before buying sports shoes, decide on your main activity while wearing them.
(3) Develop the classification paragraph’s supporting details with a sentence

describing each type within a class.
e.g. For joggers, sports shoes cushion the impact on the runner’s feet, while sports
shoes for walkers have slightly different padding.
(4) Compose a closing sentence for the classification paragraph that provides a
general statement about the subject.
e.g. the world of sports shoes has a type of shoe for every type and age of person.
(5) revise your paragraph after setting it aside for a couple hours. More than merely
re-reading, look for errors in paragraph structure, sentences and individual words.
Look for grammar and punctuation errors and misspelling.
e.g. actually, this step must be done for every type of paragraph.
Exercise 10: Read the paragraph and find the information.
The Hindu Population of India
The whole Hindu population of India can be divided into four castes or varna. The
highest of these castes is that of the Brahmans or priests. The next highest is the varna of
the warriors, known as the Kshatriya, or sometimes the Rajput caste. Below this comes
the Vaishya or merchant caste and the lowest caste is known as the Sudra caste. While
castes are traditionally associated with a type of occupation, in modern India, occupations
are not a reliable guide to caste.
Topic Sentence ……………………………………………………………………
First Classification ……………………………………………………………………
Second Classification ……………………………………………………………………
Third Classification ……………………………………………………………………
Fourth Classification ……………………………………………………………………
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………
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Using adjectives: Adjectives are words that tell us how things look, feel, taste, sound
or smell. Adjectives also describe how you feel about something. Here are a few
common adjectives
Shape and size: large/ small, wide/ narrow, round, rectangular.
Atmosphere: cosy, comfortable, warm/ cool, cold/ hot.
How you feel: amazed, surprised, happy, nostalgic.
Appearance: colorful, unforgettable, beautiful, unattractive.
DESCRIBING THE PLACE AROUND YOU
Using prepositions: prepositions tell us how a space is organized. These are some
common and useful prepositions
In front of/ behind on top of/ on the bottom of next to
Above/ below, underneath around in the middle between
DESCRIBING A CHARACTER
These are some common and useful preposition when describing a character
Personality: happy/ satisfied, relaxed, exciting, nervous, angry, serious, sad/

depressed.
Physical characteristics: big/ large/ tall, small/ tiny/ short, thin, heavy, strong, weak,
brown-/ black-/ blond-/, red-haired, light-/ dark-skinned.
TRANSITION WORDS IN PROCESS PARAGRAPH
Transitions are words that connect the steps in a paragraph. Transition words and
phrases show the relationships between the ideas in a paragraph. They are not used
between every sentence, but are used often enough to make the order clear. Here are
some common transition words and phrases that show time order or the order of steps.
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First, second, third next then after/ after that
Finally the last step before while

PRACTICE:
Exercise 11: Read this description from a travel brochure. Circle the adjectives.
Niagara Falls, a popular destination for thousands of visitors each year, is a beautiful
place. When you stand at the edge and look down at the 188 feet of white waterfalls,
you feel amazed at the power of nature. The tree-lined river that leads into the falls is
fast-moving, pouring over the edge of the falls and crashing to the bottom in a loud
roar. If you want to experience the falls close up, go for a boat ride. You’ll come near
enough to
look up at the roaring streams of water flowing over

the edge and feel the cool mist that rises as the water
hits the rocks below. Seeing Niagara Falls is an
unforgettable experience!
Exercise 12: Read the description written by a young woman about her grandmother.
Circle the adjectives that describe the grandmother.
When I was young, I admired my grandmother for

her strength and kindness. She was not very big. In
fact, she was tiny and very thin. She was strong,
though. She lived by herself and still did a lot of the
chores around her house. When I was a child, I saw
her almost every day, and she and I would talk
about
everything. She was a very happy person and was also very patient, and she would
listen to all of my problems. She gave me very good advice whenever I needed it. I
didn’t need to be afraid to tell her anything, because she never got annoyed with me.
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She just listened and tried to help. I also liked to spend time with her because she had
interesting stories to tell me about her own childhood and life experiences. When I was
young, my grandmother was my best friend.
Exercise 13: Fill in the blank with the transition words to connect the steps in the
paragraph about preparing for a trip.
Planning a holiday abroad? Here are some suggestions to make your trip successful. (1)
…………., find out if you need a visa for the country that you want to visit. Make sure
you have enough time to apply for it. (2) …………you buy your ticket. (3) …………
you’ve found out about visas, you should research airfares and timetables. (4) …………,
look for the best flight for you. Remember, the cheapest flight may stop over in several
cities and reduce the amount of time you have to spend at your destination. You might
want to fly direct. (5) …………you’re researching flights, you can also ask your travel
agent about getting a good deal on a hotel. It’s a good idea to book your flight and hotel
early if you’re sure of your destination. If you haven’t already done it, the (6) …………
step is to learn about places to visit, the weather, the food, and other details about the
country. The internet can be very useful source of information. (7) …………, on the day
of your flight, make sure you go to the airport at least two hours before your flight. Now
you are ready to start enjoying your holiday!.
COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES
These words and phrases are used for writing comparisons

And The man and the woman are tall
Both Both of the tables have broken legs
Both… and Both my neighbor and I are selling our cars.
Also The shops are closing for the bank holiday. The post office are also closing
Too Kathy is planning to go to the party, and I am, too
Neither… nor Neither Joe nor Steve went to the meeting last night.
Similar to Their new computer is similar to the one my brother bought.
The same as Is the restaurant where you had dinner the same as the price where I ate last
month? 116
(just) as _ adj _ as His coat is just as warm as the more expensive one.
COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES
These words and phrases are used for writing comparisons

Likewise My parents were born in a small village. Likewise, my brothers and I also
grew up in a small town.
Similarly There are many parks to visit in that city. Similarly, there are several parks
in my hometown, too.
Exercise 14: Complete these sentences with phrases from above.
1. The architecture of some modern government buildings is …………. the type of

construction used hundreds of years ago.
2. In recent years, new technology such as mobile telephones has made life more
convenient. …………., the Internet has made a wide variety of information
available to everyone.
3. ………….. the rivers …………. the lakes are clear and beautiful.
4. The capital city is just …………. modern …………. the cities in many other
countries.
PHRASES USED IN CAUSE AND EFFECT PARAGRAPH
You can include phrases to highlight reasons (one reason is, another reason is, the most
important cause is, another cause is, due to, because of the fact that). Expressions to
highlight results include “as a result, for this reason, for these reasons, consequently,
because of this, therefore.
PHRASES USED IN CLASSIFICATION PARAGRAPH 117
Can be divided can be classified can be categorized The first/ second/ third
Exercise 15: Number the supporting sentences in the correct order to form cause-effect
paragraphs.
1. What motivates children?
Children are motivated by many factors.
_____ For instance, some children want to do their homework because it makes them feel
good at school.
_____ One reason is that many children work harder due to the promise of external
rewards.
_____ For example, children can be motivated to do chores if they receive money.
_____ A final reason children are motivated is the possibility of internal rewards.
_____ In addition, because of the fact that children are used to getting such rewards, they
often expect them.
In conclusion, children are not always motivated for the same reasons.
2. Students are motivated to succeed.
The teachers at Linx Language School motivate their students to succeed.
_____ Because of this motivation to do well in the real world, students often get better
jobs when they finish school.
_____ For this reason, most students continue to take classes at Linx Language School.
_____ In addition, new students also have a positive feeling about continuing their
studies.
_____ The first example of this is that almost all students pass their final exams as a
result of teacher encouragement.
_____ Finally, teachers also motivate their students to succeed outside of school.
In summary, the teachers at Linx Language School are very motivational.

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Exercise 16: This paragraph describes a city park, but it doesn’t have enough
descriptive details. Imagine that you live next to a park. Rewrite the paragraph, adding
description and make it more interesting.
Exercise 17: Read the list of details about two popular sports. Then write a comparison
paragraph between two types of sports.
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(1) Write a first draft of your paragraph.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your paragraph list for content and
structure
Have you identified which type of paragraph it is?
Have you followed the structure of that specific paragraph?
Have you used word form in your paragraph?
Have you checked the agreement of subject and verbs in your paragraph?
Have you used appropriate language for your paragraph?
Have you read your paragraph again to check spelling and grammar?
(3) Write the second draft of your advert: Make any necessary changes to your sentences.
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Click the link below to get extra knowledge about different types of paragraphs.
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/improving-paragraph-writing
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I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Identify and distinguish types of paragraph:

descriptive, comparison, cause-effect, classification
paragraphs
2 Understand subject-verb agreement
3 Understand and apply word form
4 Use some appropriate vocabulary for specific

paragraph
5 Write a completed paragraph with specific purpose
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Chapter 2: Studying Materials - Section 2 - Unit 4: Descriptive essays: Moving from paragraph to essays
UNIT 4: DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS: A Handbook for Writing 3
MOVING FROM PRAGRAPH TO ESSAYS

Unit 4: Descriptive essays: Moving from paragraphs to essays
 Understand similarities between paragraph and essays;

 Describe with the five senses;
 Understand preposition of location;
 Write a descriptive essay.
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VERBS OF SENSES
Verbs of senses are used to indicate the impression people get from something or
somebody.
(cited from www.test-english.com)
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Choose the correct answer (some sentences can have more than one
correct options)
1. She ………. an angel in that dress.

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a. Looked like b. seemed like c. looked as if d. seemed as if
2. We heard the neighbors ………. and we called the police.
a. Fought b. to fight c. fighting d. fight
3. He ………. to have lost all hope.
a. Looks as if b. seems c. looks d. seems like
4. It looks ………. It’ll stop raining soon.
a. As if b. how c. like if d. as though
5. It ………. very different from anything I have eaten before.
a. Tastes like b. tastes as if c. tastes d. tastes as though
6. Is everything OK? You ………. you have cried.
a. Look b. seem that c. look as though d. look
7. The chicken ………. a bit too salty.
a. Tastes b. feels c. tastes like d. feels like
8. It ………. bread but it doesn’t really ………. bread.
a. Tastes/ looks b. tastes like/ look like c. tastes as if/ look as if d.
tastes as if/ look like
9. It ………. a plane, but it ………. some kind of UFO was flying over our heads.
a. Looked like/ sounded b. looked/ sounded like c. looked as if/ sounded as
though d. looked like/ sounded as if
10. It ………. a sauna in here. Could you switch on the air-conditioner?
a. Looks b. feels as if c. feels like d. feels
PARAGRAPHS AND ESSAYS
A paragraph focuses on one topic. This topic is introduced with the first sentence in the
paragraph, and the following sentences provide supporting details about the topic.
An essay is usually composed of multiple paragraphs and can focus on a much larger
topic than an individual paragraph can. It will typically be structured similarly, though
e.g. In a five-paragraph essay, the first paragraph introduces the broad topic of the essay.
The next three body paragraphs all focus on individual, smaller topics within the broad
topic. The final paragraph concludes the essays by summarizing the main arguments.
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PRACTICE
Exercise 2: Read the paragraph and answer the questions that follow:
THE MANY FACES OF ACTING
Modern acting comes in a variety of forms and can be classified into three types: stage
acting, television acting and film acting. Stage acting, which is the oldest form of acting,
occurs in front of a live audience, in places ranging from large performance halls to
small theatres. The next and probably the most well-known category of acting is
television acting. This type of acting is for weekly programs that are produced in a TV
studio. The third and final type of acting is film acting for a movie. Film acting is similar
to TV acting, but the process is more complex, and it takes longer to make a movie.
Regardless of the type of acting, audience members appreciate actors for the many hours
of enjoyment they provide.
1. What three forms of acting are discussed?
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2. How could you expand this paragraph into an essay? What information could you
add?
3. How many body paragraphs would there probably be in the essay? What would
the topic of each one be?
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY
1. Describing people
A descriptive essay about a person should consist of:
- An introduction in which you give general information about the person, saying when,
where and how you first met them;
- A main body in which you describe their physical appearance, personal qualities and
hobbies/ interests. You start a new paragraph for each topic.
- A conclusion in which you write your comments and/ or feeling about the person.
2. Describing places/ buildings:
A descriptive composition about a place or building should consist of:
- An introduction in which you give the name and location of the place or building and/
or the reasons for choosing it.
- A main body in which you describe the main aspects of the place or building in detail
– for example, when you describe a place you should describe what you can see and
do there; when you describe a building you should describe its exterior and interior, as
well as give historical facts about it.
- A conclusion which includes your comments/ feelings and/ or a recommendation
Descriptions of places or building can be found in tourist magazines, travel brochures, stories,
letters. The style you use depends on the situation and the intended reader. You normally use
present tenses to describe a place/ building. You can use past tenses to write about the
historical facts.
3. Describing festivals/ events/ celebrations
A descriptive composition about a festival, an event or a celebration should consist of:
- An introduction in which you give the name, time, place and reasons(s) for
celebrating;
- A main body in which you describe the preparations and the actual event in separate
paragraphs, using present tenses to describe a festival you attended at some time in
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the past.
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY
- A conclusion which includes people’s feelings, comments or final thoughts

about the events.
- You can use a variety of adjectives and adverbs to make your description more
vivid. E.g. Cheerful fans should enthusiastically as the rock start arrived.
- You can use the passive to describe events when the activity is more important
than the agent. E.g. after the parade, speeches are made and hymns are sung.
- Descriptions of festivals, events or celebrations can be found in magazines,
newspaper or travel brochures, or as parts of letters, stories, etc. the syle you
Exerciseuse
3: depends
Read theonarticle
the situation and the
and label the paragraphs
intended reader.
with the headings below, then
replace the topic sentences with other appropriate ones.
Hobbies/ interests name& when/ where/ how met comments/ feelings
Physical appearance & clothes personal qualities
A CLOSED FRIEND by Jim White
Jacques has been my close friend for two years. I first met
Introduction
him on a school exchange trip to Calais, France. I asked

him the way to the library and we started talking. We’ve
been friends ever since.
Jacques is quite good-looking. He’s tall and slim, with

olive skin and curly dark hair. Like many French people,
he has a great sense of style, so he always looks well-
dressed even in casual clothes.
Main body
Jacques is very outgoing. He is always friendly and loves

to have fun. He’s got a fantastic sense of humor and he
always makes me laugh. However, he can be a bit
immature at times. For example, when he doesn’t get what
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he wants, he acts childishly and stamps his feet.
Jacques is very keen on water sports. He likes sailing and

he spends a lot of time on his boat. He enjoys scuba diving,
too and loves exploring life under the sea.
All in all, I’m glad to have Jacques as my friend. It’s a

Conclusion
pleasure to be with him and I really enjoy his company.

I’m sure we’ll always be close friends.
Exercise 4: Read the topic sentences, the write appropriate supporting sentences, as in
the example
e.g. My grandmother is a very kind-hearted person
 She cares about everyone she meets and she is always ready to help someone in
trouble.
1. Our teacher is quite handsome.

2. I like my five-year-old cousin, but he can be very naughty.
3. My friend, Jackie, is very intelligent.
4. My neighbor, Mrs. Gray, tales good care of herself.
5. My sister’s friend, Simon, loves adventures and dangerous sports.
Exercise 5: Read the article and label the paragraphs with the correct headings, then
talk about Brighton.
AN IDEAL SEASIDE by Sally Fulton

Introduction
Brighton is a large town on the south-east coast of England.

Located only an hour from London, it is a charming seaside
resort and the perfect destination for a peaceful weekend.
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Brighton has several tourist attractions which are worth
visiting. Among these is the Royal Pavillion, a beautiful
Indian-style palace which was built in the early nineteenth
century. Brighton’s most famous attraction is the lively
Palace Pier, with its fantastic funfair and amusement arcade.
Both young and old can have fun have while admiring the
spectacular view of Brighton’s seafront.
Main body
There are plenty of places to go shopping in Brighton. The

town center has a large modern shopping center. There are
also narrow lanes full of lovely antique shops that are
always bustling with tourists.
The nightlife in Brighton is exciting. There are a lot of

music and dance clubs which are extremely popular with
younger people. The area is also well-known for its
fashionable restaurants, which offer a variety of
international cuisines.
Brighton is a town that has something to offer everyone.

Whether you want to spend your time shopping and seeing
Conclusion
the sights, or simply relaxing and enjoying the fresh sea air,
Brighton is the ideal choice for a few days away from the
city
1. Underline the topic sentences in the main body paragraphs. Suggest other
appropriate topic sentences.
2. Read the essay again and match the adjectives in bold with their opposites in the
list below. Then, make sentences using them: unknown, local, wide, old-
fashioned, ugly, boring, unattractive, unpopular, hectic.
Exercise 6: Match the beginnings and endings below. Then, say which refer to annual
events, and which refer to past events. How does/ did each writer feel?
130
DESCRIBING PEOPLE
1. Physical appearance: (1) general features (height, build, age); (2) more specific ones
(hair, eyes, nose, etc.)
e.g. Laura is a tall, slim woman in her early twenties. She has got red hair, green eyes and
freckles. She usually wears smart suits.
2. Personal qualities: support your description with examples and/ or justification.
e.g. Wayne is very shy. For example, he finds it difficult to make new friends.
When you mention someone’s negative qualities you should use mild language (seems to, can
be rather, etc.). E.g. instead of saying Paul is lazy, it is better to say Paul can be rather lazy
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at times.
3. Linking words and phrases:

PRACTICE:
Exercise 7: Fill in the gaps with the correct linking word/ phrase from the list below.
And, but, with
And, but, with 1. Bob is a tall man in his late twenties _______ dark hair and
brown eyes. He has a beard _______ he hasn’t got a moustache.
He likes wearing jeans, T-shirts _______ trainers.
And, with, who 2. Jenny is a pretty child _______ will soon be eight years old. She
is quite tall for her age, _______ long curly hair, big almond-
shaped eyes _______ a wide smile
As well as, also, 3. Helen is _______ cheerful and friendly. She is _______ polite
both _______ kind-hearted. She never says a bad word about anyone.
However, and, 4. Carl is very intelligent _______ always gets fantastic marks in
also all his tests. He is _______ creative and likes to write short stories,
_______ Carl is rather shy and feels uncomfortable speaking in
front of a lot of people.
Exercise 8: Complete these descriptions using the adjectives in the list.
Moody energetic generous cheerful lazy impatient aggressive selfish
1. Tom is _______. Whenever he visits us he

VOCABULARY brings flowers and gifts for the children.
Bang (v): to (cause something to)
make a sudden very loud noise or
noises.
Fist (n): a hand with the fingers and 132
thumb held tightly in.
2. Susan is _______. When she gets angry she starts shouting and bangs for her fist
on the table.
3. Paul is _______. When he has to wait for anything he constantly looks at his
watch.
4. Alison is _______. She hardly ever gets tired and is enthusiastic about everything.
5. My aunt Betty is _______. She is always in a good mood and smiles a lot.
6. Rick is _______. He doesn’t like working or doing sports. He would rather sit
around and watch TV all day.
7. Angela is _______. She doesn’t like sharing her toys with other children.
8. Wanda is _______. One minute she is happy and the next she is sad and won’t talk
to anyone.
1. Generous
2. Aggressive
3. Impatient
4. Energetic
5. Cheerful
6. Lazy
7. Selfish
8. Moody
DESCRIBING PLACES
1. Phrases of location
To describe the location of a place/ building, you can use the following phrases.
- Is situated/ is located…
- In (the) south/ east/ west/ south-east/ north-east/ etc.
- On the south/ east/ west/ north/ etc.
- In the center/ heart/ middle of…
2. Linking structures
To join short sentences, you can use various linking structures. Study the example below:
- You should visit the old part of the city. It is full of ancient temples  You should
visit the old part of the city, which is full of ancient temples. 133
- Young children will enjoy the local funfair. They can go on exciting rides and eat
tasty toffee-apples there  young children will enjoy the local funfair, where they
Exercise 9: a. Match the words/ phrases in the list to the headings that follow. Can you
add any ideas of your own?
Museum, boutique, nightclub, ancient theatre, open-air market, zoo, café, bazaar,
temple, art gallery, restaurant, music hall, palace, botanical gardens, fair, theatre,
souvenir shop, monument, statue, antique shop, shopping center, amusement arcade,
multi-screen cinema, funfair.
Things to see and do:
Shopping:
Nightlife:
b. Use the vocabulary from part (a) and the phrases below to talk about your town, as
in the example:
 The most fascinating/ lively/ interesting/ etc. part of the city is ….

 The most famous attraction is ….
 There is plenty of ….
 The town center has ….
 The nightlife in … is exciting, with ….
 The town is well-known for its….
Exercise 10: Use the words in brackets to join the sentences below.
1. Sydney is a large and interesting city. It offers visitors a wide variety of sights to
see and things to do (which)
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2. It is full of exotic restaurants. You can enjoy a meal there (where).
3. Sydney is on the southeast coast of Australia. It has one of the busiest harbours in
the country (located)
4. Sydney is an ideal place for a holiday. It has a wonderful blend of cultures and
friendly people (with).
Exercise 11: a. Fill in the gaps in the extracts with adjectives from each list. Which
extract describes an annual event? Which one describes a past event?
fancy- A. Days before the 31 October, children go to (1) ______

st
Well-known,
dress, hand-carved, shops and decide which (2) ______ costumes to buy. Others
scary, colorful, who are more (3) ______ prefer to make their own costumes.
creative These can be anything from (4) ______ monsters to (5)
______ characters from fairy tales. Children also go trick-or-
treating and make (6) ______ lanterns from pumpkins.
Dim, disappointed, B. At the end of the concert, I felt very (1) ______. Not only
poor was the sound quality (2) ______, but also the lighting was so
(3) ______ that we could hardly see the stage. I don’t think I’ll
be attending next year’s Rock Festival.
Glamorous, C. The Academy Awards, also known as the Oscars, take place
glittering, lucky once a year at the end of March in Los Angles. This (1)
______ event is eagerly awaited by millions of fans all over
the world. (2) ______ film stars, musicians and directors
gather under one roof to see who will be the (3) ______ ones
to take home an Oscar.
b. Which paragraph is an introduction, a conclusion or a main body paragraph?
Exercise 12: Write a description of a colleague or fellow student you admire.
Exercise 13: Write a description of the most famous building in your town for the school
magazines.
135
Exercise 14: Describe a wedding anniversary celebration you have recently attended.
(1) Write a first draft of your description.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your description for content and
structure
Have you described with five senses?
Have you used preposition of location?
Have you used suitable and structures for descriptive essay?
Have you read your email again to check spelling and grammar?
(3) Write the second draft of your email/ letter: Make any necessary changes to your
sentences.
The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our readers see, feel, and hear what we
have seen, felt, and heard. Whether we are describing a person, a place, or an event, our
aim is to reveal a subject through vivid and carefully selected details.
In order to get more knowledge on this issue, click the link below to further study:
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zx499j6/revision/1
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/topics/describing-people/term
136

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Identify and distinguish the similarities between

paragraphs and essays
2 Describe with five senses
3 Understand the preposition of location
4 Use some appropriate vocabulary and structured for

specific descriptive essays
5 Write an oriented-paragraph descriptive essay
137
UNIT 5:
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 2 - Unit 5: Comparison Essays A Handbook for Writing 3
COMPARISON ESSAYS
Unit 5: Comparison Essays
 Write a comparison essay;

 Recognize word forms and common suffixes;
 Form the comparative and superlative of adjectives and
adverbs;
 Understand parallel structure;
 Use connectors and transitions in comparison essays.
138
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Write the most appropriate forms of adjectives and adverbs from one set in
each sentence.
Bad/ skilled/ well early/ new/ well-behaved easy/ short/ well-known
Beautiful/ different/ quick fast/ old/ tall good/ likely/ long
1. The _________ you wait, the _________ you are to miss the _________ bargains
in the sale.
2. Our _________ son is _________ than his dad, but our other two haven’t grown
as _________.
3. The _________ group of students is _________ than that other group who stayed
here _________
4. His _________ book is _________ and _________ to read than all the others.
139
5. There are several _________ ways to get to the _________ beach on the other side
of the island, but the _________ way is by boat.
6. I can’t play as _________ as most of the others, but I’m not the _________ player
or the _________ of all those who want to participate.
Exercise 2: Completing this first paragraph of an essay about “fast food” with these
adjectives and adverbs.
Better puzzled as quickly as more easily the best
Faster smaller less beneficial more wasteful the most

important
When did we decide that “more convenient” is (1) _________ way to choose between
two different things to eat? Why do people now want food (2) _________ possible, in
containers that are (3) _________ thrown away? How did (4) _________ is (5)
_________ become our slogan? Don’t we see that this is (6) _________ and much (7)
_________ than making our own food? Is it because we want food to have a much (8)
_________ place in our lives? But isn’t food one of (9) _________ things? Am I the only
one who is (10) _________ by this?
WORD FORMS AND COMMON SUFFIXES
We normally use suffixes to change a word to a different part of speech:

e.g. employ (v) + er = employer (noun)
Here are some common suffixes:
See Appendix 2 to get more information about word forms and common suffixes 140
Exercise 3: Use the word given in capitals at the end of each line to form a word that
fits in the gap in the same line.
Although recently there has been a small reduction in the
number of people out of work in Europe. (1) ……………………. EMPLOY
is still the number one (2) …… problem facing the fifteen member SOCIETY
states of the European Union. Moreover, (3) ………… of opportunity EQUAL
between men and women is still an issue that (4) …. in many countries POLITICAL
have not come to grips with. In (5) …… such as the law and PROFESS
engineering women are still noticeable by their absence. (6) ………. EMPLOY
still discriminate against female (7) …… in a number of ways EMPLOY
even if their (8) ……… are the same as those of men QUALIFY
It would be a pity if the (9) ……. of the EU on an economic ACHIEVE
level were marred by (10) ……. in the vital area of social policy FALL
Exercise 4: Use a suitable form of the verbs below to fill in the spaces in the sentences.
Suggest attract recognize demonstrate
hesitate explain promote cancel
1. The ……………. Between Tom and Mary was immediate.

2. The Oscar award was in …………… of her great acting ability.
3. I can say without …………… that she’s the best student I’ve ever had.
4. He couldn’t give the court any …………… for his strange behavior.
5. I’d like a job with good …………… prospects.
6. We’re fully booked but sometimes there are last-minute ……………
7. Can I make a ……………? Why don’t we hire a car?
8. The students decided to hold a …………… against higher fees.
Exercise 5: Complete the second sentence, using an appropriate form of the

underlined words.
141
1. It was an evening I will always remember. It was a/an ……. evening.

2. We had a marvelous time. I will never forget it. It was ………….
3. She’s always forgetting things. She’s very …………
4. That water is not good enough to drink. It is ………….
5. I find her novels easy to read. Her novels are ……….
6. His ideas are practical and they make sense. His ideas are …………
7. This injection will cause you a little pain. This injection will be a little …….
8. We haven’t given up hope of finding survivors. We are still ………. that survivors
will be found.
9. I can understand her reaction. Her reaction was ………
10. The villagers greeted us with hostility. The villagers gave us a …. reception.
11. He does not easily tolerate other people’s opinions. He is ………
12. She showed such courage, didn’t she? She was …………, wasn’t she?
COMPARISON ESSAYS
A comparison essay compares two or more things, such as two kinds of foods or two types of
restaurant. It shows how they are alike or how they are different. Like all essays, a
comparison essay has an introductory paragraph, body paragraphs and a concluding
paragraph.
1. Introductory paragraph:
 Give general background information;

 Get the readers interested in your topic;
 Clearly state the two things you are going to compare in the thesis statement.
 The thesis statement is the last sentence, says what the rest of the essay will be about.
2. Body paragraphs:
 Compare different aspects of the topic

 Each topic relates directly to the topic in the thesis statement.
 Each topic sentence tells what aspect of the main idea will be compared in that
paragraph.
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COMPARISON ESSAYS
3. Concluding paragraph:
 Restate the thesis statement in the first sentence;

 Summarize the main points of the essay in the next sentences;
 Give your opinion, offer a suggestion or make a prediction about the topic.
Exercise 6: Read the comparison essay excerpt and choose the correct answers
Chinese food is popular worldwide. It has become

VOCABULARY
very popular in the U.S. Some Chinese restaurant in
Adapt (v): to change, or to change
the U.S serve food that is also served in China, but something, to suit different
conditions or uses.
many adapt food to appeal to Americans. Appeal (v): to make a serious or
formal request, especially to the
The way Chinese food is cooked in the U.S. is often public, for money, information or
help.
different from how it is cooked in China… Originally (adv): first of all
Chinese food in China has more variety than it does

in the U.S….
Some Chinese – American foods are not originally from China …
In conclusion, there are some major differences between Chinese and Chinese –
American food. The way the food is cooked can be different. Chinese food has more
variety than Chinese – American food, and some Chinese – American foods are not
found in China.
1. What’s the best thesis statement for the essay?

a. There are three key differences between traditional Chinese food and Chinese-
style foot served in American restaurants.
b. Aside from Chinese foods, many Americans also enjoy a variety of Japanese
food.
c. Americans and Chinese people have identical preferences when it comes to
food.
2. What’s the most appropriate concluding sentence for the essay?
a. Chinese people should learn how to use American ingredients in their cooking.
143
b. Even as Chinese people continue to move to the U.S., it is likely that Chinese –
American food will remain quite different from traditional Chinese food.
c. Chinese restaurants are the best place for Americans to learn about Chinese
culture.
Exercise 7: Read the thesis statement for a comparison essay. Match each supporting
sentences (a-c) with the correct topic sentence (1-3)
Thesis statement: many U.S. – based fast-food chain restaurants adapt their menus in
different countries around the world.
1. Fast-food chain restaurants in certain countries

VOCABULARY often use ingredients other than meat.
Chain (n): a set of connected or 2. Many fast-food chains based in the United
related things.
Topping (n): a substance, States use different toppings for their burgers in
especially a sauce or pieces of
food, that is put on top of other other countries.
food to give extra flavor and to
make it look attractive. 3. U.S. – based chain restaurants also change their
drinks in other countries.
a. In Korea, kimchi is used on hamburgers in chain restaurants. Teriyaki sauce is
used to flavor some burgers in chain restaurants in Japan.
b. In India, some restaurants serve vegetarian hamburgers. In Japan, some pizza
chains put squid on their pizza instead of meat.
c. In some countries, restaurants serve local sodas that are not as sweet as American
sodas.
Exercise 8: Read the thesis statement and number the paragraph excerpts in the most
logical order.
Thesis statement: Jajangmyeon and tangsuyuk are “Chinese” dishes that are popular in
Korea but different from traditional dishes in China.
_____ Tangsuyuk is another Korean – Chinese dish. It has pork, onions, peppers and
pineapples. This dish is also popular in Chinese restaurants in the U.S., but it is not a
traditional dish in China….
144
_____ Jajangmyeon is based on a Chinese dish. The Korean-Chinese dish is different

because the sauce contains a paste made from black soybeans, which are not used in the
Chinese dish.
______ In conclusion, many people in South Korea eat “Chinese” food that is different
from real Chinese food in China. Jajangmyeon and tangsuyuk are three ppopular Korean
– Chinese dishes that differ from traditional Chinese dishes…
PARALLEL STRUCTURE
Parallel structure means using similar patterns when you write. It helps your sentences
flow well, and it makes your writing clearer. Sentences that do not have parallel structure
can sound awkward any may be incorrect.
Use parallel structure in lists of words (like nouns, verbs, or adjectives), in lists of
phrases and in lists of clauses. Use parallel structure in comparison, as well.
PRACTICE
Exercise 9: The sentences below do not have parallel structure. Correct them in the
way suggested.
1. Some women do not want to be thought of as

VOCABULARY
too assertive or behaving aggressively (list of
Assertive (adj): someone who
behaves confidently and is not adjectives).
frightened to say what they want or
believe.
2. Men tended to compliment women more than
Compliment (v): to praise or women are complimenting them (same verb
express admiration for someone.
tenses).
3. Women give each other compliments to build relationships with friends,
relationships with coworkers, and with bosses. (list of phrases starting with
“with”)
Exercise 10: Choose the words that give each sentence parallel structure.
145
1. Research shows that men and women use language differently when they give
compliments and that arguments happen/ when they have arguments/ if they argue
with each other.
2. Women often want to discuss, debate, and solve/ finding solution to/ trying to
solve relationship problems.
3. Men tend to avoid discussing problems or about their feelings/ how they feel/
feelings.
4. Some women think that men rarely listen, that they hardly ever answer questions
and have to be correct/ that they never admit mistakes/ could have been better
listeners.
5. Some say younger men talk about their feelings more than older men talk about
their feelings/ discuss how they feel/ with their feelings.
6. Some people cry to stop an argument, getting what they want/ to get what they
want/ it can help them get what they want, or to avoid problems.
7. When men argue, they can be defensive, with aggression/ who may act
aggressively/ aggressive and angry.
8. When women argue, men may sometimes interpret their words and actions as
confusing, emotional, or indirect/ being indirect/ can be indirect.
9. Some individual psychologist/ psychologists/ who study psychology and language
experts disagree; they do not believe that the way men and women use language to
argue is that different.
10. It is believed that that cultural differences are more significant that arguing
differently/ gender differences/ when people argue.
CONNECTORS AND TRANSITIONS FOR COMPARISON
There are many connectors and transitions that can be used for comparison and contrast.
They fall into the following four major groups. Study them carefully, and note the
necessary punctuation for each type.
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CONNECTORS AND TRANSITIONS FOR COMPARISON
Exercise 11: First, read about the writer Jorge Luis Borges. Then turn to the next page
and use the information about the writer Yukio Mishima to write sentences to compare
and contrast the two writers. Use the transitions given. The first is done for you
Jorge Luis Borges is one of the greatest modern writers in Spanish. Born in Argentina,
he was educated in Europe, and in his early days, he served as a municipal librarian in
Buenos Aires. Borges has written a variety of works, including poetry, essays, film
criticism and short stories. He was at odds with the policies of the Peron government in
Argentina in the 1940s and 1950s. after the Peron government was overthrown, Borges
became a professor of literature at the University of Buenos Aires. Many of his works
have been translated into English and other languages.
1. Yukio Mishima is considered one of the greatest modern Japanese writers.
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Like Like Borges, Mishima is considered one of the greatest modern writers.
Also Borges is a great modern writer. Similarly, Mishima is considered a
great modern writer
Similarly Borges is a great modern writer. Similary, Mishima is considered to be
a great modern writer
2. Mishima was educated in his native country of Japan.
Unlike ……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
But ……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
3. In his early days, Mishima worked for the Finance Ministry.
In contrast to …………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
Whereas …………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
4. Mishima was a prolific writer, authoring short stories, poems, plays, essays and
novels.
Similar to ……………………………………………………………………………………
…
likewise ……………………………………………………………………………………
…
5. Mishima was critical of the Japanese military policies.
In the same way ……………………………………………………………………………

Similarly ……………………………………………………………………………
6. Mishima performed as an actor.
However ……………………………………………………………………………………
…
In contrast ……………………………………………………………………………………
…
7. Many of Mishima’s works have been translated into English and other languages.
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Like ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………
In comparison to ……………………………………………………………………………
………………………
Exercise 12: Review the information about the Borges and Mishima in exercise 11.
Write an essay comparing two famous people – two political leaders, two artists, two
performers, and so on. Be sure to include a thesis expressing your attitude about the
two people
(1) Write a first draft.
(2) Edit: Use the task and language checklist to review your content and structure
Have you prewritten to generate ideas?
Have you chosen related points of comparison or contrast as the basis for
your essays?
Was your thesis statement been written with a strong controlling idea to
introduce the points of comparison that you have chosen?
Have you used appropriate pattern of organization?
Have you used comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs in

your essay?
Have you checked your vocabulary and grammatical structure?
(3) Write the second draft: Make any necessary changes to your sentences.
149
A comparison and contrast essay focuses on how two items or texts are similar, different,
or similar in some ways but different in others. You can compare and contrast any
number of items including theories, events, books or people.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zcf2tyc/revision/2

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Write a comparison essay.
2 Recognize word forms and common suffixes.
3 Form the comparative and superlative of adjectives

and adverbs.
4 Understand parallel structure.
5 Use connectors and transitions for comparison

essays
150
UNIT 6:
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 2 - Unit 6: Cause – Effect Essays A Handbook for Writing 3
Unit 6: Cause – effect essays

CAUSE – EFFECT ESSAYS
Unit 6: Cause – effect essays
 Write a cause – effect essay;

 Learn common cause – effect structures;
 Understand ways of expressing past actions;
 Use preposition combinations with nouns.
151
WAYS OF EXPRESSING PAST ACTIONS
Simple Past:
- states or actions (single or repeated) that - The committee debated the proposals
finished in the past (often given with a
for months.
specific time in the past).
- narration of single past actions in the - The dog ran into the garden and
order they occurred. chased the cat, who climbed up a tree.
Time expressions: ago, last week/ year,
when, then, ect.
Past Simple or Present Perfect?
- We use Present Perfect to refer to past events, but we don’t normally use it when
mentioning a specific past time
e.g. I’ve submitted my application I submitted my application last

week
- With time expressions like “today, this week/ year”, we can use Past Simple if this
time period is finished
e.g. We have only won three matches this season (The season is not over – we may
win more matches)
- With “since”, it is common to use Past Simple in the clause beginning with
“since” and Present Perfect in the main clause.
e.g. Margaret has developed new interest since she left college.
Past Continuous
- Action in progress at a particular I was downloading some files when
moment in the past or at the time the computer crashed.
something else happens.
- Action or situation described as
I was talking to John yesterday and he
background to a more important event.
told me about his new job.
- Temporary action in the past or action
In the summer of 1987, I was working
that was changing or developing.
for a law firm. 152
WAYS OF EXPRESSING PAST ACTIONS
Past Continuous (cont.)

- Annoying or amusing past habit (with When we were at school, Andrew was
always, constantly, forever). always forgetting his lunch.
- Plans that did not happen or expectations I was expecting to hear from you by
that were not fulfilled. Sunday.
- to describe past arrangements that may I was meeting Sally in town so I didn’t
or may not have taken place go to the lecture.
Past Perfect Simple - By the time the reporters arrived on

the scene, the police had solved the
- past action or situation completed before
case.
a time or another action in the past.
- When Jane had checked her
- to make the sequence of event clear.
composition, she printed out again
- with first time/ best/ ever/ never when (First she checked it, then she printed
referring to a situation in the past (similar it).
to Present Perfect).
- My trip to France was the first time I
- unfulfilled wishes/ plans, often with had ever been abroad.
hope, wish, expect, want, think about,
- We’d meant to go and see my aunt
mean to.
but we didn’t have
Past Simple or Past Perfect?
- It is not necessary to use Past Perfect when a sequence of events is related in the
order the events occur or if the chronological order is clear. In this case, we use Past
Simple. We also prefer Past Simple for two actions when the second’s a result of
the first
e.g. The curtain rose and the show began (not: The curtain had risen and the show
began)
- We do not use Past Perfect simply to say that something happened a long time
PRACTICE
153
Exercise 1: Complete the sentences with the verbs given. There may be more than one
answer.
1. Angie didn’t hear a word I said; she was thinking about the party (not hear)
2. I was free last Saturday night because my other plans …………… (fall through)
3. William ………… a magazine when he came across an interesting article about
his home town (read)
4. It was the first time he ………… a motorbike and he was surprised at how
exhilarating the experience was (ride).
5. I couldn’t get together with my friends that evening as I ………… my fiancé (see)
6. Thomas thought he ………… the job and was disappointed to be turned down
(get)
7. I expected Catherine to be tired as she ………… her tennis serve all morning
(practice)
8. When I was working at the hotel, I ………… in the pool there every morning
(swim)
9. Fortunately, the earthquake ………… the building at all (not/ weaken)
10. How many tickets ………… by the end of the first week? (sell)
Exercise 2: Circle the correct answer
NORTALGIA FOR MY CHILDHOOD HOME
When we (1) were moving/ had moved/ moved to our new house near the sea, I was eight
years old. Even before that I (2) was spending/ had spent/ was to spend every summer
messing about on boats. My dad (3) was taught/ had taught/ had been teaching me to sail
before I learnt to ride a bike so I knew how I wanted to spend my time at the new house –
I (4) was going to/ am going to/ had gone to get my own boat and sail it every day. The
house was only a few metres from the water’s edge, and in rough weather the waves (5)
were coming/ would come/ come crashing into our front garden. I (6) was sitting/ had sat/
used to sit with my nose pressed to the glass, fascinated by the power of the ocean. I (7)
grew/ have grown/ have been growing up watching the skies to see if it (8) was going to
rain/ is raining/ rained; would I be going sailing that afternoon or not?
Of course I sometimes wished we could live in the town like my friends. I (9) was to get/
have been getting/ used to get very irritated with my parents, who (10) had taken/ had
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been taken/ have taken early retirement because they (11) had seemed/ seemed/ would
seem incapable of getting anywhere on time. Dad drove me the eight miles to school
every day, but I was often late because he (12) have been walking/ had been walking/
was going to walk on the cliffs earlier in the morning and (13) was losing/ had lost/ lost
track of time. When I (14) was taken/ was taking/ had been taking my university entrance
exams. I (15) used to stay/ had stayed/ had been staying over at a friend’s in town, just in
case. All in all, I was lucky to grow up by the sea and I still love to sail.
Exercise 3: Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first
sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between
three and six words, using the word given.
1. They last employed new staff back in January TAKEN

No new staff …………………………………………………… January
2. The children were out looking for the lost kitten SEARCH
The children were ………………………………………… the lost kitten
3. He predicted a rise in the crime rate GOING
He said that ………………………………………… increase.
4. Tom was once a very rich man DEAL
Tom used ………………………………………… money.
5. It was Anna’s first promotion BEEN
Anna ………………………………………… before
6. I had just picked up the phone to call Simon when he arrived ABOUT
I ………………………………………… a phone call to Simon when he arrived.
7. Jack’s carelessness would often result in accidents FOREVER
Jack was so ………………………………………… accidents.
8. Would you mind checking this report for me? WONDERING
I ………………………………………… check this report for me.
PREPOSITION COMBINATIONS WITH NOUNS
Basically, prepositions are connecting words that join objects to other parts of
sentences. Preposition choice is determined by the noun which precedes it.
English has many examples of prepositions coming after nouns. In such cases, the
prepositions are often followed by a phrase containing a noun.
e.g. Scientists at the research institute think they are close to finding a solution to the
problem.
Here are a few more nouns and prepositions which are used together. 155
The use of a solution to influence on evidence of
The cost of an increase in a possibility of danger of
The price of a reason for a supply of a method of
Exercise 4: Complete the following sentences using appropriate preposition
1. We had little hope ………. Success; nonetheless, we decided to perform the

operation.
2. The cash-for-vote scandal did a lot of harm ……… his reputation as a
conscientious politician.
3. We had to find a substitute ……… it.
4. We should deem it as an attack ……… our right to privacy.
5. In many cities the cost ……… living is pretty high.
6. We would like to see a big increase ……… productivity.
7. I have no interest ……… politics.
8. I have no faith ……… her capabilities.
9. I have heard that the government is planning to raise the tax ……… automobiles.
10. I admire their way ……… doing things.
WHAT IS A CAUSE – EFFECT ESSAY?
A cause – effect essay tells how one event (the cause) leads to another event (the
effect)
A cause – effect essay can do one of two things:
 It can analyze the ways in which one or more effects result from a particular
cause (Focus-on-Effects Method).
 It can analyze the ways in which one or more causes lead to a particular effect
(Focus-on-Causes Method).
There are two basic ways to organize a cause-effect essay: focus-on-effects and focus-
on-causes. For example, if you are assigned a topic about global warming, you can
develop your essay into one of two following ways:
 In a focus-on-effects essay, you would write about the threatened habitat of

polar bears as a result of global warming and the melting of large parts of the156
Arctic Circle. Your essay might include five paragraphs and look like this:
 In a focus-on-causes essay, you would write about the causes of global

warming, such as excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In this case, the
organization for this essay could have five paragraphs and look like this:
PRACTICE
157
Exercise 5: Read the following passage, and then answer the questions
What risks are involved in Tattooing?
Despite the obvious popularity of body art, several

VOCABULARY
complications can result from tattooing. Tattooing can
Complication (n): something that
makes a situation more difficult or cause infections. Unsterile tattooing equipment and
the act of doing this.
Inflection (n): a disease in a part
needles can transmit infectious disease, such as
of your body that is caused by hepatitis; thus the American Association of Blood
bacteria or a virus.
Unsterile (adj): able to produce Banks requires a one-year wait between getting a
young or produce plants or crops.
Hepatitis (n): a serious disease of tattoo and donating blood. Even if the needles are
a liver.
Pigment (n): a substance that sterilized or never have been used, the equipment that
gives something a particular color
when it is present in it or is added
holds the needles may not be sterilized reliably due to
to it. its design. In addition, a tattoo must be cared for
Painstaking (adj): extremely
careful and correct,, and involving properly during the first week or so after the pigments
a lot of effort.
Granulomas (n): a small lump of are injected.
fleshy tissue that forms after
injury, infection or inflammation. Tattooing involves removal problems. Despite
Keloid (n): a scar that grows
bigger and more lumpy than the advances in laser technology, removing a tattoo is a
wound it is healing.
Trauma (n): a severe emotional painstaking process, usually involving several
shock and pain caused by an
extremely upsetting experience. treatments and considerable expense. Complete
removal without scarring may be impossible.
Although allergic reactions to tattoo pigments are rare, when they happen they may be
particularly troublesome because the pigments can be hard to remove. Occasionally,
people may develop an allergic reaction to tattoos they have had for years.
Tattoos may also result in granulomas and keloids. Granulomas are nodules that may
form around material that the body perceives as foreign, such as particles of tattoo
pigment. If you are prone to developing keloids – scars that grow beyond normal
boundaries – you are at risk of keloid formation from a tattoo. Keloids may form any
time you injure or traumatize your skin. According to experts, tattooing or
micropigmentation is a form of trauma, and keloids occur more frequently as a
consequence of tattoo removal.
1. The best meaning of the word “pigments” as used in sentence 5 is
158
a. Infections b. protections c. dyes d. skin

2. Based on information in the passage, we may infer that
a. Most tattoo artists do not properly sterilize their instruments.
b. The government certifies tattoo artists.
c. Clients should question tattoo artists about their procedure.
3. The sentence that best states the central idea of the passage is
a. Sentence 1 b. sentence 2 c. Sentence 5 d. sentence 12
4. The relationship between sentence 11 and 12 is one of
a. Definition b. cause and effect c. time order d. addition
5. The relationship of the ideas within sentence 3 is
a. Definition b. cause and effect c. time order d. comparison and contrast
6. What is the overall thought pattern of the passage?
b. Comparison and contrast b. cause and effect c. time order d. definition
7. Sentence 6 is a .…..
a. Main idea b. major supporting detail c. minor supporting detail
8. The author’s main purpose is the passage is
a. To inform with objective details
b. To entertain with graphic details.
c. To persuade with pessimistic details.
9. Complete the outline below with information from the passage.
Central idea: ………………………………………………………………………
I. Tattooing can cause infections
II. Tattooing involves removal problems
III. ………………………………………………………………………………
IV. Tattooing may result in granulomas and keloids.
Exercise 6: Read the essay below then answer the questions
The fact that the world’s cities are getting more and more crowded is well-known, cities
such as Tokyo, Sao Paulo, Bombay and Shanghai are now considered “mega-cities”,
because of their enormous size and huge populations. There are two main reason why
these and other cities are becoming so crowded, one economic, the other socio-cultural.
159
First, the primary cause of cities becoming so crowded is economic. as a country

develops, its cities become the engines of development, thus jobs are available in these
areas. Frankfurt, Istanbul, Bombay and Sao Paolo are all the economic centers of their
countries. For example, Tokyo was the motor for Japan’s rapid economic development in
the 1960’s and 70’s; as a result, its population increased rapidly. People moved to Tokyo
because they could find employment and establish economic security for themselves and
their families there.
Second, another factor in the huge increase in urban populations is the socio-cultural
factor. Thousands of people migrate to the cities not only for jobs but also for
educational and personal reasons. The better universities are always located in big cities
and this attracts thousands of students every year, and these students stay on and work in
the city after they graduate. Moreover, young people will move to the city as the villages
and rural areas are more custom and tradition oriented. Therefore, young people believe
this is an obstacle to their personal freedom.
In conclusion, economic and cultural factors are the major causes of huge urban
population. People will always move to the areas which provide opportunity and to the
places which can give them the freedom they desire.
1. What is the thesis sentence of the essay?

2. What are the topic sentences?
3. What is the concluding sentence?
4. Did the writer include some thoughts or opinions about the causes of
overcrowding?
Exercise 7: Read each topic sentence and supporting sentence from a cause-effect
essay. Write C if it gives a Cause (Why)? Or E if it gives an Effect (What happened)?
1. Some people are motivated by money.

_____ One reason is that it makes people feel powerful.
2. JazzyMart is not very successful company.
_____ They are not successful because of the fact that they do not motivate their
employees.
3. The company JazzyMart does not motivate its employees.
____ Therefore, the employees often arrive late to work.
160
4. Some people have problems being motivated.

____ For example, some people struggle with motivation due to depression.
5. Many people suffer from depression, which can lead to various problems
____ Consequently, these people may not be as motivated to improve their
performance at work.
6. Recently, many companies lost money and suffered financially.
____ The major reason was the poor economy.
7. Achievement motivates many people to be successful.
____ As a result, these people find rewards at work to be very meaningful.
8. Some people are motivated by fear.
____ For this reason, they are successful, but they also have a great deal of stress
in their life.
Exercise 8: Read the topic sentences about why people are motivated. Choose six
sentences that support the main idea.
Topic sentence: There are many reasons why people are motivated at work.
a. Interesting tasks are one cause of strong motivation.

b. For example, employees may be motivated to finish a project if it is
creative.
c. Creative people often have higher salaries than people who are not creative.
d. Because of the fact that people like to feel comfortable at work, employees
are sometimes motivated by a friendly boss.
e. If it is possible to ask a boss questions, employees may want to work
harder.
f. As a result, NowTech hires only highly educated managers.
g. A third factor that motivates people at work is positive feedback.
h. People want to continue to do well when they are told they are doing a
good job
COMMON CAUSE-EFFECT STRUCTURES
1. Nouns (+ preposition): One _____ insomnia is stress. Another _____ may be

161
eating too much before going to bed.
Cause (of) reason (for)
COMMON CAUSE-EFFECT STRUCTURES
4. Transition + preposition: Financial problems can occur _____ health issues.

Due to because of as a result of
5. Nouns: One _____ of stress is an inability to sleep
Effect result outcome consequence
6. Verbs:
Insomenia may _____ one’s concentration.
Affect impact influence have an influence on
Have an impact on
Stress often _____ serious problems.
Results in contributes to brings about
Leads to gives rise to is the reason for
7. Transitions:
Mood can be affected by the weather. _____ many people feel sad when there is a
long period of rainy days.
Consequently, therefore, as a consequence, thus,
PRACTICE:
Exercise 9: Choose the best answer:
1. Mixing all wavelengths of visible light causes/ results in/ produces white light.
2. White light is caused by/ is a result of/ is produced by mixing all wavelengths of
visible light.
162
3. If/ when/ as all wavelengths of visible light are mixed, white light is produced.
4. When light is produced if/ when/ as all wavelengths of visible light are mixed.
Exercise 10: In each of the following sentences, find out which is cause and which is
effect?
1. When copper is heated to 1083oC, it melts.

2. Changes occur in plants when they absorb energy from the sun.
3. The burning of wood results in ashes.
4. Color can be produced by the reflection of light.
CAUSE – AND – EFFECT LINKING WORDS
1. Conjunctions:
The most important conjunction are “because, as, since, so”. “Because, as, since”
introduce a cause, “so” introduces an effect. These are used to join two complete
sentences (or independent clauses) together. They are often used like this:
e.g. I stayed at home because it was raining.
It was raining, so I stayed at home.
2. Transitions:
The most important transitions are “therefore, consequently, as a result”. All of these
introduce an effect. These are used to join two complete sentences (or independent
clauses) together. They are often used like this:
e.g. It was raining; therefore, I stayed home.
It was raining. Consequently, I stayed at home.
3. Prepositions:
The most important prepositions are “due to, because of”. Both of these introduce a
cause in the form of a noun phrase.
e.g. I stayed at home due to the rain.
Because of the rain, I stayed at home.
Exercise 11: Use the following cause/ effect transition words to complete the sentences
below. Some words may be used more than once.
For example, so consequently as a result since
Result in then therefore lead to because led to

163
1. If you are caught driving too fast, ______ you will get a speeding ticket.
2. High fuel costs ______ higher food prices and the loss of many jobs.
3. It was raining and I missed my bus; ______, I got wet and missed my test.
4. A woman’s use of alcohol during pregnancy can ______ birth defects in an unborn
child.
5. John ate too fast. ______, he had a stomachache.
6. I was going some really difficult homework. ______, a cake in the oven burned.
7. They have been so happy ______ they won first prize in the lottery last year.
8. Some water pipes under the house broke this morning, ______ we had no water
for hours.
9. Some people built their houses very close to the beach. ______, they have had to
spend a lot of money trying to protect them from the sea during storms.
10. ______ Larry’s car stereo was on so loud, I could see his mouth moving, but I had
no idea what he was saying.
11. David is very poor football player; ______, he should be kicked off the team.
12. Families that move and change homes often put a strain on young people, who
often grow up feeling they have no real home and no real friends; ______, crime,
divorce, and other social problems have increased in recent times.
13. Exercising provides many positive health benefits for adults. ______, adults who
exercise tend to have a lower incidence of heart attacks than adults who don’t
exercise.
14. Many families take to the roads in July and August, when they traditionally go on
vacation. ______, oil companies raise the price of gasoline during these months.
15. Job opportunities ______ the movement of people from the countryside to the
cities.
16. Your teeth are badly decayed, ______ they will have to be removed.
17. Cedric was a chocolate fanatic, and he ate all kinds of snacks. ______, he became
incredibly overweight.
Choose one of the following topics to write a cause-effect essay writing.
 What are the causes and effects of overcrowding in cities?

164
 Why do many people prefer foreign food?

 Discuss how people’s childhood experiences influence their lives.
 What are the effects of poverty?
 What are the causes and effects of traffic jam?
Have you used suitable phrases and structures to give causes and effects?
Have you read your essay again to check spelling and grammar?
Are all the words spelled correctly?
Is the first word of every sentence capitalized?
Does every sentence end with the correct punctuation?
Do your subjects and verbs agree?
Have you used past tenses to express past actions?
Have you used preposition combinations with nouns?
Have you included a thesis statement that contains a clear topic and points
of development?
Has your body paragraph got a clear topic sentence?
Has the concluding paragraph had words and phrases that signal the end ò
the essay?
Has the conclusion restated the main points of development?
(3) Write the second draft: Make any necessary changes to your sentences.
165
Writers need to bring attention to lexical variation, increase range of cause and effect
phrases and topic related vocabulary to write a good cause-effect essay.
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/category/grammar/linking-words-cause-and-effect.
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar/linking-words-cause-and-effect/term
https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/course/intermediate/unit-10/session-2/activity-1.
166

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Write a cause – effect essay
2 Understand and use common cause – effect

structures
3 Understand ways of expressing past actions
4 Use preposition combinations with nouns
167
Chapter 2: Studying Materials – Section 2 - Unit 7: Classification Essays A Handbook for Writing 3
UNIT 7:
Unit 7: Classification essays
CLASSIFICATION ESSAYS
 Write a classification essay;

 Understand connectors and transitions;
 Understand the passive voice;
 Understand adjective clauses.
168
PASSIVE VOICE
We form the Past Simple passive like this:

S + was/ were + P2
e.g. Romeo and Juliet was written by Shakespeare.
The goods weren’t delivered yesterday.
When was your camera stolen?
We use the passive when it is not important who does the action, or when we don’t
know who does it.
e.g. This castle was built in the 12th century.
PRACTICE
Exercise 1: Change the active sentences into passive sentences.
1. Thomas Edison invented the electric light bulb.

2. Someone painted the office last week.
3. Several people saw the accident.
4. Where did they make these cars?
5. Six countries signed the agreement.
6. A stranger helped me.
7. They didn’t deliver the post on Sundays.
8. We sold tickets for all the shows at the box office.
Exercise 2: Complete the text using the correct active or passive form in brackets.
Fiat was started by a group of Italian businessmen in 1899. In 1903, Fiat (1) ___
(produced/ was produced) 132 cars. Some of these cars (2) ___ (exported/ were exported)
to the United States and Britain. In 1920, Fiat (3) ___ (started/ was started) making cars
at a new factory at Lingotto, near Turin. There was a track on the factory roof where the
cars (4) ___ (tested/ were tested) by technicians. In 1936, Fiat launched the Fiat 500. This
car (5) ___ (called/ was called) the Topolino – the Italian name for Mickey Mouse. The
company grew, and in 1963 Fiat (6) ___ (exported/ was exported) more than 300,000
169
vehicles. Today, Fiat is based in Turin, and its cars (7) ___ (sold/ are sold) all over the
world.
Exercise 3: Complete the sentences using the information in brackets and “who,
which”
1. (A dog bit me. It belonged to Mrs. Jones)

 The dog ……………………………… belonged to Mrs. Jones.
2. (A woman wrote to me. She wanted my advice)
 The woman ……………………………. wanted my advice.
3. (A bus crashed. It was 23 years old)
 The bus ………………………………. was 23 years old.
4. (Anna talked to a man. He had won a lot of money)
 Anna talked to the man ………………………………….
170
5. (Mary was wearing the red dress. She wears it for parties)
 Mary was wearing the red dress …………………………….
6. (He’s an architect. He designed the new city library)
 He’s the architect ………………………………………..
Exercise 4: Put one suitable word in each space, or leave the space blank where
possible.
Murder at the station by Lorraine Small. Episode 5. Trouble on the 6.15. the story so far:
Jane Platt, (1) who is travelling to London because of a mysterious letter, is the only
person (2) ………. witnesses a murder at Victoria Station. The detective to (3) ………
she gives her statement then disappears. Jane goes to an office in Soho to answer the
letter (4) ……… she had received. There she discovers that her uncle Gordon, (5)
……… lives in South America, has sent her a small box (6) ……… she is only to open if
in trouble. Jane, (7) ……… parents have never mentioned an Uncle Gordon, is
suspicious of the box, (8) ……… she gives to her friend Tony. They go to Scotland Yard
and see Inspector Groves, (9) ……… has not heard of the Victoria Station murder. (10)
……… was not reported to the police. Jane gives Inspector Groves the murdered man’s
ticket (11) ……… she found beside his body. Then Jane and Tony decide to go to
Redhill, (12) ……… was the town (13) ……… the murdered man had come from. On
the train they meet a man, (14) ……… face is somehow familiar to Jane, (15) ………
says he knows her Uncle Gordon.
CLASSIFICATION ESSAYS
Classification is writing that organizes, or sorts, people or items into categories. It uses
an organizing principle: how the people or items are sorted. The organizing principle
is directly related to the purpose for classifying.
e.g. you might sort clean laundry (your purpose) using one of the following organizing
principles: by ownership (yours, your roommate’s) or by where it goes (the bedroom,
the bathroom).
Four basics of good classification:

171
 it makes sense of a group of people or items by organizing them into
categories.
 It has a purpose for sorting the people or items
PRACTICE
Exercise 5: For each topic that follows, one of the

categories does not fit the same organizing
principle as the rest. Circle the letter of the category
that does not fit, and in the space provided write the
organizing principle that the rest follows.
1. Topic: Relatives
Categories:
a. aunts b. uncles c. sisters d. nieces
Organizing principle: …………………………
2. Topic: Jobs
Categories:
a. weekly b. hourly c. monthly d. summer
3. Topic: Animals
a. dogs b. cats c. rabbits d. whales
Exercise 6: In the items that follow, you are given a

topic and a purpose for sorting. For each item, list
three useful categories (there are more than three
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correct categories for each item).
1. Topic: Animals in a pet shop
Purpose for sorting: to decide what kind of pet to get
Categories: ……………………………………
2. Topic: College courses
Purpose for sorting: to decide what I will register for
Categories: ……………………………………
3. Topic: Stuff in my notebook
Purpose for sorting: to organize my schoolwork
Categories: ……………………………………
4. Topic: Wedding guests
Purpose for sorting: to arrange seating at tables.
Categories: ……………………………………
5. Topic: Clothing
Purpose for sorting: to get rid of some clothes.
Categories: ……………………………………
SUPPORT IN CLASSIFICATION
In classification, support consists of the categories you sort information into and the
examples of things that fit into each category. First, you need to choose useful
categories; then, you need to find the best examples and explanations for these
categories.
The categories you choose for your classification tell your readers how you are
organizing your topic. First, find useful categories. Then, give examples of things that
fit into each category.
ORGANIZATION IN CLASSIFICATION
Classification can be organized in different ways depending on its purpose.

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Exercise 7: For each of the three items, read the topic sentence/ thesis statement and
purpose. Then, fill in the likely type of organization.
1. Topic sentence/ thesis: three kinds of crime are committed in this neighborhood.
Purpose: to describe the kinds of crime
Likely organization: ……………………………………………………
2. Topic sentence/ thesis: clothes selling at 60 percent off were all over the store.
Purpose: to tell about where the clothes on sale are located.
3. Topic sentence/ thesis: in the last ten years, many styles of jeans have been
popular.
Purpose: to describe jean styles over the last ten years.
COMMON TRANSITIONS IN CLASSIFICATION
Another another kind for example for instance
First, second, third, and so on last one example/ another example
PRACTICE
Exercise 8: Read the paragraph that follows, and fill in the blanks with transitions.
You are not limited to the ones listed in the preceding box.
Every day, I get three kinds of email: work, personal and junk. The (1) …………… of
email, work, I have to read carefully and promptly. Sometimes, the messages are
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important ones directed to me, but mostly they are group messages about meetings,
policies or procedures. (2) …. of email, personal, is from friends or my mother. These I
read when I get a chance, but I read them quickly and delete any that are jokes or
messages that have to be sent to ten friends for good luck. (3) ……………. of email is
the most common and most annoying: junk. I get at least thirty junk emails a day,
advertising all kinds of things that I do not want, such as life insurance or baby products.
Even when I reply asking that the company stop sending me these messages, they keep
coming. Sometimes, I wish email did not exist.
Exercise 9: Write a classification essay on the following topic
Classify the types of friends you have.
Does the introduction tell what is being classified?
Does each body paragraph explain a different category?
Are the categories arranged according to one unifying principle?
Does the conclusion restate the three categories?
Does the essay have passive form?
Does the essay have adjective clause?
Does the essay have transition words?
Did you read your essay again to check for grammatical and spelling
mistakes?
(3) Write the second draft of your essay: Make any necessary changes to your sentences.
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Classification and division is a rhetorical style that, in essay format, takes a whole and
splits it up into parts and the places the divided information into various categories.
https://eltngl.com/assets/downloads/gw_pro0000009081/greatwriting_b3_u4.pdf
https://owl.excelsior.edu/rhetorical-styles/classification-and-division-essay/

I can…
1 2 3 4 5
1 Identify classification essay
2 Understand and know how to use classifying and

dividing connectors and transitions
3 Understand and know how to use the passive voice
4 Understand know how to use adjective clauses
4 Use some appropriate vocabulary and structured for

specific classified essays
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5 Write an oriented-paragraph classified essay
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Chapter 3: Test-taking Strategies & Sample Test A Handbook for Writing 3
CHAPTER 3: TEST - TAKING STRATEGIES & SAMPLE TEST
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Chapter 4: Practice Tests
A. AN OVERVIEW OF VSTEP STANDARDIZED WRITING TEST AT UNETI
1. Key concepts
The VSTEP is a standardized test designed to measure the English proficiency of
students at UNETI. The test is based on the Common Europe Framework of Reference
for Languages (CEFR) and be relevant to the context of English use at UNETI.
2. Exam format
Writing 3 is a compulsory subject for linguistics second-year students; thus, it is believed
that they need to achieve level B2. It is a VSTEP standardized writing test and taken as a
paper-based test at UNETI.
The writing test aims to check how students use structure, vocabulary, spelling and
punctuation and build sentences with either complex and compound clauses, complete a
letter and write an academic essay. The exam format has been approved and promulgated
according to No.1481/QĐ/BGDĐT on May 10th, 2016 by Ministry of Education and
Training, achieved from
http://ngoainguquocgia.moet.gov.vn/van-ban/id/111/moduleId/527/control/Open
The following are details about the test for Writing 3 at UNETI.
Time 60 minutes
allowed
It is suggested that student spend approximately 20 minutes on Task 1
and 40 minutes on Task 2
Procedure The writing test is held in an examination room. Students will be given
a question booklet consisting the answer part.
Structure Two tasks
Word length Task 1: 120 words minimum
Task 2: 250 words minimum
Task 1 Students have to write a letter describing a situation and requesting

someone to do something.
Task 2 Students have to write an essay on a given topic, presenting ideas that
are relevant to the issue.
Skills focus Task 1: writing a letter, using an appropriate and consistent tone.
Task 2: writing a longer essay that has a clear and logical structure.
Scoring Students will receive a band score between 0 and 10 depending on how
their response matches the task criteria.
3. Band score and Rubrics for assessment

The expected response should be described clearly in terms of the criterial in line with the
band score that will be used to judge it. Therefore, the aspects such as the basis of task
response, coherence & cohesion, lexical resource and grammatical range & accuracy
should be disclosed to the test takers in the directions.
The following is the band score for the final test of Writing 3.
Task 1 Task 2
Band score 4 6
Examiners award a band score for each of four areas with equal weighting. Those tasks
are assessed and evaluated with four criteria, each of which is accounted for 25% of total
scores. In details:
10% 15% 20% 25%

Task + The main + The main + The main + The main
Response content is not content is content is content is
clearly mentioned; mentioned; mentioned;
mentioned; + The main + The main + The key
+ The main issues issues are issues are issues are
are not yet fully highlighted emphasized emphasized and
mentioned; appropriately; clearly; implemented
+ There is too + The + The well;
much detailed information is information is + All the
information; chosen accurate; requirements are
+ The appropriately; + A few issues fulfilled.
information is + Some can be
inaccurate. information developed
may not be better.
accurate.
Coherence & + The way of + The ideas are + The + Information
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Cohesion implementing the organized information is and ideas are

paragraph is coherently; organized organized
restrictive; logically; logically;
+ The paragraph
+ Unsuitable + The + The
is implemented
connectors are paragraph is organization is
logically;
used. organized clear and full of
+ Connectors logically; function;
are used + Connectors + The literary
effectively; are used style is apparent
copiously; and logic.
+ There is still
+ Too much or
errors of using
too few
connectors
connectors are
among
used.
sentences.
Lexical + The vocabulary + The + The + The use of
resource is not consistent vocabulary is vocabulary is vocabulary is
and diversified; rich; used quite rich and precise;
+ The collocation accurately; + Difficult
+ Some difficult
or word form is + Difficult words are used
but
not accurate; words are used; appropriately;
inappropriate
+ The collocation + Some + Misspelling or
words are used;
makes readers compound wrong word
confused. + There are a words are used; form is rarely
few errors in + Misspelling made.
spelling and and wrong
collocation; collocation are
rarely used.
+ The content is
easy to
understand.
Grammatical + Sentence + Simple and + Complex and + Various
range and structure is complex simple sentence
accuracy simple; sentences are sentences are structures are
+ Some complex combined; used used
sentences are abundantly; abundantly;
+ There are a
used but + There are + Most
few
incorrect; many errors in sentences are
grammatical
+ There are many free sentences; not defective.
errors;
grammatical + Grammatical
errors; + There are a errors and
+ There are some few punctuation punctuation
punctuation errors; marks are rarely
errors; caught.
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+ Some ideas + The writing is

make readers easy to
confused. understand.
B4. Writing exam

There are two ways for students to take final exam for Writing test 3. An offline exam is
scheduled on a specific date when candidates gather and sit for a handwriting test.
However, the online examination is compulsory for UNETI students due to Covid 19
pandemic. LMS software has been researched and carried out to organize the online test.
Therefore, it is significant to provide them with several basic knowledge on the LMS
online test.
First off, students sign in their ID, move to the week with the final test assigned. When
they click the practice test, another information box appears as follow.
On the day of the test, students can get access to it at the scheduled time. The information
in accordance with the time limit is displayed on the screen.
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After clicking “start”, students can do their test. Each question appears in the order of
task 2 (writing a letter) and task 2 (writing an essay). Students can choose to complete the
task 1 or 2 first.
Students can finish their test by submitting and confirming in two below steps
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. Ttaking strategies-TAKING STRATEGIES
1. General test-taking tips
Here are some suggestions about how to manage the test as successfully as possible.
1.1. Manage your time
It is important to manage your time in the test, because if you don’t complete both tasks,
you have no chance of achieving your required band score. The test advises you to spend
20 minutes on Task 1 and 40 minutes on Task 2. You should follow this advice. As Task
2 is worth a greater percentage of your final writing mark, it is a good idea to start with
Task 2.
1.2. Read the task and plan your answer
Begin by reading the tasks carefully and considering what is required. Before you begin
to write, take one or two minutes to plan what you are going to write. You will get a
higher band score for a well-structured answer.
1.3. Meet the minimum number of words
You will automatically get a lower mark if you fail to reach the minimum number of
words for each task. You will also be given credit for writing more than the word limit. In
Task 1 you should write at least 120 words and in Task 2 you should write at least 250
words.
1.4. Check your answers
When you have finished writing, it is important to go back and check your work, so leave
yourself some time to do this. You are working under pressure, so you may well make
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simple mistakes. Leave yourself time to edit both answers. If you have made a mistake,
cross it out and correct it. You will not lose marks for poor presentation. However, do
make sure that your writing can be read clearly.
2. Getting to know the test
2.1. Test-taking strategies for Task 1
2.1.1. What do I have to do?
In Task 1, you are asked to write a 120-word letter. You should spend about 20 minutes
on the task. You will be given a task card, which describes a situation and includes key
points. Your letter should address the situation on the task card and the instruction (sub-
tasks) given in the key points.
It is important that you remember who you are writing the letter to, and that you use
appropriate language.
2.1.2. How do I approach Task 1?
 Write at least 120 words;

 Explain the purpose of the letter;
 Keep your answer on topic and cover all the key points.
 Write in full sentences, and do not use bullet points;
 Relate your answer directly to the task card;
 Use a consistent tone;
 Check your writing to correct any mistakes.
2.2. Test-taking strategies for Task 2
2.2.1. What do I have to do?
In Task 2, you are asked to write an essay discussing an issue. The essay should be at
least 250 words in length. You have 40 minutes to complete the task.
The task card will give you a statement explaining or giving an opinion about a situation.
There will then be a question about this statement. Finally, you are asked to explain your
answer using examples from your knowledge or experience. Your essay should have a
clear structure and should clearly answer the specific question on the task card.
2.2.2. How do I approach Task 2?

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Remember that it is a good idea to start with Task 2, as it contributes more to your overall
score.
 Write at least 250 words;

 Make sure your writing is directly connected to the task and question;
 Give a clear opinion or write a clear description;
 Write in paragraphs using topic sentences;
 Organize your answer into a logical structure and make sure each sentence
contributes to your argument or response.
 Do not only write in simple sentences – include some complex sentences, even if
this means you make a few mistakes.
 Use more complex vocabulary, even if you sometimes make errors in word form.
 Write a conclusion that is consistent with your essay.
2.3. Practicing for specific sections of the test

If you are going to get a good band score in the Writing 3 test, it is important that you
expand your study. It may be a good idea to work together with other students from your
class or friends who are also taking the writing test. This way you can learn from each
other and help to correct each other’s mistakes. If you have other people with whom to
work, it will help to keep you motivated.
2.3.1. Practicing Task 1 – Writing letters
To practice for Task 1, you can design or get a study partner to design situations where
you would need to write letters. Another way to practice is to use newspaper or the
Internet to find advertisement for jobs, services or courses for which you can apply;
practice writing applications for these. You can also imagine you are unhappy with the
services supplied somewhere and write a letter of complaint.
After that, you can depend on the Task 1 following checklist to correct your own writing.
TASK 1 CHECKLIST
1. Task achievement
 Have you covered all the key points in the question?
 Have you used the correct tone in your letter? For example, the
language you use will be different if you are writing to a friend or
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writing to your manager at work.
2. Coherence and cohesion (organizing your ideas logically)
 Does your letter follow a logical order?
 Have you used linking words to join the sentences?
 Have you substituted nouns with pronouns and used relative clauses?
3. Lexical resource (using appropriate vocabulary)
 Have you used a wide range of task-related vocabulary?
 Have you used the vocabulary correctly?
 Have you shown evidence of a good (wide range of) vocabulary?
4. Grammatical range and accuracy
 Have you used a wide range of grammatical structures?
 Have you used them correctly?
2.3.2. Practicing Task 2 – Writing essays
To practice for Task 2, you can write essays about news stories you find from
newspapers, television, the Internet or other media sources. In your essays, you should
describe the events and give your opinion about them. If possible, get your teacher or an
English-speaking friend to check your work.
You can depend on the Task 2 following checklist to correct your own writing.
TASK 2 CHECKLIST
1. Task achievement
 Have you answered all parts of the question?
 Have you given an opinion?
2. Coherence and cohesion (organizing your ideas logically)
 Have you divided your response into paragraphs?
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 Have you used linking words to join your sentences together?
 Have you paraphrased key words?
 Have you used a mix of complex, compound and simple sentences?
3. Lexical resource (using appropriate vocabulary)
 Have you used a wide range of task-related vocabulary?
 Have you used the vocabulary correctly?
 Have you shown evidence of a wide range of vocabulary?
4. Grammatical range and accuracy
 Have you used a wide range of grammatical structures?
 Have you used them correctly?
C. WRITING TEST SAMPLES
Task 1: This is part of a letter you receive from an Australia friend.
I’ve just joined a film club. We watched and discuss film from
different countries. What kinds of films are popular in your
country? Can you guess a good film for our club to watch? Why do
you like it?
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task. Write about 120 words
Sample A
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Criteria Percent Examiner comments

Task responses 20% The content is relevant to the task but the candidate has not
addressed the first task point. The target reader is informed
on the whole.
Uses the conventions of the communicative task
(appropriate register and an attempt at letter format) to
communicate straightforward ideas.
Coherence & 20% The text is generally well organized and coherent. Basic
cohesion linking words (but, and, because) and some cohesive
devices (you wanted me to suggest to you; Well, a girl who
come to Poker Club) but the range is quite limited. The
lack of paraphrasing makes it more difficult for the reader.
Lexical 10% Basic vocabulary and some less common words (Russian
resource Roulette; favourite) are used appropriately and spelling is
accurate.
Grammatical 10% Simple grammatical forms are used with some degree of
range and control but there are a number of distracting errors which
accuracy obscure the message (to suggest you; a girl who come to
Poker Club and play Poker; she don’t know how to play;
become popular, actors play very good).
Sample B
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Criteria Mark Examiner comments

Task responses 20% All the content is relevant to the task. The target reader is
fully informed.
The conventions of the communicative task (appropriate
register and letter format) are used in generally appropriate
ways and the target reader’s attention is mostly held.
There is some distraction in the middle of the second
paragraph.
Coherence & 15% The text is connected and coherent, using basic (and, but
cohesion (which is overused)) and a number of cohesive devices (I’ll
try to help you, some people, a very peculiar one, I hope
you will enjoy it).
Lexical 15% Everyday vocabulary is used generally appropriately and
resource there is some less common lexis (tend to, poem).
Grammatical 15% Simple grammatical forms are used with a reasonable
range and degree of control (wich hasn’t got music or speaking)
accuracy
There are some noticeable errors throughout (terrorific,
wich) some of which impede (there are interesting in all for
your club; of japonian director).
Sample C
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Task responses 20% The candidate has addressed both task points with some
expansion but has given information about more than one
film. The target reader is not fully informed about the
second point.
The conventions of the communicative task are used to hold
the target reader’s attention. The text is in suitable letter
format and appropriate register throughout. Straightforward
ideas are communicated effectively.
Coherence & 25% The text is connected and coherent using a variety of basic
cohesion linking words (but, and, because) and cohesive devices
(your letter where, these films, for example, it’s a detective
film, all the films)
Lexical 25% A range of everyday vocabulary appropriately used with
resource some less common lexis (explosions, comedies, detective
film).
Grammatical 20% There is a range of simple and some complex grammatical
range and forms with a good degree of control (I don’t like these
accuracy films, I know a good film, Red Hear with Arnold
Swarzeneger, you should watch all these because they are
all interesting.
There are a few minor errors which do not impede
communication (recieved, recomend)
Task 2:
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Tobacco, mainly in the form of cigarettes, is one of the most widely-used drugs in the
world. Over a billion adults legally smoke tobacco every day. The long term health
costs are high – for smokers themselves, and for the wider community in terms of
health care and lost productivity.
Do government have a legitimate role to legislate to protect citizens from the harmful
effects of their own decisions to smoke, or are such decisions up to the individual?
Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own
knowledge or experience. You should spend about 40 minutes on this task and write
about 250 words
Sample A
Cigarettes is one kind of tobacco which actually is one of

the most widely-used drugs in the world. It is common in
our everyday lives for that there are so many people
smoking. However, nowadays more and more people pay
much attention to their healthes, so the concept of
“Smoking is unhealthy” is accepted by most people who
reject in smoking. But there are still over a billion adults
legally
smoke tobacco every day that will costs a lot both for smokers themselves and for the
wider community in terms of health care costs and lost productivity. Do governments
have a legitimate role to legislate to protect citizens from the harmful effects of
smoking? The answer will be yes for most of people. The first, smoking will do harm
for smokers’ health. The second, somking will do harm for people who are around
smokers such as families. And smoking is always a lead of a fire desaster. There are
many reasons to restrict smoking. The point is how to do this. We know that every
policy will make a consequence. If government shut down the tobacco facotories, it
will definitely increase the price of cigarettes which will affect smokers—over a billion
people—heavily because they won’t change their habit just because there are fewer
cigarettes. So I think the government should guide these people not to smoke anymore.
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Task responses 15% This essay minimally answers the question on the topic.
The details and examples do not follow a well-developed
logic that supports the test taker’s position on the topic.
The introduction rephrases the topic, the body contains
minimal supporting points and the conclusion is unfinished
The word count is 227 words.
Coherence & 10% The essay does not have a good organizational pattern.
cohesion
Lexical 15% The vocabulary is limited and imprecise. Some words are
resource not appropriate for the context. Spelling errors are
numerous
Grammatical 15% . This essay does not receive full credit for grammar usage
range and and spelling because of missing or incorrect use of verbs
accuracy and nouns.
Sample B
These days, statistics have shown that

all around the world, over a billion
adults legally smoke tobacco every day.
Also, these numbers are expected to
increase if nothing is done. It takes two
to stop the numbers arising and
therefore, the government and the
smokers have to cooperate to make the
country smoke-free.
The government should control the amount of smokers as the rising numbers could cause
lost productivity and an increase in the crime rate. Campaigns should be created and
advertisements using the mass media can actually help the smokers realize the
disadvantages of smoking.
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Besides that, smokers should also learn the gruesome facts on smoking. They should also
realize that there’s more to life than just smoking and that people near and dear to them
could be affected from their habit. Studies have shown that people who have family
members who are smokers can actually contract diseases such as cancer and other lung
diseases.
Moreover, the increase in the number of smokers can actually mean that there would
probably be an increase in crime rates as well. Smoking would then lead to other
dangerous issues like drugs, prostitution, theft and even murder. Therefore, the
government should act immediately to avoid further damage to society.
Certain smokers who want to quit can find it hard to do so and this is when the
government’s help can come in handy. That is by increasing the age limit for adolescents
to smoke, increasing tax on tobacco products to make it a lot more expensive and also to
provide support gropus for smokers who wish to quit.
In a nutshell, smoking is indeed a problem to the nation and it takes two to work it out.
The government and the smokers themselves should work side by side to solve this issue.

Task responses 20% This essay answers the question on the topic. In the body,
the main ideas and details relate to the main point of the
essay. However, some main ideas are not well supported
with details, examples or explanations.
Coherence & 20% This essay answers the question on the topic and is well
cohesion organized. There is a clear introduction, body and
conclusion.
Lexical 15% Imprecise vocabulary prevents the response from receiving
resource full credit for general linguistic range. The vocabulary
range is good and clichés are used sparingly. There are no
significant spelling errors.
Grammatical 15% There are obvious grammatical errors in sentences with
range and complex structures. However, most grammatical errors do
accuracy not hinder communication.
Sample C
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Tobacco is one of the most widely-used drugs of the world. Over a billion adults legally
smoke tobacco every day. Tobacco is slowing taking a billion people in the world
towards doom. The long term health costs are high for smokers, who suffer from various
heart and lung diseases, reduced concentration and continually diminishing immunity.
Non-smokers, accompanying smokers or those

who are in their close vicinity, also become
“Passive” smokers and bear the toll of various
inevitable diseases as they inhale the smoke
which has an illeffect on their respiratory
systems. Thus, the health costs are high—for
smokers themselves, and for wider community
in terms of health care costs and lost
productivity.
There has been awareness among people from many years, about the ill-effects of
smoking and various campaigns run by the government, NGOs and local bodies to
encourage people to quit smoking but the result have not been impressive. The solution is
to nip the problem in the bud. School authorities and parents should keep a close eye so
that children don’t start to smoke because they think it is “cool”. They should be made
aware about the harmful effects of smoking.
Government could play a vital role too. Smoking should not be high-hand in
advertisements and movie commercials which have a huge impact on people. It could
levy high taxes on tobacco products to keep people away from its reach. Rules for
checking children buying such products should be made stringent.
The onus to protect from such products also lie on individuals as will-power always does
the trick. The knowledge of importance of being healthy has to be realized from within. It
goes a long way to check the problem. Thus, the solution requires both legitimate action
of Government and strong individual decisions to eliminate the problem.

Task responses 25% This essay answers the question on the topic. The roles of
the government and the individual are well explained and
supporting details are provided. There is good development
195
of ideas and a logical structure. The main ideas are

introduced in the first paragraph and the test taker’s answer
to the question is restated in the conclusion
Coherence & 25% This essay answers the question on the topic and is well
cohesion organized. There is a clear introduction, body and
conclusion.
Lexical 20% General linguistic range and vocabulary range are excellent.
resource The vocabulary is precise and expresses subtleties and
nuances. Idioms are also used appropriately. Spelling is
excellent.
Grammatical 20% Minor grammatical errors prevent this response from
range and receiving full credit for grammar usage and mechanics,
accuracy although the intended meaning of the sentences is clear.
D. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS AND CONVENTIONS IN ACADEMIC

WRITING
1. Vocabulary
1.1. Non-academic vocabulary
It is essential for writers to avoid spoken language such as “really, very, a lot, so, of
couse”. E.g. Many students think that the university entrance exam is very difficult.
Many students think that the university entrance exam is challenging.
We can use “definitely, exetremely, absolutely” instead of “really, very”.
Here are some useful suggestions for your academic writing.
Shouldn’t use Should replace Shouldn’t use Should

“very” with “very”
Afraid Terrified/ fearful Neat Immaculate
Angry Furious Noisy Deafening
Bad Awful Old Ancient
Beautiful Gorgeous/ exquisite Perfect Fawless
Big Massive/ immense Powerful Compelling
Bright Luminous/ dazzling Poor Destitute
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Busy Swamped Quiet Silent

Capable Accomplished Risky Perilous
Cheap Stingy Roomy Spacious
Clean Spotless Clever Brilliant
Rich Wealthy/ affluent Clear Obvious
Rude vulgar Cold Freezing
Colorful Vibrant Serious Solemn
Confused Perplexed Small tiny
- We can replace other phrases or expressons as follows
Shouldn’t use Should replace with

A lot much/ a great amount of + uncountable noun
many/ a great number of + countable noun
So Hence, therefore, thus
Of course It is undeniable that …..
It is true that ….
It is apparent that ….
It is evident that…….
It goes without saying that ….
It cannot be denied that….
It is irrefutable that….
1.2. Wrong collocation or order
It is obvious that students try to use complicated and strange vocabulary to impress the
evaluator. However, many of them are not fully aware of the correct collocation, which
leads to negative points given by the evaluator. In addition, wrong use of collocation
causes evaluator’s misunderstanding as well.
e.g. This essay will solve the issue of unemployment to maintain sustainable
development of a country.
Solve the issue  Solve the problem Resolve the issue
1.3. Using extreme words
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Extreme words are known as “all, every, etc”. If those words are used in your writing, it
is unbiased.
e.g. Everyone knows that reading books is necessary
“everyone” is not exact and unbiased because we are not certain that all people including
evaluators agree with the writer.
Writers can use some suggestions as follow:
- It seems/ is likely that everyone knows that reading books is necessary.

- Seemingly everyone knows that reading books is necessary.
- Almost/ nearly everyone knows that reading books is necessary.
2. Grammar
2.1. Wrong use of dangling participles.
This case often occurs in reduced clauses. If two clauses have the same subject, it is
suggested to use Gerund (in active voice) and Past participle (in passive voice) to reduce
the clause. However, writer often make mistakes when two clauses have two different
subjects.
e.g. When he went out of the room, his friends came in
 Going out of the room, his friends came in.
As the farmers were deprived of their rights, the uprising occurred on an escalating
level.
 Deprived of their rights, the uprising occurred on an escalating level
2.2. Sentence fragment.
This type of error is so popular when students’ writing skill is not good at all. It is
common knowledge that a completed sentence consists of a subject and a verb.
Nevertheless, many students seem to ignore one of these important components.
Specifically, when they write complex sentence, they sometimes omit the independent
clause, which results in meaningless sentences.
e.g. Working very hard on weekdays Working on weekdays is hard
As some students are distracted by mobile games when studying at home.

198
As some students are distracted by playing mobile games when studying at home,
their academic performance at school my be poor
2.3. Run-on sentences.
It happens when writers use independent clause but they ignore linking words or wrong
punctuation. Semi-colon can be use to connect independent clauses.
e.g. Playing football is a great way to stay in shape, it requires its players to consume a
huge amount of money.
Playing football is a great way to stay in shape because it requires its players to
consume a huge amount of energy.
Playing football is a great way to stay in shapre; it requires its players to consume
a huge amount of energy.
2.4. A choppy sentence
When writers use too many simple and short sentences, they are likely to be evaluated
that they fail to develop their ideas. To improve this, it is suggested to use more
complicated sentences such as relative clause, noun phrase and etc to make the writing
paper more academic.
e.g. In today’s world, there is a boom of entertainment. One of the most popular form
of it is online games. It is considered a kind of social malady. This needs
proscribing forthwith.
In today’s world, there is a boom of entertainment, one of the most popular form
of which is online games, considered a kind of social malady that needs
proscribing forthwith.
2.5. Sprawl sentene
It is when writers use too many linking words connecting independent clauses into one
sentence. This distributes readers’ misunderstanding the main idea.
e.g. In case we go on holiday during Tet, we ought to set up appropriate plans at least a
month in advance, so in order to do this, we should write down a to-do list as soon
as possible, which is quite important in any trip, so as not to miss anything.
199
In case we go on holiday during Tet, we ought to set up appropriate plans at least a

month in advance. In order to do this, we should write down a to-do list as soon as
possible so as not to miss anything, which is quite important in any trip.
3. Language use
3.1. Contraction
Students often use contraction in their academic essay. It is undeniable that they will be
minused because contraction is not accepted in academic writing.
Shouldn’t use Should replace with
I’m – I ain’t I am (not)
He – she – it’s/ isn’t He – she – it is (not)
You –we – they’re/ aren’t You – we – they are (not)
200
Chapter 4: Practice Tests A Handbook for Writing 3
CHAPTER 4: PRACTICE TESTS
201
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC ĐỀ THI THAM KHẢO - TEST 1

KINH TẾ - KỸ THUẬT CÔNG NGHIỆP Thời gian làm bài: (60’)
KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ
Điểm số: …………………… Cán bộ chấm 1: …................................. Số phách

Điểm chữ: ………………..… Cán bộ chấm 2: ………………….……
I. Task 1
You recently bought a piece of equipment for your kitchen but it did not work. You
phoned the shop but no action was taken. Write a letter to the shop manager. In your
letter:
 Describe the problem with the equipment

 Explain what happened when you phoned the shop
 Say what you would like the manager to do
You should spend about 20 minutes on this task. Write about 120 words.
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II. Task 2
202
Write an essay to discuss the differences between males and females.
about 250 words.
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203

KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ

I. Task 1
This is part of a letter you received from an English friend
I’ve just finished reading a really good book. What kinds of thing do you enjoy
reading? Do you prefer books or magazines? Tell me something about a famous
writer from your country.
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II. Task 2
204
In the era of technological advances, people have a variety of opportunities in choose

their own career. Write an essay to classify the different growing careers.
about 250 words.
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205
KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ

I. Task 1
You have seen an advertisement for a job as a part-time sales assistant at a bookshop.
Write a letter to reply the advertisement. Your letter should include:
 Describe your work/ study experience;

 Give the hours you are available for work;
 Say why you are suitable for the job.
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II. Task 2
Nowadays many people tend to work longer hours and get stressed than before. What are
the reasons for this? How serious are the consequences?
206
about 250 words.
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KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ
207

I. Task 1
You think you left your briefcase on the train yesterday morning. Write a letter to the lost
property office. In your letter:
 Describe what briefcase looks like and what was in it;

 Explain where exactly you think you left the briefcase;
 Say what you want the lost property office to do.
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II. Task 2
Children in many countries are eating more and more fast food. Why are children doing
this? How serious are the consequences?
208
about 250 words.
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KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ
209

I. Task 1
Next month I am visiting your country for two weeks. I hope you could give me some
advice.
 Where should I stay?

 Can you suggest some activities I can take part in?
 What clothes should I bring?
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II. Task 2
Write an essay describing the city life.
about 250 words.
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ANSWERS
REFERENCES
[1] Bailey, S. (2011). Academic writing – A handbook for international students. 3rd
Edition. Routledge Publisher. ISBN: 0-203-83165-9.
[2] Bohlke, D. (2012). Skillful Reading and Writing 3. Macmillan Education.
[3] Burns, W. (2014). Inside Writing 3. Oxford University Press.
[4] Campbell-Howes, K and Dignall, C. English for life - Writing 3 Collins Publisher.
[5] Folse, K. S., Clabeaux D., Solomon E. V. (2015) Great Writing 3: From great
paragraphs to great essays 3rd Edition. National Geographic Learning. ISBN: 978-1-
285-75061-3.
[6] Peterson P. W. (2003). Developing Writing – Writing skills practice book for EFL.
Office of English Language Programs.
[7] Savage, A., Shafiel M. (2007), Effective Academic Writing 2. Oxford University
Press
[8] Savage, A., Mayer, P. (2005), Effective Academic Writing 3. Oxford University
Press.
[9] Smith, L. C. and Mare, N. N. (1996). Insight for today. Heinle & Heinle Publisher.
[10] Zemach D. E., Rumisek, L. A (2005). Academic writing from paragraph to essays.
Macmillan Publishers Publishers Limited. ISBN: 1-4050-8606-8
[11] Zemach D. E., Islam C. (2006). Writing in paragraphs. Macmillan Publishers

Publishers Limited. ISBN: 978-1-4050-9586-0
[12] Formal email and letter asking for information. Retrieved 25/11/2020, from
https://test-english.com/writing/b1-b2/formal-email-letter-asking-information/
[13] Informal email. Retrieved 26/11/2020, from
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2-
writing/informal-email.
[14] A letter of complaint. Retrieved 26/11/2020, from
212
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2/a-letter-
of-complaint.
[15] A covering letter. Retrieved 26/11/2020, from
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/skills/writing/upper-intermediate-b2/a-
covering-email.
[16] Email writing. Retrieved 21/12/2020, from
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/email-writing.
[17] Exercises. Retrieved 25/11/2020, from
[18] Exercises. Retrieved 29/11/2020, from
[19] Sentences and paragraphs. Retrieved 25/11/2020, from
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/exams/writing-exams/sentences-and-
paragraphs
[20] Improving paragraph writing. Retrieved 21/11/2020, from
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/improving-paragraph-writing
[21] Revision 1. Retrieved 21/11/2020, from
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zx499j6/revision/1
[22] Describing people. Retrieved 22/12/2020, from
https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/topics/describing-people/term
[23] Revision 2. Retrieved 22/11/2020, from
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zcf2tyc/revision/2
[24] Linking words in cause and effect paragraphs and essays. Retrieved 22/11/2020,
from https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/category/grammar/linking-words-cause-
and-effect.
[25] Linking words in cause and effect paragraphs and essays. Retrieved 20/11/2020,
from https://learnenglishteens.britishcouncil.org/grammar/linking-words-cause-and-
effect/term
[26] Activity 1. Retrieved 20/11/2020, from
https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/course/intermediate/unit-10/session-2/
213
activity-1
[27] Greatwriting. Retrieved 21/12/2020, from
https://eltngl.com/assets/downloads/gw_pro0000009081/greatwriting_b3_u4.pdf
[28] Classification and division essay. Retrieved 15/12/2020, from
https://owl.excelsior.edu/rhetorical-styles/classification-and-division-essay/
214
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
(Averil Coxhead’s) High-Incidence Academic Word List (AWL) –
Alphabetical Order
Words of highest frequency are followed by the number 1
abandon 8 bias 8 constitute 1 distinct 2 fee 6

abstract 6 bond 6 constrain 3 distort 9 file 7
academy 5 brief 6 construct 2 distribute 1 final 2
access 4 bulk 9 consult 5 diverse 6 finance 1
accommodate 9 capable 6 consume 2 document 3 finite 7
accompany 8 capacity 5 contact 5 domain 6 flexible 6
accumulate 8 category 2 contemporary 8 domestic 4 fluctuate 8
accurate 6 cease 9 context 1 dominate 3 focus 2
achieve 2 challenge 5 contract 1 draft 5 format 9
acknowledge 6 channel 7 contradict 8 drama 8 formula 1
acquire 2 chapter 2 contrary 7 duration 9 forthcoming 10
adapt 7 chart 8 contrast 4 dynamic 7 foundation 7
adequate 4 chemical 7 contribute 3 economy 1 found 9
adjacent 10 circumstance 3 controversy 9 edit 6 framework 3
adjust 5 cite 6 convene 3 element 2 function 1
administrate 2 civil 4 converse 9 eliminate 7 fund 3
adult 7 clarify 8 convert 7 emerge 4 fundamental 5
advocate 7 classic 7 convince 10 emphasis 3 furthermore 6
affect 2 clause 5 cooperate 6 empirical 7 gender 6
aggregate 6 code 4 coordinate 3 enable 5 generate 5
aid 7 coherent 9 core 3 encounter 10 generation 5
albeit 10 coincide 9 corporate 3 energy 5 globe 7
allocate 6 collapse 10 correspond 3 enforce 5 goal 4
alter 5 colleague 10 couple 7 enhance 6 grade 7
alternative 3 commence 9 create 1 enormous 10 grant 4
ambiguous 8 comment 3 credit 2 ensure 3 guarantee 7
amend 5 commission 2 criteria 3 entity 5 guideline 8
analogy 9 commit 4 crucial 8 environment 1 hence 4
analyse 1 commodity 8 culture 2 equate 2 hierarchy 7
annual 4 communicate 4 currency 8 equip 7 highlight 8
anticipate 9 community 2 cycle 4 equivalent 5 hypothesis 4
apparent 4 compatible 9 data 1 erode 9 identical 7
append 8 compensate 3 debate 4 error 4 identify 1
appreciate 8 compile 10 decade 7 establish 1 ideology 7
approach 1 complement 8 decline 5 estate 6 ignorance 6
appropriate 2 complex 2 deduce 3 estimate 1 illustrate 3
approximate 4 component 3 define 1 ethic 9 image 5
arbitrary 8 compound 5 definite 7 ethnic 4 immigrate 3
area 1 comprehensive 7 demonstrate 3 evaluate 2 impact 2
aspect 2 comprise 7 denote 8 eventual 8 implement 4
assemble 10 compute 2 deny 7 evident 1 implicate 4
assess 1 conceive 10 depress 10 evolve 5 implicit 8
assign 6 concentrate 4 derive 1 exceed 6 imply 3
assist 2 concept 1 design 2 exclude 3 impose 4
assume 1 conclude 2 despite 4 exhibit 8 incentive 6
assure 9 concurrent 9 detect 8 expand 5 incidence 6
attach 6 conduct 2 deviate 8 expert 6 incline 10
attain 9 confer 4 device 9 explicit 6 income 1
attitude 4 confine 9 devote 9 exploit 8 incorporate 6
attribute 4 confirm 7 differentiate 7 export 1 index 6
author 6 conflict 5 dimension 4 expose 5 indicate 1
215
authority 1 conform 8 diminish 9 external 5 individual 1
automate 8 consent 3 discrete 5 extract 7 induce 8
available 1 consequent 2 discriminate 6 facilitate 5 inevitable 8
aware 5 considerable 3 displace 8 factor 1 infer 7
behalf 9 consist 1 display 6 feature 2 infrastructure 8
benefit 1 constant 3 dispose 7 federal 6 inherent 9
Academic Word List – Alphabetical

inhibit 6 migrate 6 precede 6 reverse 7 tense 8
initial 3 military 9 precise 5 revise 8 terminate 8
initiate 6 minimal 9 predict 4 revolution 9 text 2
injure 2 minimise 8 predominant 8 rigid 9 theme 8
innovate 7 minimum 6 preliminary 9 role 1 theory 1
input 6 ministry 6 presume 6 route 9 thereby 8
insert 7 minor 3 previous 2 scenario 9 thesis 7
insight 9 mode 7 primary 2 schedule 8 topic 7
inspect 8 modify 5 prime 5 scheme 3 trace 6
instance 3 monitor 5 principal 4 scope 6 tradition 2
institute 2 motive 6 principle 1 section 1 transfer 2
instruct 6 mutual 9 prior 4 sector 1 transform 6
integral 9 negate 3 priority 7 secure 2 transit 5
integrate 4 network 5 proceed 1 seek 2 transmit 7
integrity 1 neutral 6 process 1 select 2 transport 6
0
intelligence 6 nevertheless 6 professional 4 sequence 3 trend 5
intense 8 nonetheless 1 prohibit 7 series 4 trigger 9
0
interact 3 norm 9 project 4 sex 3 ultimate 7
intermediate 9 normal 2 promote 4 shift 3 undergo 10
internal 4 notion 5 proportion 3 significant 1 underlie 6
interpret 1 notwithstanding 1 prospect 8 similar 1 undertake 4
0
interval 6 nuclear 8 protocol 9 simulate 7 uniform 8
intervene 7 objective 5 psychology 5 site 2 unify 9
intrinsic 1 obtain 2 publication 7 so-called 1 unique 7
0 0
invest 2 obvious 4 publish 3 sole 7 utilise 6
investigate 4 occupy 4 purchase 2 somewhat 7 valid 3
invoke 1 occur 1 pursue 5 source 1 vary 1
0
involve 1 odd 1 qualitative 9 specific 1 vehicle 8
0
isolate 7 offset 8 quote 7 specify 3 version 5
issue 1 ongoing 1 radical 8 sphere 9 via 8
0
item 2 option 4 random 8 stable 5 violate 9
job 4 orient 5 range 2 statistic 4 virtual 8
journal 2 outcome 3 ratio 5 status 4 visible 7
justify 3 output 4 rational 6 straightforward 1 vision 9
0
label 4 overall 4 react 3 strategy 2 visual 8
labour 1 overlap 9 recover 6 stress 4 volume 3
layer 3 overseas 6 refine 9 structure 1 voluntary 7
lecture 6 panel 1 regime 4 style 5 welfare 5
0
legal 1 paradigm 7 region 2 submit 7 whereas 5
legislate 1 paragraph 8 register 3 subordinate 9 whereby 10
levy 1 parallel 4 regulate 2 subsequent 4 widespread 8
0
liberal 5 parameter 4 reinforce 8 subsidy 6
licence 5 participate 2 reject 5 substitute 5
likewise 1 partner 3 relax 9 successor 7
0
link 3 passive 9 release 7 sufficient 3
locate 3 perceive 2 relevant 2 sum 4
216
logic 5 percent 1 reluctance 1 summary 4
0
maintain 2 period 1 rely 3 supplement 9
major 1 persist 1 remove 3 survey 2
0
manipulate 8 perspective 5 require 1 survive 7
manual 9 phase 4 research 1 suspend 9
margin 5 phenomenon 7 reside 2 sustain 5
mature 9 philosophy 3 resolve 4 symbol 5
maximise 3 physical 3 resource 2 tape 6
mechanism 4 plus 8 respond 1 target 5
media 7 policy 1 restore 8 task 3
mediate 9 portion 9 restrain 9 team 9
medical 5 pose 1 restrict 2 technical 3
0
medium 9 positive 2 retain 4 technique 3
mental 5 potential 2 reveal 6 technology 3
method 1 practitioner 8 revenue 5 temporary 9
217
APPENDIX 2
Headword Sublist Related word forms
analysed, analyser, analysers, analyses, analysing, analysis, analyst, analysts, anal
analyse 1
ytic, analytical, analytically, analyze, analyzed, analyzes, analyzing
approach 1 approachable, approached, approaches, approaching, unapproachable
area 1 areas
assessable, assessed, assesses, assessing, assessment, assessments, reassess, reasse
assess 1
ssed, reassessing, reassessment, unassessed
assume 1 assumed, assumes, assuming, assumption, assumptions
authority 1 authoritative, authorities
available 1 availability, unavailable
benefit 1 beneficial, beneficiaries, beneficiary, benefited, benefiting, benefits
conception, concepts, conceptual, conceptualisation, conceptualise, conceptualise
concept 1
d, conceptualises, conceptualising, conceptually
consisted, consistency, consistent, consistently, consisting, consists, inconsistenci
consist 1
es, inconsistency, inconsistent
constituencies, constituency, constituent, constituents, constituted, constitutes, co
constitute 1 nstituting, constitution, constitutional, constitutionally, constitutions, constitutive,
unconstitutional
contexts, contextual, contextualise, contextualised, contextualising, contextualize,
context 1
contextualized, contextualizing, uncontextualised, uncontextualized
contract 1 contracted, contracting, contractor, contractors, contracts
created, creates, creating, creation, creations, creative, creatively, creativity, creat
create 1
or, creators, recreate, recreated, recreates, recreating
data 1
definable, defined, defines, defining, definition, definitions, redefine, redefined, re
define 1
defines, redefining, undefined
derive 1 derivation, derivations, derivative, derivatives, derived, derives, deriving
distributed, distributing, distribution, distributional, distributions, distributive, dist
distribute 1 ributor, distributors, redistribute, redistributed, redistributes, redistributing, redistr
ibution
economic, economical, economically, economics, economies, economist, econom
economy 1
ists, uneconomical
environmental, environmentalist, environmentalists, environmentally, environmen
environment 1
ts
disestablish, disestablished, disestablishes, disestablishing, disestablishment, estab
establish 1
lished, establishes, establishing, establishment, establishments
estimate 1 estimated, estimates, estimating, estimation, estimations, over-estimate, overestim
218
ate, overestimated, overestimates, overestimating, underestimate, underestimated,
underestimates, underestimating
evident 1 evidence, evidenced, evidential, evidently
export 1 exported, exporter, exporters, exporting, exports
factor 1 factored, factoring, factors
finance 1 financed, finances, financial, financially, financier, financiers, financing
formulae, formulas, formulate, formulated, formulating, formulation, formulation
formula 1
s, reformulate, reformulated, reformulating, reformulation, reformulations
function 1 functional, functionally, functioned, functioning, functions
identifiable, identification, identified, identifies, identifying, identities, identity, u
identify 1
nidentifiable
income 1 incomes
indicated, indicates, indicating, indication, indications, indicative, indicator, indic
indicate 1
ators
individualised, individualism, individualist, individualistic, individualists, individ
individual 1
uality, individually, individuals
interpretation, interpretations, interpretative, interpreted, interpreting, interpretive,
interprets, misinterpret, misinterpretation, misinterpretations, misinterpreted, misi
interpret 1
nterpreting, misinterprets, reinterpret, reinterpretation, reinterpretations, reinterpre
ted, reinterpreting, reinterprets
involve 1 involved, involvement, involves, involving, uninvolved
issue 1 issued, issues, issuing
labour 1 labor, labored, labors, laboured, labouring, labours
legal 1 illegal, illegality, illegally, legality, legally
legislated, legislates, legislating, legislation, legislative, legislator, legislators, legi
legislate 1
slature
major 1 majorities, majority
method 1 methodical, methodological, methodologies, methodology, methods
occurred, occurrence, occurrences, occurring, occurs, reoccur, reoccurred, reoccur
occur 1
ring, reoccurs
percent 1 percentage, percentages
period 1 periodic, periodical, periodically, periodicals, periods
policy 1 policies
principle 1 principled, principles, unprincipled
proceed 1 procedural, procedure, procedures, proceeded, proceeding, proceedings, proceeds
process 1 processed, processes, processing
require 1 required, requirement, requirements, requires, requiring
219
research 1 researched, researcher, researchers, researches, researching
responded, respondent, respondents, responding, responds, response, responses, re
respond 1
sponsive, responsiveness, unresponsive
role 1 roles
section 1 sectioned, sectioning, sections
sector 1 sectors
insignificant, insignificantly, significance, significantly, signified, signifies, signif
significant 1
y, signifying
similar 1 dissimilar, similarities, similarity, similarly
source 1 sourced, sources, sourcing
specific 1 specifically, specification, specifications, specificity, specifics
restructure, restructured, restructures, restructuring, structural, structurally, structu
structure 1
red, structures, structuring, unstructured
theory 1 theoretical, theoretically, theories, theorist, theorists
invariable, invariably, variability, variable, variables, variably, variance, variant, v
vary 1
ariants, variation, variations, varied, varies, varying
achieve 2 achievable, achieved, achievement, achievements, achieves, achieving
acquire 2 acquired, acquires, acquiring, acquisition, acquisitions
administrates, administration, administrations, administrative, administratively, ad
administrate 2
ministrator, administrators
affect 2 affected, affecting, affective, affectively, affects, unaffected
appropriacy, appropriately, appropriateness, inappropriacy, inappropriate, inappro
appropriate 2
priately
aspect 2 aspects
assist 2 assistance, assistant, assistants, assisted, assisting, assists, unassisted
categories, categorisation, categorise, categorised, categorises, categorising, categ
category 2
orization, categorized, categorizes, categorizing
chapter 2 chapters
commission 2 commissioned, commissioner, commissioners, commissioning, commissions
community 2 communities
complex 2 complexities, complexity
computable, computation, computational, computations, computed, computer, co
compute 2
mputerised, computers, computing
concluded, concludes, concluding, conclusion, conclusions, conclusive, conclusiv
conclude 2
ely, inconclusive, inconclusively
conduct 2 conducted, conducting, conducts
consequent 2 consequence, consequences, consequently
220
constructed, constructing, construction, constructions, constructive, constructs, re
construct 2
construct, reconstructed, reconstructing, reconstruction, reconstructs
consume 2 consumed, consumer, consumers, consumes, consuming, consumption
credit 2 credited, crediting, creditor, creditors, credits
culture 2 cultural, culturally, cultured, cultures, uncultured
design 2 designed, designer, designers, designing, designs
distinct 2 distinction, distinctions, distinctive, distinctively, distinctly, indistinct, indistinctly
element 2 elements
equate 2 equated, equates, equating, equation, equations
evaluated, evaluates, evaluating, evaluation, evaluations, evaluative, re-evaluate, r
evaluate 2
e-evaluated, re-evaluates, re-evaluating, re-evaluation
feature 2 featured, features, featuring
finalise, finalised, finalises, finalising, finality, finalize, finalized, finalizes, finaliz
final 2
ing, finally, finals
focused, focuses, focusing, focussed, focussing, refocus, refocused, refocuses, ref
focus 2
ocusing, refocussed, refocusses, refocussing
impact 2 impacted, impacting, impacts
injure 2 injured, injures, injuries, injuring, injury, uninjured
instituted, institutes, instituting, institution, institutional, institutionalise, institutio
institute 2 nalised, institutionalises, institutionalising, institutionalized, institutionalizes, insti
tutionalizing, institutionally, institutions
invested, investing, investment, investments, investor, investors, invests, reinvest,
invest 2
reinvested, reinvesting, reinvestment, reinvests
item 2 itemisation, itemise, itemised, itemises, itemising, items
journal 2 journals
maintain 2 maintained, maintaining, maintains, maintenance
abnormal, abnormally, normalisation, normalise, normalised, normalises, normali
normal 2 sing, normality, normalization, normalize, normalized, normalizes, normalizing, n
ormally
obtain 2 obtainable, obtained, obtaining, obtains, unobtainable
participant, participants, participated, participates, participating, participation, part
participate 2
icipatory
perceive 2 perceived, perceives, perceiving, perception, perceptions
positive 2 positively
potential 2 potentially
previous 2 previously
primary 2 primarily
221
purchase 2 purchased, purchaser, purchasers, purchases, purchasing
range 2 ranged, ranges, ranging
region 2 regional, regionally, regions
deregulated, deregulates, deregulating, deregulation, regulated, regulates, regulati
regulate 2
ng, regulation, regulations, regulator, regulators, regulatory, unregulated
relevant 2 irrelevance, irrelevant, relevance
reside 2 resided, residence, resident, residential, residents, resides, residing
resource 2 resourced, resourceful, resources, resourcing, under-resourced, unresourceful
restricted, restricting, restriction, restrictions, restrictive, restrictively, restricts, un
restrict 2
restricted, unrestrictive
insecure, insecurities, insecurity, secured, securely, secures, securing, securities, s
secure 2
ecurity
seek 2 seeking, seeks, sought
selected, selecting, selection, selections, selective, selectively, selector, selectors,
select 2
selects
site 2 sites
strategy 2 strategic, strategically, strategies, strategist, strategists
survey 2 surveyed, surveying, surveys
text 2 texts, textual
tradition 2 non-traditional, traditional, traditionalist, traditionally, traditions
transfer 2 transferable, transference, transferred, transferring, transfers
alternative 3 alternatively, alternatives
circumstance 3 circumstances
commentaries, commentary, commentator, commentators, commented, commenti
comment 3
ng, comments
compensated, compensates, compensating, compensation, compensations, compe
compensate 3
nsatory
component 3 componentry, components
consent 3 consensus, consented, consenting, consents
considerable 3 considerably
constant 3 constancy, constantly, constants, inconstancy, inconstantly
constrain 3 constrained, constraining, constrains, constraint, constraints, unconstrained
contributed, contributes, contributing, contribution, contributions, contributor, con
contribute 3
tributors
convened, convenes, convening, convention, conventional, conventionally, conve
convene 3
ntions, unconventional
222
co-ordinate, co-ordinated, co-ordinates, co-ordinating, co-ordination, co-
coordinate 3 ordinator, co-ordinators, coordinated, coordinates, coordinating, coordination, coo
rdinator, coordinators
core 3 cored, cores, coring
corporate 3 corporates, corporation, corporations
correspond 3 corresponded, correspondence, corresponding, correspondingly, corresponds
criteria 3 criterion
deduce 3 deduced, deduces, deducing, deduction, deductions
demonstrable, demonstrably, demonstrated, demonstrates, demonstrating, demons
demonstrate 3 tration, demonstrations, demonstrative, demonstratively, demonstrator, demonstra
tors
document 3 documentation, documented, documenting, documents
dominate 3 dominance, dominant, dominated, dominates, dominating, domination
emphasise, emphasised, emphasising, emphasize, emphasized, emphasizes, emph
emphasis 3
asizing, emphatic, emphatically
ensure 3 ensured, ensures, ensuring
excluded, excludes, excluding, exclusion, exclusionary, exclusionist, exclusions, e
exclude 3
xclusive, exclusively
framework 3 frameworks
fund 3 funded, funder, funders, funding, funds
illustrate 3 illustrated, illustrates, illustrating, illustration, illustrations, illustrative
immigrate 3 immigrant, immigrants, immigrated, immigrates, immigrating, immigration
imply 3 implied, implies, implying
initial 3 initially
instance 3 instances
interact 3 interacted, interacting, interaction, interactions, interactive, interactively, interacts
justifiable, justifiably, justification, justifications, justified, justifies, justifying, un
justify 3
justified
layer 3 layered, layering, layers
link 3 linkage, linkages, linked, linking, links
located, locating, location, locations, relocate, relocated, relocates, relocating, relo
locate 3
cation
max, maximisation, maximised, maximises, maximising, maximization, maximiz
maximise 3
e, maximized, maximizes, maximizing, maximum
minor 3 minorities, minority, minors
negate 3 negated, negates, negating, negative, negatively, negatives
outcome 3 outcomes
223
partner 3 partners, partnership, partnerships
philosopher, philosophers, philosophical, philosophically, philosophies, philosoph
philosophy 3 ise, philosophised, philosophises, philosophising, philosophize, philosophized, ph
ilosophizes, philosophizing
physical 3 physically
disproportion, disproportionate, disproportionately, proportional, proportionally, p
proportion 3
roportionate, proportionately, proportions
publish 3 published, publisher, publishers, publishes, publishing, unpublished
reacted, reacting, reaction, reactionaries, reactionary, reactions, reactivate, reactiv
react 3
ation, reactive, reactor, reactors, reacts
deregister, deregistered, deregistering, deregisters, deregistration, registered, regis
register 3
tering, registers, registration
rely 3 reliability, reliable, reliably, reliance, reliant, relied, relies, relying, unreliable
remove 3 removable, removal, removals, removed, removes, removing
scheme 3 schematic, schematically, schemed, schemes, scheming
sequence 3 sequenced, sequences, sequencing, sequential, sequentially
sex 3 sexes, sexism, sexual, sexuality, sexually
shift 3 shifted, shifting, shifts
specify 3 specifiable, specified, specifies, specifying, unspecified
sufficient 3 insufficient, insufficiently, sufficiency, sufficiently
task 3 tasks
technical 3 technically
technique 3 techniques
technology 3 technological, technologically
valid 3 invalidate, invalidity, validate, validated, validating, validation, validity, validly
volume 3 volumes
access 4 accessed, accesses, accessibility, accessible, accessing, inaccessible
adequate 4 adequacy, adequately, inadequacies, inadequacy, inadequate, inadequately
annual 4 annually
apparent 4 apparently
approximated, approximately, approximates, approximating, approximation, appr
approximate 4
oximations
attitude 4 attitudes
attribute 4 attributable, attributed, attributes, attributing, attribution
civil 4
224
code 4 coded, codes, coding
commit 4 commitment, commitments, commits, committed, committing
communicable, communicated, communicates, communicating, communication, c
communicate 4
ommunications, communicative, communicatively, uncommunicative
concentrate 4 concentrated, concentrates, concentrating, concentration
confer 4 conference, conferences, conferred, conferring, confers
contrast 4 contrasted, contrasting, contrastive, contrasts
cycle 4 cycled, cycles, cyclic, cyclical, cycling
debate 4 debatable, debated, debates, debating
despite 4
dimension 4 dimensional, dimensions, multidimensional
domestic 4 domestically, domesticate, domesticated, domesticating, domestics
emerge 4 emerged, emergence, emergent, emerges, emerging
error 4 erroneous, erroneously, errors
ethnic 4 ethnicity
goal 4 goals
grant 4 granted, granting, grants
hence 4
hypotheses, hypothesise, hypothesised, hypothesises, hypothesising, hypothesize,
hypothesis 4
hypothesized, hypothesizes, hypothesizing, hypothetical, hypothetically
implement 4 implementation, implemented, implementing, implements
implicate 4 implicated, implicates, implicating, implication, implications
impose 4 imposed, imposes, imposing, imposition
integrate 4 integrated, integrates, integrating, integration
internalise, internalised, internalises, internalising, internalize, internalized, intern
internal 4
alizes, internalizing, internally
investigated, investigates, investigating, investigation, investigations, investigativ
investigate 4
e, investigator, investigators
job 4 jobs
label 4 labeled, labeling, labelled, labelling, labels
mechanism 4 mechanisms
obvious 4 obviously
occupancy, occupant, occupants, occupation, occupational, occupations, occupied
occupy 4
, occupier, occupiers, occupies, occupying
option 4 optional, options
225
output 4 outputs
overall 4
parallel 4 paralleled, parallelled, parallelling, parallels, unparalleled
parameter 4 parameters
phase 4 phased, phases, phasing
predictability, predictable, predictably, predicted, predicting, prediction, predictio
predict 4
ns, predicts, unpredictability, unpredictable
principal 4 principally
prior 4
professional 4 professionalism, professionally, professionals
project 4 projected, projecting, projection, projections, projects
promote 4 promoted, promoter, promoters, promotes, promoting, promotion, promotions
regime 4 regimes
resolve 4 resolution, resolved, resolves, resolving, unresolved
retain 4 retained, retainer, retainers, retaining, retains, retention, retentive
series 4
statistic 4 statistical, statistically, statistician, statisticians, statistics
status 4
stress 4 stressed, stresses, stressful, stressing, unstressed
subsequent 4 subsequently
sum 4 summation, summed, summing, sums
summaries, summarisation, summarisations, summarise, summarised, summarises
summary 4 , summarising, summarization, summarizations, summarize, summarized, summar
izes, summarizing
undertake 4 undertaken, undertakes, undertaking, undertook
academy 5 academia, academic, academically, academics, academies
adjusted, adjusting, adjustment, adjustments, adjusts, readjust, readjusted, readjust
adjust 5
ing, readjustment, readjustments, readjusts
alterable, alteration, alterations, altered, altering, alternate, alternating, alters, unal
alter 5
terable, unaltered
amend 5 amended, amending, amendment, amendments, amends
aware 5 awareness, unaware
capacity 5 capacities, incapacitate, incapacitated
challenge 5 challenged, challenger, challengers, challenges, challenging
clause 5 clauses
226
compound 5 compounded, compounding, compounds
conflict 5 conflicted, conflicting, conflicts
consultancy, consultant, consultants, consultation, consultations, consultative, con
consult 5
sulted, consulting, consults
contact 5 contactable, contacted, contacting, contacts
decline 5 declined, declines, declining
discrete 5 discretely, discretion, discretionary, indiscrete, indiscretion
draft 5 drafted, drafting, drafts, redraft, redrafted, redrafting, redrafts
enable 5 enabled, enables, enabling
energy 5 energetic, energetically, energies
enforce 5 enforced, enforcement, enforces, enforcing
entity 5 entities
equivalent 5 equivalence
evolve 5 evolution, evolutionary, evolutionist, evolutionists, evolved, evolves, evolving
expand 5 expanded, expanding, expands, expansion, expansionism, expansive
expose 5 exposed, exposes, exposing, exposure, exposures
externalisation, externalise, externalised, externalises, externalising, externality, e
external 5
xternalization, externalize, externalized, externalizes, externalizing, externally
facilitated, facilitates, facilitating, facilitation, facilitator, facilitators, facilities, fac
facilitate 5
ility
fundamental 5 fundamentally
generate 5 generated, generates, generating
generation 5 generations
image 5 imagery, images
liberalisation, liberalise, liberalised, liberalises, liberalising, liberalism, liberalizati
liberal 5 on, liberalize, liberalized, liberalizes, liberalizing, liberally, liberate, liberated, libe
rates, liberating, liberation, liberations, liberator, liberators
licence 5 licences, license, licensed, licenses, licensing, unlicensed
logic 5 illogical, illogically, logical, logically, logician, logicians
margin 5 marginal, marginally, margins
medical 5 medically
mental 5 mentality, mentally
modify 5 modification, modifications, modified, modifies, modifying, unmodified
monitor 5 monitored, monitoring, monitors, unmonitored
network 5 networked, networking, networks
227
notion 5 notions
objective 5 objectively, objectivity
orientate, orientated, orientates, orientating, orientation, oriented, orienting, orient
orient 5
s, reorient, reorientation
perspective 5 perspectives
precise 5 imprecise, precisely, precision
prime 5 primacy
psychology 5 psychological, psychologically, psychologist, psychologists
pursue 5 pursued, pursues, pursuing, pursuit, pursuits
ratio 5 ratios
reject 5 rejected, rejecting, rejection, rejections, rejects
revenue 5 revenues
instability, stabilisation, stabilise, stabilised, stabilises, stabilising, stability, stabili
stable 5
zation, stabilize, stabilized, stabilizes, stabilizing, unstable
styled, styles, styling, stylise, stylised, stylises, stylish, stylising, stylize, stylized,
style 5
stylizes, stylizing
substitute 5 substituted, substitutes, substituting, substitution
sustainability, sustainable, sustained, sustaining, sustains, sustenance, unsustainab
sustain 5
le
symbolic, symbolically, symbolise, symbolised, symbolises, symbolising, symbol
symbol 5
ism, symbolize, symbolized, symbolizes, symbolizing, symbols
target 5 targeted, targeting, targets
transit 5 transited, transiting, transition, transitional, transitions, transitory, transits
trend 5 trends
version 5 versions
welfare 5
whereas 5
abstract 6 abstraction, abstractions, abstractly, abstracts
accurate 6 accuracy, accurately, inaccuracies, inaccuracy, inaccurate
acknowledged, acknowledgement, acknowledgements, acknowledges, acknowled
acknowledge 6
ging
aggregate 6 aggregated, aggregates, aggregating, aggregation
allocate 6 allocated, allocates, allocating, allocation, allocations
assigned, assigning, assignment, assignments, assigns, reassign, reassigned, reassi
assign 6
gning, reassigns, unassigned
attach 6 attached, attaches, attaching, attachment, attachments, unattached
228
author 6 authored, authoring, authors, authorship
bond 6 bonded, bonding, bonds
brief 6 brevity, briefed, briefing, briefly, briefs
capable 6 capabilities, capability, incapable
cite 6 citation, citations, cited, cites, citing
co-operate, co-operated, co-operates, co-operation, co-operative, co-operatively, c
cooperate 6
ooperated, cooperates, cooperating, cooperation, cooperative, cooperatively
discriminate 6 discriminated, discriminates, discriminating, discrimination
display 6 displayed, displaying, displays
diverse 6 diversely, diversification, diversified, diversifies, diversify, diversifying, diversity
domain 6 domains
edit 6 edited, editing, edition, editions, editor, editorial, editorials, editors, edits
enhance 6 enhanced, enhancement, enhances, enhancing
estate 6 estates
exceed 6 exceeded, exceeding, exceeds
expert 6 expertise, expertly, experts
explicit 6 explicitly
federal 6 federation, federations
fee 6 fees
flexible 6 flexibility, inflexibility, inflexible
furthermore 6
gender 6 genders
ignorant 6 ignorance, ignore, ignored, ignores, ignoring
incentive 6 incentives
incidence 6 incident, incidentally, incidents
incorporate 6 incorporated, incorporates, incorporating, incorporation
index 6 indexed, indexes, indexing
inhibit 6 inhibited, inhibiting, inhibition, inhibitions, inhibits
initiated, initiates, initiating, initiation, initiations, initiative, initiatives, initiator, i
initiate 6
nitiators
input 6 inputs
instructed, instructing, instruction, instructions, instructive, instructor, instructors,
instruct 6
instructs
intelligent 6 intelligence, intelligently, unintelligent
229
interval 6 intervals
lecture 6 lectured, lecturer, lecturers, lectures, lecturing
migrant, migrants, migrated, migrates, migrating, migration, migrations, migrator
migrate 6
y
minimum 6
ministry 6 ministered, ministerial, ministering, ministries
motivate, motivated, motivates, motivating, motivation, motivations, motives, un
motive 6
motivated
neutralisation, neutralise, neutralised, neutralises, neutralising, neutrality, neutrali
neutral 6
zation, neutralize, neutralized, neutralizes, neutralizing
nevertheless 6
overseas 6
precede 6 preceded, precedence, precedent, precedes, preceding, unprecedented
presumably, presumed, presumes, presuming, presumption, presumptions, presum
presume 6
ptuous
irrational, rationalisation, rationalisations, rationalise, rationalised, rationalises, rat
rational 6 ionalising, rationalism, rationality, rationalization, rationalizations, rationalize, rat
ionalized, rationalizes, rationally
recover 6 recoverable, recovered, recovering, recovers, recovery
reveal 6 revealed, revealing, reveals, revelation, revelations
scope 6
subsidiary, subsidies, subsidise, subsidised, subsidises, subsidising, subsidize, sub
subsidy 6
sidized, subsidizes, subsidizing
tape 6 taped, tapes, taping
trace 6 traceable, traced, traces, tracing
transform 6 transformation, transformations, transformed, transforming, transforms
transport 6 transportation, transported, transporter, transporters, transporting, transports
underlie 6 underlay, underlies, underlying
utilisation, utilised, utiliser, utilisers, utilises, utilising, utilities, utility, utilization,
utilise 6
utilize, utilized, utilizes, utilizing
adaptability, adaptable, adaptation, adaptations, adapted, adapting, adaptive, adapt
adapt 7
s
adult 7 adulthood, adults
advocate 7 advocacy, advocated, advocates, advocating
aid 7 aided, aiding, aids, unaided
channel 7 channelled, channelling, channels
chemical 7 chemically, chemicals
230
classic 7 classical, classics
comprehensive 7 comprehensively
comprise 7 comprised, comprises, comprising
confirm 7 confirmation, confirmed, confirming, confirms
contrary 7 contrarily
convert 7 conversion, conversions, converted, convertible, converting, converts
couple 7 coupled, couples, coupling
decade 7 decades
definite 7 definitely, definitive, indefinite, indefinitely
deny 7 deniable, denial, denials, denied, denies, denying, undeniable
differentiate 7 differentiated, differentiates, differentiating, differentiation
dispose 7 disposable, disposal, disposed, disposes, disposing
dynamic 7 dynamically, dynamics
eliminate 7 eliminated, eliminates, eliminating, elimination
empirical 7 empirically, empiricism
equip 7 equipment, equipped, equipping, equips
extract 7 extracted, extracting, extraction, extracts
file 7 filed, files, filing
finite 7 infinite, infinitely
foundation 7 foundations
globe 7 global, globalisation, globalization, globally
grade 7 graded, grades, grading
guarantee 7 guaranteed, guaranteeing, guarantees
hierarchy 7 hierarchical, hierarchies
identical 7 identically
ideology 7 ideological, ideologically, ideologies
infer 7 inference, inferences, inferred, inferring, infers
innovated, innovates, innovating, innovation, innovations, innovative, innovator, i
innovate 7
nnovators
insert 7 inserted, inserting, insertion, inserts
intervene 7 intervened, intervenes, intervening, intervention, interventions
isolate 7 isolated, isolates, isolating, isolation, isolationism
media 7
231
mode 7 modes
paradigm 7 paradigms
phenomenon 7 phenomena, phenomenal
priorities, prioritisation, prioritise, prioritised, prioritises, prioritising, prioritizatio
priority 7
n, prioritize, prioritized, prioritizes, prioritizing
prohibit 7 prohibited, prohibiting, prohibition, prohibitions, prohibitive, prohibits
publication 7 publications
quote 7 quotation, quotations, quoted, quotes, quoting
release 7 released, releases, releasing
reverse 7 irreversible, reversal, reversals, reversed, reverses, reversible, reversing
simulate 7 simulated, simulates, simulating, simulation
sole 7 solely
somewhat 7
submit 7 submission, submissions, submits, submitted, submitting
successor 7 succession, successions, successive, successively, successors
survive 7 survival, survived, survives, surviving, survivor, survivors
thesis 7 theses
topic 7 topical, topics
transmit 7 transmission, transmissions, transmits, transmitted, transmitting
ultimate 7 ultimately
unique 7 uniquely, uniqueness
visible 7 invisibility, invisible, visibility, visibly
voluntary 7 voluntarily, volunteer, volunteered, volunteering, volunteers
abandon 8 abandoned, abandoning, abandonment, abandons
accompany 8 accompanied, accompanies, accompaniment, accompanying, unaccompanied
accumulate 8 accumulated, accumulates, accumulating, accumulation
ambiguous 8 ambiguities, ambiguity, unambiguous, unambiguously
append 8 appended, appendices, appending, appendix, appendixes, appends
appreciable, appreciably, appreciated, appreciates, appreciating, appreciation, una
appreciate 8
ppreciated
arbitrary 8 arbitrarily, arbitrariness
automate 8 automated, automates, automatic, automatically, automating, automation
bias 8 biased, biases, biasing, unbiased
chart 8 charted, charting, charts, uncharted
232
clarify 8 clarification, clarified, clarifies, clarifying, clarity
commodity 8 commodities
complement 8 complementary, complemented, complementing, complements
conformability, conformable, conformance, conformation, conformed, conformin
conform 8 g, conformist, conformists, conformity, conforms, non-conformist, non-
conformists, non-conformity, nonconformist, nonconformists, nonconformity
contemporary 8 contemporaries
contradicted, contradicting, contradiction, contradictions, contradictory, contradict
contradict 8
s
crucial 8 crucially
currency 8 currencies
denote 8 denotation, denotations, denoted, denotes, denoting
detectable, detected, detecting, detection, detective, detectives, detector, detectors,
detect 8
detects
deviate 8 deviated, deviates, deviating, deviation, deviations
displace 8 displaced, displacement, displaces, displacing
dramas, dramatic, dramatically, dramatisation, dramatisations, dramatise, dramati
drama 8 sed, dramatises, dramatising, dramatist, dramatists, dramatization, dramatizations,
dramatize, dramatized, dramatizes, dramatizing
eventual 8 eventuality, eventually
exhibit 8 exhibited, exhibiting, exhibition, exhibitions, exhibits
exploit 8 exploitation, exploited, exploiting, exploits
fluctuate 8 fluctuated, fluctuates, fluctuating, fluctuation, fluctuations
guideline 8 guidelines
highlight 8 highlighted, highlighting, highlights
implicit 8 implicitly
induce 8 induced, induces, inducing, induction
inevitable 8 inevitability, inevitably
infrastructure 8 infrastructures
inspect 8 inspected, inspecting, inspection, inspections, inspector, inspectors, inspects
intensely, intenseness, intensification, intensified, intensifies, intensify, intensifyi
intense 8
ng, intension, intensity, intensive, intensively
manipulated, manipulates, manipulating, manipulation, manipulations, manipulati
manipulate 8
ve
minimise 8 minimised, minimises, minimising, minimize, minimized, minimizes, minimizing
nuclear 8
233
offset 8 offsets, offsetting
paragraph 8 paragraphing, paragraphs
plus 8 pluses
practitioner 8 practitioners
predominance, predominantly, predominate, predominated, predominates, predom
predominant 8
inating
prospect 8 prospective, prospects
radical 8 radically, radicals
random 8 randomly, randomness
reinforce 8 reinforced, reinforcement, reinforcements, reinforces, reinforcing
restore 8 restoration, restored, restores, restoring
revise 8 revised, revises, revising, revision, revisions
reschedule, rescheduled, reschedules, rescheduling, scheduled, schedules, schedul
schedule 8
ing, unscheduled
tense 8 tensely, tenser, tensest, tension, tensions
terminate 8 terminal, terminals, terminated, terminates, terminating, termination, terminations
theme 8 thematic, thematically, themes
thereby 8
uniform 8 uniformity, uniformly
vehicle 8 vehicles
via 8
virtual 8 virtually
visualisation, visualise, visualised, visualising, visualization, visualize, visualized,
visual 8
visualizing, visually
widespread 8
accommodate 9 accommodated, accommodates, accommodating, accommodation
analogy 9 analogies, analogous
anticipate 9 anticipated, anticipates, anticipating, anticipation, unanticipated
assure 9 assurance, assurances, assured, assuredly, assures, assuring
attain 9 attainable, attained, attaining, attainment, attainments, attains, unattainable
behalf 9
bulk 9 bulky
cease 9 ceased, ceaseless, ceases, ceasing
coherent 9 coherence, coherently, incoherent, incoherently
234
coincided, coincidence, coincidences, coincident, coincidental, coincides, coincidi
coincide 9
ng
commenced, commencement, commences, commencing, recommenced, recomme
commence 9
nces, recommencing
compatible 9 compatibility, incompatibility, incompatible
concurrent 9 concurrently
confine 9 confined, confines, confining, unconfined
controversy 9 controversial, controversially, controversies, uncontroversial
converse 9 conversely
device 9 devices
devote 9 devoted, devotedly, devotes, devoting, devotion, devotions
diminish 9 diminished, diminishes, diminishing, diminution, undiminished
distort 9 distorted, distorting, distortion, distortions, distorts
duration 9
erode 9 eroded, erodes, eroding, erosion
ethic 9 ethical, ethically, ethics, unethical
format 9 formats, formatted, formatting
found 9 founded, founder, founders, founding, unfounded
inherent 9 inherently
insight 9 insightful, insights
integral 9
intermediate 9
manual 9 manually, manuals
immature, immaturity, maturation, maturational, matured, matures, maturing, mat
mature 9
urity
mediate 9 mediated, mediates, mediating, mediation
medium 9
military 9
minimalisation, minimalise, minimalised, minimalises, minimalising, minimalist,
minimal 9 minimalistic, minimalists, minimalization, minimalize, minimalized, minimalizes,
minimalizing, minimally
mutual 9 mutually
norm 9 norms
overlap 9 overlapped, overlapping, overlaps
passive 9 passively, passivity
235
portion 9 portions
preliminary 9 preliminaries
protocol 9 protocols
qualitative 9 qualitatively
refine 9 refined, refinement, refinements, refines, refining
relax 9 relaxation, relaxed, relaxes, relaxing
restrain 9 restrained, restraining, restrains, restraint, restraints, unrestrained
revolutionaries, revolutionary, revolutionise, revolutionised, revolutionises, revol
revolution 9 utionising, revolutionist, revolutionists, revolutionize, revolutionized, revolutioniz
es, revolutionizing, revolutions
rigid 9 rigidities, rigidity, rigidly
route 9 routed, routes, routing
scenario 9 scenarios
sphere 9 spheres, spherical, spherically
subordinate 9 subordinates, subordination
supplement 9 supplementary, supplemented, supplementing, supplements
suspend 9 suspended, suspending, suspends, suspension
team 9 teamed, teaming, teams
temporary 9 temporarily
trigger 9 triggered, triggering, triggers
unify 9 unification, unified, unifies, unifying
violate 9 violated, violates, violating, violation, violations
vision 9 visions
adjacent 10
albeit 10
assemble 10 assembled, assembles, assemblies, assembling, assembly
collapse 10 collapsed, collapses, collapsible, collapsing
colleague 10 colleagues
compile 10 compilation, compilations, compiled, compiles, compiling
conceivable, conceivably, conceived, conceives, conceiving, inconceivable, incon
conceive 10
ceivably
convince 10 convinced, convinces, convincing, convincingly, unconvinced
depress 10 depressed, depresses, depressing, depression
encounter 10 encountered, encountering, encounters
236
enormous 10 enormity, enormously
forthcoming 10
incline 10 inclination, inclinations, inclined, inclines, inclining
integrity 10
intrinsic 10 intrinsically
invoke 10 invoked, invokes, invoking
levy 10 levies
likewise 10
nonetheless 10
notwithstanding 10
odd 10 odds
ongoing 10
panel 10 panelled, panelling, panels
persist 10 persisted, persistence, persistent, persistently, persisting, persists
pose 10 posed, poses, posing
reluctance 10 reluctant, reluctantly
so-called 10
straightforward 10
undergo 10 undergoes, undergoing, undergone, underwent
237

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A Handbook for Writing 3

D. COMMON GRAMMATICAL ERRORS AND CONVENTIONS IN ACADEMIC

No. Abbreviation Meaning

6 phr v phrasal verb

In addition, this handbook apparently provides students with a detailed background of

This essential studying material is designed scientifically, clearly and attractively to

Nguyen, T. T. H, Nguyen, T. N & Pham, T. T. (2021)

2. The purposes of academic essays

By writing the information down in essay form, they will have:

 Organized their thoughts;

3. Features of academic writing

4. The difference between writing paragraphs and writing essays

2. Topic e.g. A lasting marriage requires e.g. The gravity of marriage

sentence many levels of compromise. becomes more apparent over

supporting paragraph has its own

5. Conclusion - It should not rephrase or the thesis statement with different

1. Section 1: Letter Writing

2. Section 2: Paragraph and Essay Writing

Great Writing 3 consists of two main parts

Reviewing and revising

Step five and six can be repeated many times.

CHAPTER 2: STUDYING MATERIALS

Part D - Writing Tasks: provide some practice writing exercises.

SECTION 1: LETTERS AND EMAILS

After this unit, students will be able to:

Exercise 1: Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in

3. We shouldn’t talk about anything to do with work during lunch (While)

Exercise 2: Complete these sentences with “have/’ve been or will/’ll be”

1. Where will the refugees go after the camps ……… closed?

4. I’m sure we ……… in London in August before we go to the Edinburgh Festival, so

2. Reason clauses with because, as, since, etc.

3. Manner clauses with as, as if, as though, etc.

Everyone has been saying it really is the guidebook had described it

I remembered it it was made yesterday they have done Nothing had

1. No one talked about it. They all behaved …………….

3. This tea is terrible. It tastes …………….

4. When you emulate someone successful, you try to do well …………….

5. We found the little church hidden in the forest, …………….

Exercise 4: Complete each sentence in such a way that it is as similar as possible in

1. All the banks will be closed on Monday, it’s a holiday. (As)

1. It’s more expensive to eat in a restaurant, but I don’t like to cook.

2. If I wanted to avoid doing something, I pretended to be ill.

b. I acted …………. I wasn’t feeling well when I didn’t want to do things.

d. They always treat me …………. I have nothing useful to say.

WRITING STYLE IN LETTERS

Exercise 8: Mark the phrases as F (for formal) or I (for informal)

....... 1. I would also appreciate some information about….

....... 2. Well, I must go now.......

....... 3. Please accept my sincere apologies.......

....... 4. You are cordially invited to attend.......

....... 5. I am writing in response to your advertisement.......

....... 6. Thanks for the invitation to your dinner party.......

....... 7. I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction with.......

....... 8. I look forward to meeting you in person.......

....... 9. Just a quick note to tell you.......

....... 10. I am writing to bring to your attention the.......

....... 11. Please do not hesitate to contact me.......

....... 12. I’m so sorry to hear you’re having problems with.......

....... 13. Write back soon.......