INTRODUCTION

Sociology is a study of the web of social relationships. It has a long past and a short history. Long past:
The content of the study has been discussed since time immemorial, either under political philosophy or
history. Earlier, it focused on what society ought to be. The study was idealistic and philosophical. Short
history: The systematic study itself evolved very recently. This study asked the question ‘What society is?’.

Studies developed in this order: Philosophy, Physical Sciences, Social Sciences.

CAUSES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

1. The development of physical sciences led to a number of social issues which needed to be resolved.

2. Industrialisation and the Factory System

This led to mass migration and changes in social dynamics. A branch was needed to study the
change in human behaviour.

3. New Inquiries: Positivism and Humanitarianism

Intellectuals earlier had not studied society as a positive fact, the study of society was more idealistic
earlier. The modern schools of thought studied the present social problems, research and field
studies.

TENDENCIES DURING DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Unification of social sciences which covered distinct aspects. This was the view during the initial
phase of development of social sciences.

2. Later, specialization was chosen over unification. Sociology was the subject chosen to study
behavior among men.
EARLY CONTRIBUTIONS (FOUNDING FATHERS)
The study was influenced by biology. Society seen as an organic unit. Influenced by philosophy, history.
It was encyclopedic.

1. Auguste Comte (Father of sociology. Introduced positivism.)

2. Emile Durkheim
3. Max Webber
4. Karl Marx
5. Herbert Spencer

Use of the scientific, empirical methodology was undertaken. It is based on the law of causation and the
law of uniformity. Under science, the research is based on the cause-effect relationship. The application
of theories is universal.

The social scientists wanted to apply the positive methodology directly for social sciences. But there was
a limitation. Causes, effects and reasons differed from society to society. This nature of social sciences
arises from the fact that human behaviour is dynamic. It forever evolves. Therefore, while the empirical
methodology was used by the social scientists, the application was different. This was because social
sciences are based on correlation and not causation (Limitation of application of the methodology of the
physical sciences). This also allows only for a result on the basis of probability. One can never be
completely sure.

The word ‘Sociology’ was first used by Sieyes in an unpublished work. Later, Comte defined it
independently.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
Comte talked about the need for a break from idealism and normatism. He felt that sociology must be
studied as a positive science. The presence of abstract formats for social concepts was an important
contribution of his study. He wanted society to be seen as a social static and a social dynamic. He
emphasized also on the applied aspects of sociology. This approach had both positives and negatives.

Spencer was not a strong advocate of positivism. Spencer did not accept all aspects of the positive
approach. He was influenced by biology and used it in sociology. He talked about the organic analogy. He
saw society as an organism with different systems.
Marx provided a break from the functionalist approach which existed till then. Earlier, all systems were
seen to have a function, and conflicts were rarely spoken about. Marx took an economic view to explain
certain important conflicts and change. This different view was another major contribution to sociology.

Durkheim developed a department of sociology for the first time. He gave great emphasis on social facts
which influences everyone. He also talked about the development of law as a result of society. He observed
the shift of criminal law heavy legal systems in primitive societies to criminal law light legal systems in
modern societies.

Webber focused more on individualism. His ideas conflicted with those of Marx.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY
• Auguste Comte
Sociology is a science subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which, is the object
of investigation.

The scientific methodology is based on inductive reasoning. On the basis of this, the laws and
theories are developed which turn into self-evident axioms. These could be applied anywhere.
Comte wanted to deduce such invariable, natural laws. Natural laws are laws determined from the
natural, social situations. Invariable laws are the laws which do not change from one society to
another.

• Emile Durkheim
Sociology is the science of the social institutions.

An institution, in society, is a concept which is developed slowly and gradually, over a long period
of time. Primary institutions (developed first): Family, marriage, religion. Secondary institutions
(developed later): Education, laws etc. The sociologist must study the role of the institutions.

Family came into existence because of the idea of possession and control over children. This led
to the idea of living together with the person with whom they created their children.

• Max Webber
Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding of society and social
actions in order, thereby, to arrive at a causal relationship for its cause and effect.
 For social action, social interaction is an essential element. Webber said that the average man
provides an average interpretation on the basis of emotion. The rational man must look into the
fact situation completely and must then provide a rational decision or judgement. Social actions
must also be interpreted rationally and logically. He also propounds that the individual is visualized
as the centre of the society rather than group.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Independent social science

Earlier, sociological study was a part of other branches. Later, however, it was developed as a
separate branch.

2. Categorical, not a hypothetical social science

It is categorical, as opposed to a hypothetical social science, i.e., it is independent of other

conditions. The study is not based on any ideal. Thus, the study is not normative. The study
involves positive facts.

3. Pure, not an applied science

It discusses concepts and theories. The application of theories comes under the scope of a separate
study: applied sociology, or social work. The solving of social problems does not come within the
scope of sociology.

4. Abstract, not a concrete science

Abstract concepts must describe the framework. An abstract is a concept which can be presented
in various factual situations. The concretes are the particular facts which will be based on an
abstract. These abstracts are constituted of a common set of features. Removing all the concretes
cannot remove the abstracts.

5. General, not a particular science

This science is not concerned with particular situations, institutions or societies. The study is of
general theories which can be applied in any particular case.

6. Both rational and empirical

 Rationalism believes that knowledge comes with birth, not with experience. Empiricism believes
that knowledge is gained from experience. These are clashing schools of thought. However,
sociology draws upon from both.

SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
The objective of a sociologist is to conduct sociological analysis of any particular subject.

He studies how a certain practice will affect various social institutions. For example, a sociologist will study
the effect of live-in relationships on marriage. Sociological analysis is done on social units, i.e., social
institutions. The analysis involves a study of the structures and functions of these institutions.

The sociologist will also be interested in the social processes. For example, a Muslim girl marrying a Hindu
boy might have to change her culture and values to assimilate into the new family. Similarly, a girl marrying
within her religion may have to change only certain ways of living if when she enters her in-laws’ house in
order to accommodate.

A sociologist is also interested in creating new concepts and theories and their further study. Correlation
of various concepts can allow for the formation of a proposition. If it is proved empirically, it might turn
into a theory.

Sociologists are also concerned with specialization. Various fields of sociology have grown with greater
importance being given to specialization. Very particular branches have emerged.

NATURE OF SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

This question has been answered differently by different thinkers. Broadly, two schools of thought have
emerged.

• Formalistic School of Thought (John Simmel, Max Webber)

Two basic propositions:

• It is a pure and independent science.

• Sociology involves only the study of the form, not the content.
 For example, a glass has an outer form. It can be filled with various kinds of liquids. Similarly,
sociology can be filled with various structures. Sociology must not be concerned with the content,
but the common structure.

However, there are various criticisms of this school. One of which is that it limits the boundaries
dealing only with the form/theory and the pure aspect. In response, the synthetic school was
developed. The form may also be influenced by the content.

• Synthetic School of Thought (Emile Durkheim, Sorokin)

This school of thought says that not just form, but content is also important. This school is an
extension of the formalistic school.

Sociology is not an independent science. Sociology must be studied along with all other social
sciences. Every social problem will have various aspects. This forms a synthesis of various studies.

APPROACHES OF SOCIOLOGY
• Functionalist
Macro-level study. This was the first approach. Comte, Spencer and Durkheim systematically
studied society as having different organs, with each having a role to play. When these institutions
play their roles properly, a harmony and balance is achieved. The limitation is that social progress
needs change, about which not a lot is discussed. This also has an extremely conservative approach

• Conflict
Macro-level study. Karl Marx talked about conflicts existing society. This focuses on the very fact
that societies need not always require or demand a situation of harmony and balance. Conflicts
might manifest into large issues or stay dormant. This is the radical perspective which talked about
change in society. Conflicts could be both positive and negative. It believed that change brings
progress. Accommodation and Assimilation are the social processes that lead to the resolution of
the conflicts.

Many conflicts exist in society. In India, for example, caste, religion, class, regional, linguist, etc.
conflicts exist.
• Interactionist
Micro-level study. This is a contemporary approach. It studies the micro-interactions at the grass-
root level among the members of the society. It studies all units in the societies as having a certain
role. This is a minute-level study of society. For example, society is seen as a play, with every
character having a role to play.

SOCIAL METHODS
Methods used by social scientists. Sociologists may use a single or multiple methods.

• Comparative
This involves comparing two or more societies or groups within a society.

Emile Durkhfeeim used this method heavily. He developed the concept that law is an index of
social solidarity. The type of law and social solidarity are correlated. This, he developed on the
basis of a study of a primitive and modern society, on the basis of the division of labour.

On the one hand, in primitive societies, division of labour was gender-based and not specialized.
Individual identities not recognized and the group was very strong. People adhered to norms and
this was the general expectation. Strong sanctions against the disobedience of these norms existed.
Criminal law, therefore, was more dominant. Restrictive laws were dominant. Social and
mechanical solidarity was very high. On the other hand, in industrialized society, division of labour
increased and got more specialized. With this, individualism grew, and the individual-state
relationship changed. Protection of individual interests got more importance. This led to the
development of civil laws. Restitutive laws became dominant. Organic solidarity existed.

• Historical (Karl Marx and Max Webber)

This is the class conflict theory. Every stage of society has had two classes: the haves and the have-
nots. These two classes have always been present. Marx believed that economic forces are the
center of the society. The initial stage is of a classless primitive society. Marx used the historical
method to prove the historical materialism theory.

Max Webber used this method differently. Max Webber said non-economic forces are the center
of the society. Policies always involve considerations of the non-economic forces and certain
 backgrounds. He used the example of religion. He proposed a hypothesis that there exists a
correlation between Protestant ethics and the rise of capitalism.

He observed that the development of capitalism took place only in those European countries
where Protestants were in the majority, and not the Catholics. Webber’s survey of 6 countries
showed that the atmosphere for rise of capitalism was present only in Protestants dominated
countries. Protestants worked more, took less holidays, discouraged alcohol consumption and
encouraged lending of money. The teachings of Protestants were very conducive to capitalist
economies. They believed that work is virtue. On the other hand, lending of money and working
in this world (as opposed to working in another world) was not advocated by the majority of faiths.

Webber, therefore, used both the historical and comparative methods. Webber’s use of historical
method was completely contrary to that of Marx.

• Functional (Durkheim)
This is an analysis incentive method, not an investigative method. This method analyses the role
of an institution, its structure and function. It also helps in the determination of the role and
standing of a social unit in the broad social spectrum.

• Case Study
A particular case is taken up and various aspects of this particular case is studied in detail. Using
this analysis, certain hypotheses and theories can be developed and subsequently applied with
generality. This study can be used to understand the social problem and subsequently solutions
can be formed.

• Quantitative
Social sciences are moving towards more positive methods, making this method more popular.
Data is expressed quantitatively. The responses of any study are converted to mathematical units
and further analysis is undertaken. The limitations of this method are that certain aspects of the
study cannot be reduced to mathematical expressions. In general, however, sociology is moving
away from qualitative to quantitative analysis.
• Scientific
This is a very detailed process. It involves the following steps:

• Observation: Careful perception.

• Framing the Hypotheses: This forms a probable explanation of the problem. Usually, two
of these are framed. In the end, one of these will be accepted, while the other will be
rejected.
• Collection of Data: This is done to test the hypothesis.
• Analysis: Relevant facts are distinguished from the irrelevant facts. This involves a detailed
study of the facts. This will allow for the establishment of a correlation.
• Verification: The conclusion reached at is verified multiple times. At this stage, one of the
hypotheses will be accepted.
• Generalization: The hypotheses will be applied in general, and the result will be studied.
• Theory: If the hypothesis can be applied generally, it becomes a theory.

This method has a limitation. Not all studies can be conducted through such a method as cause
and effect cannot be applied here.
 AUGUSTE COMTE

INTRODUCTION OF POSITIVISM
His most important contribution was to introduce positivism in social sciences. This meant the
introduction of scientific methodology in social studies which systematised the study of Human
relatiosnhips. The study was not for abstract metaphysical or normative knowledge, but the concrete
knowledge which is already present in the world.

He used the term sociology for the first term – systematic study of human companionship. He also used
the term ‘social physics’.

THE LAW OF THREE STAGES

He used this to explain how human knowledge and parallelly, civil society, developed through various
stages.

• The Theological Phase

In the first phase of development of society, humans were very curious about everything going on
in the external world. All natural phenomena fascinated humans. Religion developed during this
time. It was believed that various supernatural powers existed, which caused these phenomena to
occur. The idea of many supernatural powers (polytheism) gradually turned into that of one
supernatural power (monotheism).

Knowledge in this phase was based on belief and faith, not on reasoning. It was believed that
everything occurring in the universe happened because of the supernatural power. The individual
surrendered his identity completely. The two qualities of knowledge during this phase were 1. The
belief in one absolute power and 2. The surrendering of individual identities to and complete
obedience of this power.

Military societies developed during this period. Questioning of the absolute power did not take
place.

• The Metaphysical Phase

Gradually, humans started questioning the absolute power. Was there a requirement for rules and
regulations? Reasoning took the place of belief. The second phase of development emerged.
 Certain abstract metaphysical realities were searched for. The abstract metaphysical ideas were
different from the ones already existing.

This led to a society based on abstract rules and principles which were laws. This phase saw the
development of legal nation states.

• The Positive Phase

The third phase saw positivism replace the importance of reasoning. The human mind started
looking for more and more positive facts of the world. Emphasis was placed on concrete reality
and not on abstract principles. The utilization of resources was given importance. This is the final
stage of development of knowledge and society.

This led to the development of industrial societies.

HIERARCHY OF THE SCIENCES

This hierarchy was made on the basis of certain principles. One principle was that from bottom to top,
complexity of the sciences increases, decreasing generality and their dependence also increases. The
movement upward is from most elementary to the most complex. Mathematics was placed at the base. It
was the most general and fundamental. Then came astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and finally
sociology. Each study was dependent on the ones appearing below it in the hierarchy.

SOCIAL STATIC AND SOCIAL DYNAMIC

When we talk about any institution in the social static, we must understand all the aspects of that institution
at a given point of time. Social dynamic refers to a complete progress check. It studies the past, present
and the future of that institution. Social dynamic involves a progressive study. Comte has said that
sociological study must involve both.

PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Comte has said that sociological study must involve both.
 HERBERT SPENCER

During his times, a lot of development was taking place in physical sciences. He was a contemporary of
Darwin. The principles developed by Darwin influenced Spencer, who applied them in sociology. Thus,
Spencer’s work is called Social Darwinism.

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Spencer was highly influenced by biology. The development of living organisms over time, i.e., the concept
of evolution was an important idea. An indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous, single-celled, simple
organism gradually develops into a definite, coherent, heterogeneous, multi-cellular, complex organism.
In the complex form, various systems evolve within the organism, with each having its own functions.
Even during a lifetime, humans change from an embryo to a complex being. This process is linear, and
not cyclic.

Herbert Spencer accepted these ideas and felt that this was true for society as well. Society went from an
indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous, simple system to a definite, coherent, heterogeneous, complex social
structure. Initially, the concept of family developed. This was followed by formation of small groups of
families. Then, due to clash of powers, larger groups called clans came into being. Gradually, these changed
into tribes and finally nations. The present modern, complex nation-states are a result of this organic
development. This also, is a linear, progressive process.

Spencer equated living organism with society.

ORGANIC ANALOGY
Spencer drew an analogy between human and society. He observed certain similarities and dissimilarities.
He showed that the similarities between the two was very high, and thus, he concluded that what was true
for organisms was also true for societies.

According to him, the following similarities exist between a human/organism and society.
• Both have visible growth. The growth of an organism can be observed. For example, we can see
a child grow. Similarly, we are witnessing the growth of the society.
• Increase in complexity. The growth of an organism sees the growth of structures, functions and
organs. This is also true for society.
 • Differentiation of structure leading to the differentiation in the function. Living organisms are
constituted of various organs and structures. These have undergone change through time. Initially,
a single system used to take care of all functions in the organism. Gradually, specialized organ
systems developed in order to take care of specific functions. This has led to harmony. The same
is true for societies. Gradually, specialized social structures have developed which take care of
specialized functions. This differentiation brings a balance.
• Loss of one organ would not result in a change in the entire organism. The loss of one unit of the
organism does not bring a change in the entire being. Similarly, loss of one unit of society would
not lead to the breakdown of the society.

According to him, the following differences exist between the two.

• An organism has a definite form, while society is an abstract concept. The society does not have a
definite, concrete structure.
• Consciousness in the organism lies in one component of the organism. The decision-making
power is not distributed. However, in the society, consciousness is diffused. Various different parts
have the power take their own decisions.
• Society exists for its parts, i.e., for the interests of the individual. This was the basis of his ideas of
individualism. He emphasized on minimal role of the State. He felt that the interests of the
individual could not be subservient to those of the State. On the contrary, the units of the organism
exist for the whole.

SOCIAL DARWINISM
He felt that the similarities were greater than the dissimilarities. Thus, principles applicable to organisms
could also be applied to the social structure. Thus, if Darwin’s principles of Natural Selection and The
Survival of The Fittest could be applied to organisms, they could also be applied to the society. This
ideology has been a major criticism of Spencer. He believed that the weak in the society must die. In the
modern age, this proposition cannot be accepted, where welfare forms an important part of State
functions.
Classification of societies on the basis of composition.
• Simple - Family
• Compound - Clan
• Doubly Compound- Tribe
• Trebly Compound- Nation
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIETIES.
A society that develops into a military society is self-sufficient and autonomous.
When society develops into an industrial society, the society cannot remain self-composed. Hence, there
occurs a movement from autonomy to interdependence. Here, the individual autonomy supersedes
political submission.

TYPES OF PRINCIPLE MILITARY SOCIETY INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

Social Coordination Compulsory Coordination Voluntary Coordination
Relationship between State
Individual for State State for Individual
and Individual
Relationship between State
No Scope Private Sector encouraged.
and Organization
Structure of State Centralized Decentralized
Stratification Fixed Flexible
Economy Self Sufficient and Autonomy Interdependence
Loyalty, Faith in Authority, Individualism and
Values - Social and Personal
Courage. Interdependence.
 EMILE DURKHEIM

Relevant to legal studies since he developed sociological jurisprudence. His theories have been influenced
by positivism and that gets extended into the stream of social enquiry. He criticises individualism by
Spencer. It was later taken up by others. He spoke about how the group or the society is important. His
theories are still relevant, though in modern industrial society, individualism has emerged as an important
notion. He believed that individuals are affected by various social pressure thus leading for individual
reality to cumulate. These pressures get accepted and give way for the formation of a group reality, since
all individuals are components of the group.

SOCIAL FACTS AND COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATION

Durkheim’s focus was on the group. “Social fact is a face of behavior (thinking, feeling or action) which
is subject to the observer and which has a controlling nature.” According to him the characteristics of
social fact are 1. They are external to the person and 2. They exert a pressure. Social facts can be seen as
tangible, objective things. They are external because they are created by the group. For example, customs
are created by the group and affect us externally. Social facts work at the group level.

Durkheim’s arguments supporting the existence of social facts.

• Heterogeneity of individual and collective state of mind.
There exist different individuals in the society. But in some instances, all individuals exhibit a
collective state of mind. For example, the identity shown by individuals of a country in cases of
national danger does not involve regional identities. The collective state of mind is evidence of
social facts.
• Difference in attitude of individual outside and inside the group.
Why does behavior change when an individual is in a group? This happens because of an external
force which makes us behave this way.
• Uniformity of social data.
The uniformity in existence of things like crime, religion, marriage and the trends shown by these
show that social facts force us to behave in a certain way. These forces bring a uniformity in ways
of living. These forces control our lives.
• Emergence of collective consciousness.
 When individual representation of identities merge, the collective consciousness emerges at the
group level. This is not just the simple addition of individual consciousness but something more.
The collective representation affects every individual. For example, the ingredients of paan are not
red by themselves, but when chewed, it gets red AF. This also proves the existence of social facts.

DIVISION OF LABOUR, SOCIAL SOLIDARITY AND LAW

Division of labour can be defined in three ways. The original definition was based on gender. Different
roles were assigned to men and women. Subsequently, Marx gave the definition of division of labour based
on technical division. This division depends upon the production process. Durkheim gave the third
definition of division which divided work in the entire society – Social division. The society is taken as a
whole. This was defined on the basis of functions assigned to various components of the society. He felt
that this could lead either to the integration of (repressive laws) or disintegration of (restitutive laws)
society.

According to Durkheim, division of labour is an index of social solidarity. Similarly, law is also an index
of social solidarity. In primitive societies, division of labour was low, group norms were followed, criminal
laws were harsh and social solidarity was high. Here, mechanical solidarity was present. In industrial
societies, division of labour is high (due to specialization), laws are restitutive and social solidarity is low.
This solidarity is organic.

The history of criminal theories shows that the idea of crime was based on the notion that men had
inherent criminal tendencies. This was based on some biological ideas, but was not very scientific. Later,
certain psychological theories were developed. The idea then, was that the individual was responsible for
his own acts. This was based on the mental element of the person and not on the physical characteristics
of the person. This idea did not believe that society was responsible for crimes. Durkheim believed that
crime might be an individual act, but the cause is social in nature. Crime is a social fact. Certain social
circumstances, and conditions lead to the commission of a crime. The trigger leading to the crime comes
from the society. Such an idea was first proposed by Durkheim. This led him to suggest reforms in the
criminal justice system.

Talking about suicide, he said that either extreme integration or extreme disintegration could cause the
person to commit such acts. He classified suicide into 3 types.
1. Egoistic: Caused due to loss of integration with the group.
This leads to psychological problems. For example, an unmarried, single person is more likely to
commit suicide since the person is disintegrated, leading to psychological issues. He observed that
 the suicide rate was higher among Protestants than among Catholics. The reason could be that
Catholics being more conservative, showing greater conformity to norms, and greater social
integration. Protestants, with more liberal ideas, had greater individuality, and were not as
integrated. Similarly, integration in urban societies, with greater individuality, is lower than that in
villages, with greater conformity. Thus, depression, and consequently suicide rates are higher in
urban societies.
2. Altruistic: Caused due to high integration with the group.
This leads the person to surrender his identity to the group. The group is so important, that the
act of suicide for the sake of the group feels justified. Examples include hara-kiri in Japan, sati in
medieval India, santhara in Rajasthan and suicide bombers in radical terrorist groups.
3. Anomic: This is caused due to sudden changes, either positive or negative.
The person is unable to accommodate to the change. This is a situation of normlessness. The
change, according to Durkheim, can either be positive or negative. A sudden positive change,
according to him, could also lead to such a state of psychological confusion, that the person would
commit suicide. Generally, however the causes in this class are taken as negative changes. For
example, sudden change in financial status of a person.

THEORY OF RELIGION
Earlier, religion was considered to be the matter of individual belief. He believed that religion was a social
phenomenon. It is a social fact. All ingredients of a social fact are present in religion. It is an external factor
and it exerts a pressure on individuals. It brings people together. Every religion has certain norms and as
people follow these norms, people come together. Many symbols are considered to be holy by a certain
belief. These items and symbols start becoming more important to the followers than general items. This
belongingness to symbols brings people together. For example, following religious traditions brings people
of the same faith together, resulting in increased social solidarity.
 MAX WEBER

Weber focused on rationality and logic. According to him, logical (objective) interpretation of social
actions bring us to the same conclusion, while average (subjective) interpretation brings us to incorrect,
varying conclusions. When Weber was active, it was being argued, whether scientific methodology could
be accepted in the study of sociology. Weber was of the opinion that it could.

IDEAL TYPE
An ideal type is an analytical construct which serves the investigator as a measuring rod to assert similarity
as well as deviation in concrete cases. It is a mental construct. It is not a hypothesis (not a proposal). It is
not a normative or an ethical statement. No values are attached to the construct. It is used only as a
standard. The ideal type might not correspond to the actual, empirical reality.

THEORY OF RELIGION
General misconceptions: Weber criticized Marx; Reversed Marx’s theory.

Marx said economics is the center of the society. Weber believed that non-economic factors influence the
society, with particular emphasis on religion. He said religion influences the economy and used the
scientific methodology to prove this hypothesis.

He observed that Protestants were generally richer than Catholics. He concluded that there existed a
correlation between the faith and wealth. He observed that the development of capitalism took place only
in those European countries where Protestants were in the majority, and not the Catholics.

Webber’s survey of 6 countries (including India and China) showed that the atmosphere for rise of
capitalism was present only in Protestants dominated countries. Protestants worked more, took less
holidays, discouraged alcohol consumption and encouraged lending of money. The teachings of
Protestants were very conducive to capitalist economies. They believed that work is virtue. On the other
hand, lending of money and working in this world (as opposed to working in another world) was not
advocated by other faiths.
THEORY OF AUTHORITY AND BUREAUCRACY
Weber, while talking about authority, talks about legitimacy. Legitimacy is based on various factors.

He talks about three types of authority: Traditional, Rational-Legal and Charismatic. Monarchy is the best
example of the traditional system. The authority comes from the belief or the faith in the power of the
King. It comes from customs. It is not based on abstract rules or principles. The best example of rational-
legal authority is the modern state. The authority, here, is based on abstract principles. The source here is
law, as opposed to customs. And the reason for authority comes from rationality or reason, as opposed to
faith. The third system is very different from the other two. In the charismatic system, the authority comes
from the personality of an individual. The virtues of the personality of such people leads others to confer
authority on them. Examples are Gandhi, Hitler and Modi.

The power is actualized by the bureaucracy in the rational-legal model.

Characteristics of the bureaucracy.

• An eligibility criteria exists.
• Hierarchy is fixed, and maintained strictly.
• Official jurisdiction is fixed, and maintained strictly.
• Division of labour is maintained strictly.
• Salaries are fixed.
• Bureaucrats have a superiority complex.
It’s a part of the training process, which focuses in isolating bureaucrats from the rest of the
society, focusing on their role of administration. This leads to their dehumanization and
breakdown of emotions and values. It is a di-functional aspect of the profession.
 KARL MARX

DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
Marx was influenced by many philosophers and thinkers. Hegel, particularly, influenced him a lot. Hegel’s
dialectical materialism made an impression on Marx. Hegel used the dialectical process to understand what
is going on the society. He was an idealist and believed that everything in the universe is an extension of
the spirit. However, Marx was a materialist. He believed that everything in the universe is an extension of
matter. He believed that concrete matter is the reality. And the concrete forces are the economic forces in
the society.

Both Hegel and Marx, however, believed in the dialectical process of change, in thesis and antithesis. At
first, a positive emerges, followed by the emergence of a negative. Slowly, they synthesize. This is how
development takes place.

Marx talked about conflict and change. According to Marx, everything is dependent on other things.
Changes keep taking place and nothing can remain the same. Changes are taking place every moment and
changes are important. He used this to understand class-conflict and the rise of communism.

CLASS-CONFLICT THEORY
Marx understood class in terms of the production process. People working in the same manner, having
the same relationship in the production process, share the same class. He made two broad categories of
people: The Haves (having control in the production process; exercising monopoly) and The Have Nots
(not having control in the production process, working for the haves). Marx believed that those who
controlled the economic forces governed the superstructure, i.e., the law and the policies.

In the capitalist world, the capitalists are dependent on the labour. However, exploitation of labour by the
capitalists is an inherent characteristic of the capitalist system. Labourers get meagre compensation for
their value creation, while the capitalists extract massive excess value over everything produced. This
allows them to keep getting richer while the labourers keep getting poorer.

This causes alienation of the labourers. They become alienated from the system, from their work and from
what they make. Subsequently, they form political associations based on common interests stemming from
common grievances. They unite against the capitalists and the capitalist system. Through, revolution they
seize the factors of production, and establish a classless society. Marx believed that there existed no need
for a state. The system is established on the ideas of socialism. Each works according to ability and each
works according to need. Slowly, complete equality is established and a communist state is created.

Marx believed that initially, society was classless, since there existed no private property. All were equal.
Humans collected only what was required for their sustenance. This did not allow accumulation of
property. However, as the concept of private property emerged, slavery, feudalism and eventually
capitalism came into existence. This, he felt, has to be replaced with communism.

Marx mentioned the middle class only fleetingly. However, the middle class has emerged as a dominant
force in modern society. Marx did not take this into account. Further, even today, countries following
Marxism have not realized equality and a classless society. These are the limitation of his theory.
 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL THINKERS

Functionalism talks about the structure and functions within the society. Different social institutions have
specific functions, which helps maintain harmony in the society. Herbert Spencer explained functionalism
through the organic analogy between society and the human body. Emile Durkheim also explained
functionalism.

Three contemporary thinkers credited with the development of functionalism are Bronislaw Malinowski,
Talcott Parsons and Robert K Merton.

BRANISLAW MALINOWSKI
Malinowski developed biocultural functionalism. He propounded the participant operation method which
is primarily done to gain in depth understanding of how functional unity works in a society with regard to
the individual need and cultures. This is also known as Individualist Functionalism. He was influenced by
Durkheim’s work on religion. He said that social institutions exist to meet the needs of individuals. He
said that there exist three types of needs.
• Primary: Primary needs are biological human needs, which are by virtue of the individual being a
human (food, safety, reproduction, etc.).
• Instrumental: Instrumental needs are those which help in achieving some final objective, or goal
(Economics, social control, education and political organisation).
• Integrated: Integrated needs are those that bring together society, increase solidarity (religion,
magic, etc.).

TALCOTT PARSONS
Parsons developed structural functionalism. Parsons believed that functionalism existed because
individuals acted on the basis of values and norms. These values and norms, formed through societal
consent, are the basis of social order. He also said that individual actions or the concept of goal attainment
are based on aspects of gratification and motivation. He incorporating the idea of the role and status of
every individual wrt for the functioning of social system. He talked in the context of a social system as to
how they bring social unity and harmony. Smallest unit of social system – individual.
• Pattern Variables
When an individual has to perform a role, he is presented with various options. Pattern variables
are the choices available during role performance. These options come from two domains: the
society (universalistic options) or the individual (particularistic options). The selection of one
choice over the other will be based on the individual’s motivation and the value aspect. Pattern
variables are categorized as follows.
− Universalism and Particularism
Universalism requires uniform application of rules and norms. In this case, reactions are
taken on the basis of a general norm. For example, in bureaucracy, everyone must
necessarily be treated equally. Particularism results in reactions on the basis of someone’s
particular relation with the individual. In this case, an exception may be created to a general
norm for a particular individual, group or entity. For example, in mother-child relations.

− Collectivity and Self

In collective reactions, benefit of the collective or the society takes precedence over that
of the individual (altruism, charity). A self-seeking reaction will put individual interests over
those of the collective.

− Affective and Affective Neutral

In affective interactions, emotion is relevant to the role performance. For example, in a
mother-child relation. In affective neutral relations, emotion is not relevant to the role
performance and a neutrality is maintained. Here, role performance is not emotionless but
emotion neutral. For example, the doctor-patient relation.

− Diffuseness and Specificity

In diffuse relations, obligations have a wide scope (relation between friends). In case of
specificity, role performance is limited and the scope is narrow (doctor-patient relation).

− Ascription and Achievement

Ascription refers to inborn qualities of individuals like caste, race, ethnicity, gender, etc.
Achievement focuses on performance and individual achievement.
• Pre-requisites of Functionalism
In every social system, there exist certain pre-requisites. These are conditions which help us
understand the functions of a particular person.
− Adaptation
This is an external variable. It refers to the resources available in society and their
distribution. These external, environmental factors affect the functions of a particular
person and determine what he can and cannot do.

− Goal Attainment

Every individual designs goals, keeping social considerations in mind. This is done within
the social system, with the consensus of society.

− Integration

Integration refers to bringing individuals together. The institution which plays the most
important role in integration is culture. People determine their goals on the basis of their
culture. Another institution which integrates is family.

− Tension Management

Tension management is an internal variable. Socialization helps in tension management. It

helps an individual handle social issues, and builds better, more balanced personalities. The
educational system and family system are important institutions for socialization. This is
why upbringing of a child is very important.

• Types of Social Structures

There exists a difference between social system and social structure. Social systems are built or
social structures. For example, the social system of family is built on the social structures of kinship
(primary, secondary, tertiary kin). Status can be either ascribed or achieved and the value domain
can be either universalistic or particularistic. Combining these, four types of social structures
emerge.
 − Universalistic Achievement

Here, norms are uniformly and universally applied to all. Further, status is determined on
the basis of individual achievement and performance. This is seen in legal rational societies
and open societies. Example – US.

− Universalistic Ascription

Here, norms are universally applicable to all. However, status is determined on the basis
of ascription. Caste, gender, ethnicity, etc. determine the status. Example – Nazi Germany.

India can be considered to be in a transition phase from universalistic ascription to

universalistic achievement

− Particularistic Achievement

Here, the normative or the value system is based on particular values, which have a
dominant role. The status is determined by individual achievement. This allows people to
rise on merit. In China, for example, family and kinship are central. Men have a more
dominant role than women.

− Particularistic Ascription

The value system is particularistic and individual status is determined on the basis of
ascription by birth. This forms a closed community. Example – The Spanish Community
of US. This is the least preferred model.

ROBERT MERTON
Every society has certain goals – legitimate means are needed to achieve these goals. He tried to establish
a relationship between these institutionalised goals and legitimate means.

Every institution helps in maintaining harmony in society. Every institution is not functional, it is possible
that some of the social structure may become redundant in due course of time. It leads to dysfunctionalism
and non-functionalism. He has tried to include the conflict and interactive perspective in functionalism to
give it a broader way.
• Concept of Anomie
Individuals are very much integrated with the society and when this loses, a sense of normlessness
emerges. Every social structure and every social system have a certain legitimate goal and there are
certain institutionalized means to achieve such goals. If an individual is not in position to get in
accommodation with goal or means, anomie arises. Logically, five conditions are possible:
− Innovative – where he only accepts the goal (-/+)
In innovation one accepts the goals but not the means. The chance of commitment of
crimes is higher in this class of people. When one does not accept the means which society
gives, crime increases. (Attaining social goals by certain innovative ways)

− Ritualism – where he only accepts the means (+/-)

They are not ready to accommodate the goals set by the society. But the means are accepted
by them.

− Conformity – where he accepts both (+/+)

Seen in people who conform to both the goals and the institutionalized means. For
example, for a student – the goal established is grades and the means is studying. The
student would accept both of these. People in this category are balanced and have fewer
issues. They accommodate well with the society.

− Retreatism – where he rejects both (-/-)

Highest state of anomie. They might not be harming the others. They would deviate from
the society and form their own small groups. (Rejection of both means and the goals)

− Rebellion (x/x)
Rebellious persons, rebellion is changing the goals and they are changing the means. They
will challenge both means and goals and changes the goals. (Combination of rejection of
societal goals and means and substituting it)

According to Merton, Innovation and Ritualism are the pure cases of anomie because there is a sense of discontinuity
between goals and means.

• Concept of Function:
According to Merton, Function is an objective, observed consequence. It must not be a subjective
disposition or consideration of the individual. It helps in accommodation and adjustment.
 Dysfunction is an objective consequence which does not result in accommodation or adjustment.
Nonfunction is an observed consequence which is not relevant. E.g. Sati. Manifest Function is the
intended consequence. For example, rain is the manifest function for people performing the Hopi
Rain Dance. This is observable in a concrete manner. Latent Function is the consequence not
intended. For example, an increase in solidarity is a result but not an intended consequence of
performing the Hopi Rain Dance. This is not observable.

MODERN FORM OF FUNCTIONALISM (NEO FUNCTIONALISM)

It is more about taking the other view and give a broader view of functionalism. It is revival of
functionalism by synthesization with the other view. It is functionalism at supra national level or at
international levels due to transportation, economic relation and increasing economic dependence. When
it extends, gradually, the functions which are being performed at the national level, the functions are even
extended to the international level. Due to which one requires an authority or institution at supra national
level which is performing certain functions. It is a spillover effect as when one function is performed, it
gives rise to another level. Such institution becomes an institution having some political power vested in
it. And such authority is even used over sovereign states. Neo functionalism is the association of
institutions at an international level. The main aspect here is that, apart from the functional aspect, they
are also talking about conflict and interactionist perspective. There is synthesis of the all the three
approaches.

Jeffrey Alexander: Propounder of neo-functionalism and revived the functionalism of Talcott Parson.
His major work in the field of cultural sociology and was influenced by Emile Durkheim. He researched into
cultural institutions and studied the cultural aspect of the institutions. He was more concerned with the
material aspects of the social institutions as well as that how the aesthetic values are connected with the
material aspects. Other sociologists are more concerned with the non-material aspects or value
orientations. It is cultural pragmatic as more cultural and practical values are associated with this. He has also
given one word for material aspect, i.e. iconic consciousness.

His another work is difference between cultural trauma and lay trauma. Whenever an event happens, it is the
group who emotionally associates with that particular event and popularize it. If an event raises emotion
in an individual, it is laymen trauma. But when people get associated with such event, it becomes cultural
trauma. Cultural trauma makes an event historical trauma.
NEO-MARXISM

After Marx, most of his followers state that lots of change has happened e.g. decomposition of labour and
capital due to rise of capitalism: reason for increase of middle class. Additionally, there is a rise of middle
class. So, now there are not only two classes, but a new layer of professional class has emerged. Now the
conflict is not between the haves and have nots but between the professionals and the laymen. Majority
of the people now belong to middle class. Such middle class people are experts of certain skills. Such
experts are trying to monopolize the society which raises the conflicts. When situation is changing, the
nature of the conflict is changing; therefore, what Karl Marx has said may to be applicable now. Change
prescribed is there is a need to have the merging of conflict and consensus (structure functionalism) model.

• Ralf Dahrendorf:
− Imperatively Coordinated Association
In a social system, a hierarchy is maintained. The hierarchy is based on authority and this
authority resides in the social positions which individuals occupy and not in the individuals
themselves. Every person is subordinate to someone and above someone, controlling
someone and controlled by someone, authorizing someone and authorized by someone.
These conflicts are not between individuals but between groups.
Each person is the member of a group. This is the quasi group. Gradually, individuals
develop an interest. They then get polarized into interest groups. If the interests of two
groups do not meet, then they turn into conflict groups.

− Decomposition of Capital and Labour

Marx talked about control over means of production. The conflict, in his paradigm, was
between the haves and the have nots. Today, the have nots have seen a rise in the middle
class. This class in itself has risen and is merging into the haves. This group is largely
constituted of professionals. The conflict now lies between the professionals and the
laymen, as the professionals have the control over production. The professionals are trying
to monopolise production. The nature of the conflict has changed. Thus, conflict lies not
between the haves and the have nots. The have nots have started having some control over
the production process due to state intervention.

− Resolution of Conflict
Conflicts have two attributes. Intensity is the level of attachment of the people and the
group with the conflict. Cost represents the cost of the conflict. The money involved,
 number of lives lost, etc. It is not always necessary that cost would always be present. Many
times, the intensity might be very high whereas the cost would be minimal.

Whether the conflict has more intensity or cost depends upon whether the conflict will be
solved or not which in turn depends upon various factors.
 Technical, political, social conditions decide whether the conflict will be resolved.
 Effective, regulatory, structure makes resolution possible. Eg legal system – more
effective, better resolution possible.
 Level of relative deprivation. Absolute deprivation sees a person not being able to
meet basic necessities. Now, relative deprivation, has become relevant.

• Lewis Coser
He criticized the dialectical model put forward by Dahrendorf. Coser believes that conflict is
normal and functional to the society. Often, conflict is productive for the society.

Three propositions put forward by Coser on relations between social units and intensity of
conflicts.
− The more groups engage in the conflict over the realistic issues, likelier they are to seek
compromises over the means to realize their interests, and hence, less violent is the
conflict.
− The more a group engages in the conflict over the non-realistic issues, greater is the level
of emotional arousal, greater is the involvement in the conflict, and hence, more violent is
the conflict.
− The less functionally interdependent are the relations among the social units in a system,
the less is the availability of the institutional means for absorbing conflict tensions.
 The greater is the power difference between the super and the subordinate in the
system, the less functionally interdependent is the relation.
 The greater is the level of isolation of sub-populations, the less functional the
relations.
• Collin
While the other two worked on conflicts at the macro level, he worked at the micro level. His was
a more interactionist approach. He said that two things matter – material resources and emotional
involvement. Material resources would mean land, money, weapons, etc. in conflict. However, the
more important factor is the emotional involvement of the units in the social system. This, again,
 has two aspects. First, higher the emotional involvement, higher will the intensity of the conflict
be. Second, higher intensity may or may not mean a more violent or longer conflict.

• Frankfurt
They saw that the social and economic circumstances are such that new interpretation is need to
be given to the Marxist theory. They talked about the modification in the Marxism. They stated
that economic determination may not be relevant in the present scenario. No complete change is
advocated by them, but certain modifications are needed.
− Habermas
He has focused on the theory of communicative actions. Before his theory, most of the
thinkers were focusing on finding the locus of rationality in the objective world. He
proposed that rationality is not located there but it could be found between
communications between two actors. Rationality is not in individual virtue but a property
of a structure. This structure is the communicative structure. There can be three types of
knowledge – empirical, historical and critical.

There can be three types of action:

 Teleological (when one is focusing on the means and ends relationship, they
happen in the objective world and not the subjective world).
 Normative (related to the social world e.g. respect elders).
 Dramaturgy (related to subjective world).

There is a communication being undertaken in the social structure in the way that how one
calculates his means and ends and what is going to be the result of the actions. No uses to
locate the rationality in the cosmos rather try to find out the rationality in the structure of
interpersonal linguistic communications.

− Althusser
He does not deny that economy plays an important role, but he has given another concept
where economic determination can even be included. Economy can be the subset to the
ideological state apparatus. Background of this theory is that

Karl Marx talks about the conflict, but if one looks the social structure, the state controls
the psychology of individuals, the kind of the ideologies inserted by the states is reflected
 in the actions of the individuals. Karl Marx has propounded that conflict lies in latent from
in the social structure but he puts forth that such structures are established by the State
only.

He also talked about how in the primitive society, the religious institutes controlled the
mind-set of the people. Therefore he states that the conflict is generated through the State
only. In the modern world, such social structures are mainly the family, school and church.
The state develops the ideologies in such a manner that they can reside among the
individuals for a long period. The other mechanism he propounds is the Repressive state
apparatus which helps the state in controlling the society e.g. police. If the ideologies are
against the state wishes, the repressive apparatus will come into working.

INTERACTIONIST THEORY

Micro level study while previous ones were macro level studies. Day to day conversations and reactions;
theoretical perspective that derives social processes (conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human
interaction. Studies how individuals shape society and are shaped by society.

• Weber
Categories of social action by Weber:
− Rational action- on the basis of logic, complete analysis and goal orientation.
− Value based action- no logic, rather value attached; value premises set by culture; social
conditioning; social expectations.
− Affective action- actions taken due to one’s emotions, to express personal feelings.
− Traditional action- (reflex actions- institutionalized by society through social processes and
are reflected through behavior; no logic applied; value action involves value judgement, no
judgement involved in traditional action; actions which are carried out due to tradition,
because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations; may
sometimes involve value orientation)

• Herbert Mead
Symbolic interactionism- social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton
Cooley and George Herbert Mead. The name ‘symbolic interactionism’ was coined by one of
 Mead’s students, Herbert Blumer. As per this theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part
socially constructed.
In particular, the meaning of objects, events and behaviors comes from the interpretation people
give them and these interpretations vary from one group to another.

Looking glass self theory given by Cooley- “I am not what I think I am, I am not what you think
I am. I am what I think you think I am.”

• Pareto
Demarcated difference between logical and illogical actions. Assigning objective meaning to
subjective meaning. Objective meaning leads to universality. Assigned to various institutions. It
should not be biased. Play stage and game stage. Significant other (first hand understanding of
roles and functions) and Generalised other (as domain of learning broadened, a term can be applied
to the context)

• Blumer
Society is a theatre with people playing their respective assigned roles. Theory based on dramatics.

.
 SOCIOLOGICAL TERMS

COMMUNITY

Town, village, states are some of the examples of community. Cultural background is one of the factors.
Location and the custom or social practices evolved in the due course of time is the factors for determining
a community.

Features of a community are:

• Locality- apart from sharing common thing, the most important attribute of community is the
locality or geographical location. A geographical boundary from the point of the origin of that
community and the persons of that community
• We feeling
• Naturalness- Birth in family.
• Regulation of relations- Community generally follows informal methods of social control, that is,
customs.

SOCIETY

Group of people and the abstract analytical view to see the group of way is the basis of society. It gets
developed slowly and gradually.

Features of a society are:

• Collection of individuals.
• Abstract concept.
• Division of labour.
• Both similarities and differences: People having difference as well as common things are there.
• Culture
• Social Control: It does have method of social control, it can be formal or informal methods.
Societies generally follow both kind of social control, e.g. law and customs.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY

Society Community

1) Web of social relationships, abstract. Group of individuals living in an area, concrete.

2) Geographical area is not mandatory. Geographical area is mandatory.

Narrower, is a subset of society. Many

3) Wider communities can be there in one society.

4) Both similarities and differences More focus on similarities

5) Follows both formal and informal Generally follows only informal methods of

methods of social control. social control.

ASSOCIATION

• Artificially created human groups who come together to satisfy a certain need.
• Deliberately created. The structure contains written rules.
• They have complete organizational structure, assigned jobs, norms, written rules.
• Political, Legal, Professional- certain rules present in association.
• They are concrete, should have similar interests.

INSTITUTION

• Slowly and gradually developed and evolved in due course of time. E.g. marriage, family as a
concept is institutions.
• Family and marriage of two persons becomes associations. Education is an institution. State,
religion are the institutions.
• Institutions are of two types: primary (which are developed first, e.g. family, marriage, religion) and
secondary (education, state, constitution).
• Each institution has its own rules and regulations and symbols.
• As a concept, they are institution. But when one participates in it, it becomes association.
Institutions are abstract.
SOCIAL SYSTEM

The social system describes how a society operates. A social system is an orderly arrangement, an
interrelation of parts. Each part has a specific role to play. The parts are bound by interaction. Every
system has multiple sub-systems which work together for the preservation of the whole. The sub-systems
and society are interdependent and exist for each other. Examples of sub-systems within a social system
are the educational system, the legal system, the economic system, etc.

The system, therefore, is a patterned relationship between constituent parts of a structure based on
functional relations. These functional relations bind the parts and make them active. The system is a logical
abstraction of the relationship between the part and the whole.

The term ‘social system’ was coined by Montesquieu. Herbert Spencer gave the idea of an organic social
system.

Elements of a Social System.

• Actor (The Individual) and Social Action
Social actions are associated with need and arrangement. They are based on gratification and
personal action. Social action depends on the cultural context.

• Relation to Role and Status

Status is a social position. Society prescribes various statuses to every individual. Each member of
the society is a functional. Role is the functional aspect of status. Social actions are decided by role
and status. Individuals in a society occupy multiple statuses. A position prescribed at birth is an
ascribed status. A position acquired otherwise is an acquired status. Every individual’s experiences
in life determine his social position. The role is played in relation to others.

The relational viewpoint believes that role and status cannot be separated. The analytical viewpoint
believes that a separation between the two exists, but this separation is not hard and fast. It believes
that status is a sociological concept, while role is a psychological concept. The relative viewpoint
believes that role and status cannot be understood in isolation.

It is possible to have a status without role and a role without status. For example, a mother taking
special care of her children might be performing the role of a nurse without actually having that
status. Similarly, the registrar on leave retains his status, but dos not enjoy the roles attached to it.
 • Means and Ends
There exist two views regarding means and ends. The Gandhian view and the Marxian view.
According to Marx, ends justify the means. As long as the end is achieved, it is immaterial what
the means used to achieve that end were. This is why, under his theory, it was justified to use
violent means to achieve the end. Gandhi believed that the means justify the ends and that
whatever the end may be, the means should be good.

For example, under the Marxian view, cheating in an exam in order to get better grades is justified,
but under the Gandhian view it is not. Here, cheating is the means while getting better grades is
the end. While Marx justifies these actions, Gandhi does not.

Here, we use our social understanding to judge the means and ends, not our ethical understanding.
An ethical understanding will be used to make a judgement on what is good and what is bad. An
ethical judgement will have universal application. A social understanding will judge something as
right or wrong. The social judgement is relative.

• Social Conditions
Society imposes barriers or obstacles. For example, if a student with a test tomorrow has a friend
who is ill and needs to be taken to the hospital, the society will believe that helping the friend is
the student’s prime duty. This is an obstacle towards preparing for the test. These obstacles are
called social conditions, which are always present in our lives, and which raise social problems.
The conditions act as obstacles for performing any action. Social conditions may be both positive
or negative. For example, social conditions may form an obstacle for woman going out in the
night.

MECHANISM
Mechanism describes how a social system operates. Two mechanisms exist.

• Socialization
Socialization is training. Through socialization, new members of the society are given the
knowledge, skills and values needed for them to conform to the norms of the society. When a new
member enters a society, it is the duty of the members of the group (the social agents in particular)
to make that member aware of group norms. This process continues from birth to death. It is a
 continuous process. Socialization helps in the development of the ego, the self. Looking Glass Self
Theory (Coolie).

Examples of social agents are parents, peers, teachers, etc. Stages of socialization are changing.
Different social agents play a more important part now. Peers for example, have more influence
now.

• Social Control
These are methods of controlling behavior. These are methods to control behavior, when
deviation from norms takes place. Social Control is of two types: formal and informal. Law is an
example of the formal while customs are an example of the informal. The formal has a structure.
The informal does not. Fashion trends, for example, are a means of informal control. Society is
largely run by informal control mechanisms. Examples of formal control are state propaganda,
governmental guidelines etc.

LEVEL
There exist two criteria to determine levels in society.
• Number of individual members
• Type of relationship shared by members

The smallest level is the family. This has the smallest number of members and the most proximate
relationship. Then come big organisations. The number of members increases, as does the formal nature
of the relationships. Face-to-face relationships do not exist. The next level is the national society. Here,
the number of members is large, while the relationship is abstract, difficult to define. Finally comes the
global society. The boundaries of nations are crossed. The number of members is the greatest and the
relationship is again, abstract. The differences between the members increases. Relationships exist among
members, not between members.
 SOCIAL RESEARCH

MEANING OF RESEARCH

Searching again and again, delving deeper into the existing knowledge. Research means a systematic
investigation of the new situations or phenomena in order to generate new knowledge or validate existing
knowledge.

Slowly and gradually, as white-collar crimes emerged, they began to be discussed by sociologists. This is
an example of validation of a theory which did not exist earlier.

OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH:

1) To gain familiarity with the phenomena or to achieve new insight into it.
2) To portray characteristics of particular individual situations or the group.
3) Determine the frequency of occurrence of two phenomena (based on hypothesis you either prove
the hypothesis or disprove the hypothesis).

When you talk about values and qualitative research, you try to know the subjective perception of the
person or groups, you try to relate more to value patters. Normative approach is related to values, positive
approach is related to facts. We try to develop a co-relationship, highest probability but a cause and effect
relationship like the one observed in pure sciences, is not possible.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative matters mean quantification of data numerically/mathematically. Ex. During addiction study
conducted, you find 80% students are drug addicts. You are:

1) Reducing your subjects into mathematical entities, here the percentage is a mathematical entity.
2) Establishing/explaining relationship between different variables.
In qualitative research, you are reaching/approaching the subjects of your study and you note down their
perceptions. Ex. Should women have menstruation leave, reservation, etc. This is better than quantitative
research in certain aspects because we are not reducing social beings like humans to mathematics

1) Approaching participants and asking questions

2) Constructing social reality

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative Qualitative

1) Meaning: Quantification of data Understanding a social situation from the

numerically/scientifically. perspective of the participants.

2) Purpose: Empirical investigation, Constructing social reality.

relationship between variables.
Establishing methods to be used in the initial
3) Method: Flexible stage itself, rigid.

4) Role of researchers: Objective Active participant in the process.

observed, nothing more than that.
5) Nature of question: Questions are
mostly close ended. Can be quantified Open ended question.

later on.
6) Methodology: Deductive in nature:
Uses an existing theory to inform the
hypothesis you test. Starts with a
theory and collect data that allows you
to test the theory.
7) Theories: You already have theory
construction, you progress to research
Inductive in nature: Takes your observations
and uses them to build a Theory. Starts with
Data then use them to form an idea about
how the world works.
You have to build the theories (inductive).

(deductive).
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

• Survey: General Survey, Regular Survey, Preliminary/Pilot Survey, Census/Sample

Survey.
− General Survey: Collection of general information. Recording general information in a
sheet, one reason might be because the population is not educated.
− Regular Survey: Conducted after regular periods of time. Ex. Family budget.
− Preliminary/Pilot Survey: Small survey before actual survey, have a questionnaire etc.
testing the viability of the subsequent surveys to be conducted. Based on observations on
pilot survey, you can make changes in the methodology of the main survey, then design
the result plan and implement in the final research.
− Sample Survey: Conduct research on sample representative of population. Ex. Random
Sampling, Random Systematic Sampling.
− Ad hoc Survey: For a particular period of time only.

• Correlational
When you try to find the relationship between two variables, independent variable is the cause and
dependent variable is the effect. Under this approach, we try to establish a relationship between
independent variable and dependent variable. And by manipulating the independent variable, we
try to ascertain tehe change in dependent variable.

• Experiment.
Pure research which tries to establish relationship between cause and effect and manipulate
variables. Under artificial conditions, you try to manipulate variables.

• Causal Comparative.
Already existing difference are known and we try to find out the cause from pre-existing
differences between two groups. Experiments are conducted to manipulate the independent
variable. Ex. A certain crop is given, fertiliser is the independent variable. Under artificial
conditions, you try to study the dependant variable (crop) by manipulating the independent
variable. Ex. Looking at marks of two groups, see the change in marks. Probe into causes and then
you find out that a group studying from one particular notes scores more.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

• Phenomenology
It means the systematic study of appearance of the respondent. Ex. Conducting interview of a
mother who has lost her child. If you ask her how she’s feeling about it, you’ll better be able to
gauge her perception wherever you are concentrating more on feelings, experiences, etc. to know
the reality. In qualitative research, the researcher also participates, not merely researches.

• Ethnography
This is a term used in relation to cultural studies. It is used to describe the culture of a group.
Malinowski used ethnography as a technique to study patriarchal system. He came to the
conclusion in these aspects using ethnography as a tool.

• Case Study
You pick a particular individual case and study it in detail. Quantitative technique may not always
give you complete information. Ex. When studying the Hadia case, you take into account how
factors like religious difference, societal perceptions have an impact.

• Grounded Theory
From the facts, you try to find out the theory. Ex. Every year 10 girls leave a college-data. Finding
out what is the cause and formulating a theory on that basis.

• Historical Research
Tracing the history to study the status of a particular social situation. Ex. You look into history to
probe origin, instances and reasons for capital punishment to come to a conclusion about it.

TERMS

- Basic Research (Fundamental research): Either you construct a theory or already existing theories are
there and you try to add to it.
- Applied Research: You’re applying a theory to a problem to find a solution. A problem is already in
existence and then you prepare a step by step plan.
- Descriptive Research: Ex. Survey, Case Study, Correlational. To describe the particular characteristics
of a social situation or group.
- Analytical Method: Critically analysing or evaluating the social situation. Historical analysis, review
analysis. Ex. Some literature is already published, you are nalysing that published research. Instead of
going to the field and conducting research, you are analysing published works.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

Legal case is primary data and case analysis is secondary data. Published works, official service records,
research publications, books, journals are secondary data. Collecting information directly from students is
primary data.

STAGES IN RESEARCH

• Identification of the problem: It is based on observation (research precedes observation) with a

particular goal and objective. You want to identify something with careful perception. Keen
difference between layman perception and professional perception.
• Literature reviews: In relation to that specific topic, you are collecting all information. Very first
way of presenting your research.
• Formulating a hypothesis: Probable tentative solution.
Null hypothesis: Which you reject.
Alternative hypothesis: Which you present as an alternative.
• Research design: Complete skeleton of your research. Objective, experimental, sample
investigation, methodology of sampling, participant observation, ethnography. After deciding all
this, you go for the actual part.
• Analysis of Data: Objective of analysis can be diagnostic or descriptive. Acknowledgemnt,
introduction, significance of research, bibliography.

SAMPLING
Sample and population are always related. If your objective is not to generalise but rather only analyse the
characteristics of the population, then don’t go for sampling. Sample means the representative group of
the population.
Two Types of Sampling:

• Probability sampling: Purpose is to generalise things. Types:

− Random sampling
− Systematic random sampling
− Stratified sampling
− Area/Cluster
− Multistage sampling
− Sequential sampling

• Non-probability sampling: Purpose is to understand the individual characteristics of the whole

population. Types:
− Quota sampling
− Non-random sampling
− Deliberate sampling
 Convenience sampling
 Judgement sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING (USING PARTICULAR METHOD TO SELECT THE SAMPLE)

• Random sampling:
− Used when population is homogeneous and small.
− Each and every unit of the population has an equal chance of participating in the sample.
− The sample that you choose has the same characteristics as the population.
− The selection of one individual is not dependent on the selection of another individual.
− Ex. Draw or lottery- Suppose there are 100 students and you want to select a random sample.
Put names of all students in a box and select say 25. All items in the population are
homogeneous therefore you put them in a box, every student has an equal chance of being
picked.

• Systematic random sampling:

− Is a methodology of skip interval technique.
− Skip interval= No. of elements in the population/Required sample size.
 − Specific formula is applied to the selection of units.
− If the size of the population is larger, systematic random sampling would be preferred over
random sampling.
− Disadvantage: Every unit of the population does not have an equal chance of participation in
the population.

• Stratified sampling (Division based on principle): Divides a bigger zone into different
strata.
− Stratified random sampling: First you make the strata on some principle (Depending on the
characteristics of the population you have taken the population and divided it into strata) and
then select units randomly from each strata.
− Proportionate random sampling: Suppose you divide population into strata on the basis of
caste then as per proportion you select sample of OBC, SC, ST, General.
− Disproportionate stratified sampling: Sample size is not proportionate to the population. If
you need to study relatively rare but important sub-population (not proportionate to the
population). Ex. Younger population suffering from heart disease.

• Cluster/Area sampling: (Division based on geography)

− Dividing population into various clusters or groups.
− The zones in this division are geographical.
− Instead of picking the individual, you are first picking the group.
− Advantageous when you do not have a list of the population.
− This is different from stratifies as we are not using a social element to stratify.

• Multi-stage sampling:
When broad research is going on which cannot be done separately, then you’ll divide it into
separate stages.

• Sequential sampling:
− Nature of research is such that you have to improvise. As your research progresses, fixed shape
is provided to the research.
 − Sometimes it is not possible to have a finalised structure of the research at the outset, for
example, if you want to modify your sample after conducting a preliminary part of the research.
− There may be a combination of techniques. If random sampling does not work out for you,
you may next choose a different one.
− When research goal may change during the course of the research, or if the research design
may change during the course of the research.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING (YOU ALREADY HAVE EXPERIENCE, ALREADY

CONDUCTED THE RESEARCH, DEVELOPED METHOD OR FRAMEWORK)
Purpose is not to generalise. Probability sampling is generally a sort of mathematical way to understand
the thing whereas in non-probability sampling, the aim is not to test the hypothesis. Here, the main concern
is to incorporate the judgement of the researcher. You give more focus to the experience of the researcher
rather than using quantitative techniques.

• Non-random sampling: Completely relies on the human experience or expertise of the

researcher. It is not based on random selection.

• Quota sampling: Counterpart of stratified sampling. Quota is given to the researcher and taking
random samples for individuals completely based on experience. The main idea is that it revolves
around your judgement.

• Deliberate sampling:
− Convenience sampling: Generally, should not be opted for. The information tends to be less
reliable and accurate. Generally, not a true representation of the universe and hence leads to
imperfect results. Sometimes, however, it may be useful if you need sensitive information and
you ask only those who are likely to have access to that info and share it with you.
− Judgement sampling: More useful, even though still based on your choice. Since this choice or
judgement is based on some rational reasoning. Also a deliberate sampling of sorts, for
example, choosing only fourth and fifth years to study the placement patters.

Deliberate sampling can lead to incorrect results since they may be reflecting the bias of the
researcher and help him substantiate a stance instead of finding an answer.
QUESTIONNAIRE

• A questionnaire may have both open-ended and close-ended questions. Then, scale questions may
also be used, that is the agree, strongly agree, etc. five-point scale.
• The difficult part of scaling techniques is to phrase the questions in this way.
• It must be so clear that the respondent can choose one of those answers.
• The main body of the questionnaire may have 15 questions divided into 3 main heads, for instance,
it is generally better to put the open-ended question at the end. This becomes a complete body of
the questionnaire. The questionnaire format has to be very accurate. Well-designed questionnaire
is the face of the research.
 SOCIALIZATION

Whenever a new member comes, he is introduced to the rules and norms of the society so as to bring
harmony among the members. Learning about the norms of the society continues when one remains in
the society. Socialization is the training given by society to its members so that they can internalize the
norms of the society in their personality and behave in accordance with such norms so as to bring harmony
and solidarity. This process starts with the birth of an individual and ends at the death. From scientific
view, majority of this training is done in the initial years of the personality development. Physical maturity
and social maturity goes on simultaneously but are two different concepts. Social maturity depends more
on social exposure. As one grows, more options of social exposure is present for an individual. Through
this socialization one develops his self-concept. Sociologists believe that when one takes birth, he takes
birth with a self-concept. Society possesses difference of opinions due to difference in socialization. This
socialization has various types and stages.

CONDITIONS OF AN EFFECTIVE SOCIALIZATION:

• Concept of reward and punishment associated with one’s actions: the social agents try to
make one understand the social norms and if such person voluntarily does not follow such norm
or he is not able to follow such norm, a punishment is attached to such dissent. With one’s action,
where he does not adhere to the norms, a punishment is there. But if one goes with the norms of
the society, they are rewarded. This might happen due to certain flaw in the training programme
itself. This concept is associated with the concept of learning process only. Rewards encourages
individual to do more good and his actions would be in consonance of the norms of the society.
Giving more punishment may lead to disassociation of the individual from the group.

• Control over the frustration: The outcome of punishment may lead to conflicts and frustrations.
If frustration is not controlled, it may lead to mental disorder or may affect the mental growth.
The conflict leads to frustration, which leads to aggression and which lead to repression and that
leads to mental disorder. The frustration is the definite consequence of socialization and learning.

• Distinction between the norms: distinction between the old norms which one has already learnt
and the new norms which the society is now offering them. This is also called difference between
traditionalism and new morality. This leads to clash as new learning is not happening and they are
 not able to accommodate to the new norms. Learning of the new norms and the accommodation
to the new norms and recycling of the old norms lead to effective socialization.

VARIOUS STAGES OF SOCIALIZATION:

No strict correlation between physical maturity and social maturity or socialization. Socialization only
depends upon the social exposure.
• Oral: Birth – 1 year: learning the identification of persons, the child is not able to differentiate
between his identity and his mother’s identity. The common learning is that of dependency. There
is a correlation between the needs and the demand fulfilment. His identification of his personality
is there, but such identity is merged with his mother. The self-existence concept is developed. The
self-development starts.
• Anal: 1 year to 3 year: learning the norms of the society e.g. toilet training, the child understands
that there are certain groups whose norms are expected to be followed by him, he also learns the
concept of reward and punishment, he identifies how these concepts is related with following the
social norms, differentiation between the personality of his mother and his own identity, the
mother or his caretaker becomes the mediator between him and the external world and they
become the most important social agent, here the social learning transfers from society to mother
and lastly to the child.
• Oedipus: upto the age of 12 from 4-5, how the male and female develops an interactionist
approach. The person identifies with the same sex instead of having attracted to the opposite sex.
This is primary way of understanding gender socialization. Male identifies with his father or
brother. After such identification, the child learns the norms attached to such particular sex.
Against this, Sigmund Freud provided that in this stage opposite sex attraction starts.
• Adolescence: 12-18: a person witnesses lots of physical, psychological changes. Now, the society
demands gender socialization and the same reflection of such norms in the society. Here different
social institutions demands conformity with the social norms. Lots of confusions arises as at one
hand social pressures are coming to him and on the other hand, he hi witnessing psychological
and physical changes. This pressure leads to conflicts in the society and in the personality.
Personality may be submissive or dominating. Aggression comes due to conflicts. Personality
changes occur as the individual starts accommodating on the terms of the societal demands.
• Adult: above 18 yrs: adult socialization seems simple as one has already learned all the basic norms
and the personality fixation is already done. But if one learns new norms in this stage, this becomes
very difficult for him to accommodate such norms. E.g. norms of equality taught to girls, which
 may not be the real case. Here one have to replace one’s old norms to the new norms, which
creates difficulties and makes the process of socialization more complex.

TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
• Early Socialization: It has something to do with the early period of human life. It includes oral
and anal stage. Very early phase of the life where parents, school, peers and social media play the
influential role in this type. Development of self-concept, identification of yourself as a different
human, learning of the concept of rewards and punishment and understanding. base for the
development of other kinds of socialization. Here the focus is on giving the right knowledge as in
future such human either extends those norms or learn new norms.
• Anticipatory Socialization: In anticipation of joining of a new group, the human starts learning
new norms. One has not yet joined a new group but the learning is in the anticipation for joining
the other group as prior knowledge of such new group is needed to get inducted to such new
group. This is the practicing phase for joining the new group. E.g. preparing for army
• Developmental: Extension of the early socialization. One adds more and more in the early
socialization. E.g. girl’s life after her marriage. Here one already have some learning, something
more to such prior knowledge happens. Such new learning is not in contrast of the old learning; it
is in the extension of the old norms.
• Re-Socialization: It happens rarely. It means completely moulding and replacing the old norms
with the new norms and acquiring the new norms. E.g. joining prostitution as profession; complete
retransformation of life and personality. From one personality to a new personality which is
completely in contrast with the prior personality. It may be negative transformation as well as
positive transformation.

SOCIAL AGENTS
On the basis of principle of authority, it can be divided into two groups. The criteria for division is the
agent’s authority over the individual.
• Having the control or authority over the learner: Parents, teachers (social status of these agents is
that they have authoritative capacity over the learners);
• Having same social status as that of learner: friends, social media
Point of contention among scholars – Which category teaches more? Those with authority or those
without? 10-20 years back, the influence of the first category people was considered as more on the learner.
True even today to only some extent as the early socialization if still influenced by this group. Due to
changing family system, family may even be converted into the second category. Having more social agents
belonging to the first category creates frustrations among the learners and therefore it is one of the negative
aspect of socialization.

THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
There are five theories of Socialization. These theories are related to the development of 'self' as a concept
in society. 
• Cooley's Looking-Glass Self Theory: 
This is a social psychology theory. "I am not what I think I am. I am not what you think I am. I am
what I think you think I am." This statement has to be understood in its gist. My imagination about
others' perception of me, in essence, determines what I believe about myself. When you look into a
glass, you see a reflection and your perception of the reflection creates the concept of 'self'. Society
works in a similar manner. 

• Mead's Role-Playing Theory: 

This is a social psychology theory. This theory describes how different social positions and their roles
are learnt by individuals. There is the play stage and the game stage. Here, the social position as
understood by a person results in him adopting the same when he reaches that position, that is, when
he transitions from being an observer to being a participant in the "game". Understanding of the
position as well as the role of the position, results in the transition from observation to participation. 
Significant others: Those who come in contact with you in the very first stage of your life. A generalized
concept develops on the basis of the understanding of the significant others whose roles have been
observed in that position. Eg. The position of a doctor, and the perception of the same portrayed by
the doctor on the basis of observation of the doctor's actions. 

Generalized others: Now, whatever is learnt by the person in his stage of significant others that he
now adopts the same and this is now used by the person. Eg. A son observing his abusive father tends
to normalize abuse and in turn, maybe adopts the same into his own actions when he gets married.  

• Sigmund Freud's Theory: 

 His discussions of the concept of 'self' have inspired socialization. He spoke of: 
− Id: Desires or animal impulses. The decisions a person wants to take. 
− Super Ego: What are the ideals, what should be. Social norms imposed by society. The super ego
norms are transferred through social agents. This is the social morality, and represents the
expectations of society. 
− Ego: Balance between Id and Super Ego. Suppressing the id in order to adapt to the super ego
although not completely. Striking a balance through the understanding of both the animal impulses
and the norms society wants us to develop. 

• W.I. Thomas' Defining The Situation:

" If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"
His theory gives an accurate picture of society and society in turn, defines every situation for you.
Society has decided a situation for you and your duty is to adapt to the decisions that have been taken
for you. Every culture prescribes norms and this adaptation is needed. Eg. Gender defined roles in
primitive times, the same is carried on even today. The role of biology in socialization is however, a
debated point among sociologists. 

'Unadjusted Girl' is a book written by him. This book talks about the imposition of norms on
women.  In this theory, he talks about society and culture playing a major role in the 'self' concept. 

• Emile Durkheim's Collective Representation:  

The synthesizing of different consciousness which is a result of the merging of different social
consciousness. 
This collective consciousness is collective representation, and adherence to the imposed norms is
necessary. Identity as an individual is lost and group identity becomes dominant. Social fact is a
manifestation of this group identity. 
These theories allow us to fully understand 'self' as a concept.
FAILURE OF SOCIALIZATION

How it can hamper the growth of personality and consequences

- Objective of socialization: To make the person understand culture, to give him cultural training.
- Not possible to understand culture easily. May take an entire life span.
- Development of self (main objective): To develop self personality, all the differences and stratifications
in societies may make it difficult to live. There is too much rigidity, stratification based on social
construction is inevitable. Inculcating of social norms by social agents in individuals may damage self
image. Ex. Telling a girl that she is inferior to boys.
- Mental Illness: Social researchers say that certain parenting styles may cause mental illness. Ex.
Addition of more children in family will lead to progress (misconception).
- Resistance to complete control: One of the most important parenting techniques is supporting
(excessive control is bad) and controlling (rules and regulations).

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALISATION

• It changes the biological being into a social being.

For instance, everyone takes birth simply as a male or a female individual. Just like animals. But
socialisation turns these individuals into social beings.

• It develops the concept of self.

• It gives an understanding of roles and statuses to each individual.

Socialisation teaches each individual about his role and status in society. In turn, they understand
what their requisite behaviour is. Their lives get a design. This is what makes society function.

FAULTS IN SOCIALISATION

Inherently, there is no fault in socialisation as a concept. However, socialisation is essentially a

communication process between individuals. It involves sending, receiving and internalising information.
Faults might crop up in this process.

• Fault in Communication
 Complete transfer of information is not always possible and often, interpretation of this
information is also incorrect.

Culture is an expansive concept. It influences everything – from the value patterns to the dressing
habits of an individual. Cultural transformation is one of the main objectives of socialisation.
However, since this is a long and complex process, it might become difficult for the receiver to
grasp a particular culture completely and correctly. When an individual receives and then reflects
information incorrectly, he gets disrespected by society. Due to such faults, an individual’s concept
of self may not develop properly, leading to mental illness and stress.

• Social Hierarchy
Additionally, since socialisation informs people of their role and status, an individual concept of
self might get adversely affected in the process. Coming to terms with the social hierarchy may
damage self-esteem and lead to other problems. For example, the caste system, which reflects a
social hierarchy, degrades the personality of people who are told that they are subordinate while
some other are superior. Similarly, people get barred from performing certain jobs on the basis of
their race, caste, gender, etc. Instead of developing the concept of self positively, this would
hamper its development.

Research conducted in the US on the race based social division reflected this idea. The study was
conducted over a 10-15-year period, analysing the black students in a particular school.
Socialisation taught these kids that they were different from the rest resulting in them having low
self-esteem. Over time, however, the social environment changed. Greater intermixing took place
and exclusive grouping virtually ended. Later, thus, they were found to have higher self-esteem.

• Parenting
Since socialisation influences personalities, and parents are one of the most important social
agents, parenting style is a strongly dominant factor affecting personality development of
individuals. This can be seen in the differing personalities possessed by kids with differing living
conditions at home, but with all other factors remaining largely the same. The child with a broken
family might have more mental issues than the child living in a happy family. This factor makes
family history of mentally troubled individuals extremely relevant.
 Poor parenting can thus, lead to frustration, mental conflict and other mental issues. While the
Chinese model of parenting entails excessive control, the American model allows for excessive
freedom. Many sociologists feel that Indian model involving support and control in balanced
proportions is the best model.

• Conflict in Socialisation
Socialisation gives an understanding of roles, status and required behaviour to individuals. If there
is a conflict between ideas taught put across by different social agents, then conflicts in the learning
process get created. This leads to inconsistency in socialisation. Often, in such situations,
individuals take the wrong course of action, since it seems more attractive. For example, if parents
teach their child to not consume alcohol, he might still end up drinking if his peers ask him to do
the opposite.

• Adult Socialisation
Adult socialisation requires a change in social understanding in adulthood. This requires
replacements of what was learnt in younger days with new understanding of social rules. This
becomes extremely difficult. Thus, a village man taught since his birth of the superior position of
men in society might find it difficult to work under a woman, if he moves to a city and finds a job
in a MNC.

• Inability to Satisfy Predetermined Parameters

Socialisation sets parameters for individuals, which they’re required to satisfy. The result is social
conflict, if they are unable to do this. For example, society says men have to be financially sound,
having a good, solid career. Similarly, traditional, conservative societies require women to have
children, grow a family and maintain beauty. If and when individuals are unable to satisfy these
goals, they develop personality problems. Researchers have, for example, found that single women
have a higher chance of developing mental issues. This is the result of the social scheme which
requires the woman to have a family, children, etc.
 PERSONALITY AND CULTURE

Central theme – Does culture determine personality? Primarily two views exist.

The first view does not believe that personality is influence by culture. It focuses on biological makeup.
Genetics determine how the personality of a person develops. Only our genetic makeup can determine
how hard we can work, and thus, this biological criterion would decide our ability to become successful.
This view stresses on the nature of a person in deciding his personality rather than nurturing.

The other view believes that personality is not affected by biological factors and is developed solely as a
result of the culture that the person is exposed to. It does not believe that personality traits can be derived
by virtue of birth. Social conditioning, develops and alters personality. People are born as blank papers
and their experiences determine how their personality pans out. This view believes that nurturing, and not
nature, determines personality.

A third view, striking a balance between these two extreme views, is perhaps the best one. While certain
fundamentals in a person’s personality are determined by biological factors, social conditioning plays an
important role as well. Both nature and nurturing determine an individual’s personality.

In this debate, gender socialisation is a particularly relevant issue. Margaret Meade conducted a research
to analyse whether the common notion of men being naturally aggressive and women being naturally
passive is true. She researched three different communities. In one community, both men and women
were found to be aggressive. In another, both were relatively passive. In the third community, dominated
by women, she saw a role reversal. Women worked in areas normally perceived to be dominated by men,
while men restricted themselves to activities usually associated with women. She thus concluded, that
personality development was not based on nature but on culture.

Conclusion – Personality is predominantly determined by culture.

However, if culture defines personality, then why are people within cultures different? This
happens due to three factors, primarily.

• Subculture Influence
Subculture groups are groups within a larger culture group having values and norms which set
them apart from the larger group. People even with a shared culture belong to different subgroups.
 In India for example, diverse subgroups like Rajasthanis, Delhiites, Bengalis, etc can be formed.
Learning in the subgroup is greater than that in the larger culture group. Thus, people are different.

Differences also exist because of cultural alternatives. Sociological aspects common to all cultures
are called cultural universals while sociological aspects differing across cultures are called cultural
alternatives. Marriage as an institution is a cultural universal. But different societies have different
types of marriages. Due to such cultural alternatives, individuals get different cultural moulding.
This in turn results in difference in personality traits.

• Biological Differences
As discussed above, biological factors influence personality. Thus, differences on an individual to
individual basis exist due to genetic differences.

• Situational Differences
Social environments differ for each individual. Different situations lead to different kinds of
experiences, leading to differing kinds of personalities. Thus, even if we consider twins with high
levels of genetic similarity living within the same culture, situational differences would lead to
differences in their personalities.
 CULTURE

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviours, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of
a particular group or society. A particular place or a society would have a culture shared by everyone living
there. Through culture, people and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and
contribute to society. Non-conformity with this culture would make the individual the odd-one-out and
may result in imposition of sanctions.

Culture has an expansive scope. It includes everything ranging from one’s thinking, beliefs and value
systems to general habits. Different places and situations require different kinds of behaviour. Behaviour
too, falls within the ambit of culture.

TYPES OF CULTURE

• Universal and Alternative Aspects

Cultural aspects common to all cultures are called cultural universals while cultural aspects differing
across cultures are called cultural alternatives. For example, marriage as an institution is cultural
universal, while ways of solemnizing marriages are cultural alternatives.

• Material and Nonmaterial Aspects

Aspects of culture can be broadly classified into two groups. Values and beliefs not embodied in
physical objects fall into nonmaterial culture. Physical, tangible objects to which cultural meaning
has been attached fall into material culture. Examples are electronic gadgets, dressing habits, etc.

• High Culture and Popular Culture

Cultural aspects associated with the higher strata of society, used by it to differentiate itself from
the mainstream is called high culture. Popular culture is the mainstream culture and is common to
all. In most cases, the population tries to emulate the higher strata of the society. Thus, aspects of
high culture are adopted by the general populace.

• Cultural Imperialism, Ethnocentrism, Xenocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Cultural imperialism refers to the imposition of one culture on people with different cultures,
believing the imposed culture to be superior.
 Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging a different culture on the standards of one’s own. It
follows from the belief one’s own culture is superior to others. Nazi attitude to other cultures is
an example. Xenocentrism involves considering one’s own culture to be inferior to others.

Xenocentrism results in low self-esteem. An example would be a student from a rural background
feeling that he lacks exposure, when he moves to the city.

Society depends on cultural relativism. It requires open mindedness and respect for cultures which
are different than the individual’s own. This does not require acceptance of a different culture’s
practices. It simply involves appreciation and respect.

• Cultural Shock
This refers to the reaction of an individual to a culture which is different, and often in conflict
with, the individual’s own culture.

• Subculture
Subculture groups are groups within a larger culture group having values and norms which set
them apart from the larger group. Learning in the subgroup is greater than that in the larger culture
group.

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Values are culturally defined standards for what is considered desirable. For example, giving importance
to money, giving importance to health, etc. Beliefs are practices used to achieve values. Example, belief
in hard work, since it helps in earning money, belief in not smoking, since it helps preserve health, etc.
Learning the values and beliefs is a long-drawn process.

Norms are rules and regulations governing behaviour. They form the scale on which behaviour is judged.
Formal norms are explicit stated and codified, while informal norms, which are found in the form of
popular societal practices, are not.

Symbols are representations of various aspects of a culture. Examples are traffic signals, mangalsutra,
flags, etc. Languages are comprised of spoken words, gestures and symbols. These are used for
communication. Etiquettes are simple day to day practices.

Customs are cultural ideas that describe a regular, patterned way of behaving.
PERSPECTIVES

• Functional Perspective - Acknowledging the culture of others which leads to harmony.

• Interactionist Perspective – Day to day communications and the fact that interactions have
different interpretations, which leads to different cultural interpretations as well.
• Conflict Perspective – Various cultural patterns are focusing or remoulding the society, instead
of filling the gaps, they are marking the divisions. Instead of harmonising the conflict, culture
extenuates the gaps and the differences.

CHANGE IN CULTURE

• Innovation
This is said to take place when pre-existing aspects of culture are introduced to a particular group
for the first time. Thus, these aspects get proved again. Society comes into contact with a new
concept. The discovery of North America by Columbus is an example.

• Invention
This is said to take place when entirely new aspects of culture are created and introduced. Examples
would be the invention of radio, electronic media, etc.

• Cultural Diffusion
When two different cultures get mixed and traits are adopted by these different cultures, cultural
diffusion is said to have taken place. This leads to cultural changes, but such changes do not result
in a complete change. The material change is visible to a large extent, but the nonmaterial changes
are limited. Thus, daily practices like eating and dressing habits v=change more quickly than
abstract ideas like the mindsets and value systems.

• Cultural Lag
Cultural lag is said to take place when material culture changes very fast but nonmaterial aspects
of culture do not change with the same speed. This causes a mismatch between the material and
the nonmaterial world. For example, the caste system has lost its rigidity and material aspects.
However, caste consciousness and belongingness still persist in society. This leads to a mismatch.
 FAMILY

It is a system that legitimises control over individuals or children.

Merdock – Family is a universal institution.

The family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation. It includes adults
of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more child
of the social co-habiting adult.

(Both Homosexuals and adopted children are excluded from this definition)

What is an extended Family? – If another relative lives with you, the family would be regarded as an
extended family.

What is a Family of Orientation – This is the family you were born into individually.

What is a Family of Procreation – This refers to the family you create through marriage and by having
children.

Critical views on the definition – Limited to the idea of a nuclear family.

TWO COUNTER EXAMPLES TO MERDOCK’S DEFINITION

• Matriarchal Structures – The father figure is absent here. The children reside with the mother/
female figure. Socialisation continues along the female lines.
• Kibbutz – all the members of the community reside together. The children live in the common
dormitories instead of residing with their parents.

FUNCTIONS OF A FAMILY – (MERDOCK)

• Sexual
• Reproduction
• Economic
• Education
TALCOTT PARSON’S FUNCTION OF A FAMILY

• Primary Socialisation
• Development of Adult stable personality. Frustration and friction occurs as a result of social
interaction which leads to problems in the personality as a whole which get stabilized in a family.
Family according to sociologists, serves as a place of release of frustration that tends to build up
in the personality of an individual.

SOCIOLOGISTS GENERALLY DIVIDE THE FUNCTIONS OF A FAMILY INTO TWO

• Primary Function – Social recognition to a sexual relationship. It also means the social acceptance
to reproduction and legitimacy of children.
• Secondary function – Those functions that have been modified over time.
− Economic – Basic economic activity was agriculture in a joint family system. This ran on
the model of Socialism. Requirements/needs were met with by the family members.
Individualisation broke this system down. Nuclear families emerged and the concept of
Economic independence or self-dependence arose.
− Education - In the ancient society, the function of the family was to provide primary
education, however in today’s time it has been transferred to external agencies.
− Psychological – Nature has changed. Value patterns in a joint family has become different
than that in a nuclear family. Family is seen to be the site of personality development.
− Socialisation
− Recreational

CRITICAL VIEWS ON FAMILY

• Family is the site of conflict. – In a nuclear family, pent up frustration is released on one other.
• Family is like a tennis match – The child in a nuclear family becomes a shuttlecock. The father and
mother are seen to release their frustration on the child. Family could also be related to gangsters
offering protection against each other in a site of violence.
There is a sense of child rights violation wherein the child is prone to negative socialisation as what
the child learns from the family is the idea of submission to the society.
• Device of social conditioning – You are made to shape your thoughts in a manner that you learn
to not raise voice against the beliefs of the society. Family conditions the individual to be what the
 state wants. Individuality is suppressed and the demands of the state are projected in the
personality.

TYPES OF FAMILY

• On the basis of marriage – This is seen to be the precondition to family which is also the
general traditional perception.
− Monogamous
− Could be polygamous
− Polyandrous

• On the basis of authority

− Matriarchal – Authority with the eldest female and the lineage is traced through the female
line.
− Patriarchal - Authority with the eldest male and the lineage is traced through the male line.

• On the basis of residence

− Matrilocal – Husband resides in the house of wife.
− Patrilocal – Wife resides in the house of the husband.

• On the basis of ancestry

− Matrilineage – Lineage through female
− Patrilineage – Lineage through male

• On the basis of size

− Nuclear family – Husband + wife + children
− Joint Family – Common roof + Common Kitchen + Common property + Common
beliefs
 MARRIAGE

In today’s society, marriage is generally seen as a precondition for the existence of family. Despite changes
in formation of families through newer developments like surrogacy, adoption, etc. this precondition has
remained intact.

Marriage as a system is defined by Edward Westermarck as a more or less durable relationship or

association between a male and a female lasting beyond the mere act of reproduction and after the birth
of the offspring. Thus, marriage is not concerned only with procreation. It is a long and durable
relationship. This definition does not incorporate emerging trends in marriage like contractual marriages,
live-in relationships and homosexual marriage. Most societies have not accepted these concepts
completely, even if legal provisions supporting their existence are present.

OBJECTIVE OF MARRIAGE ACCORDING TO THE TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE

• Procreation
• Social duty
• Sexual Pleasure

STAGES OF LIFE
• Brahmacharyashram
• Grihasthashram – The stage of life where you live in a household. You marry and become a part
of family along with performing certain duties.
• Vanaprasthashram
• Sanyasashram

TYPES
Classification on the basis of the number of male and female participants.

• Polygamy
One man married to multiple women. Sororal polygamy requires all the wives to be sisters. Non-
sororal polygamy is said to be present when the wives do not have a blood relation. Societies
practicing polygamy – Ancient Hindus, Muslims, Nagas (India), Gonds (India), Eskimos, African
negroes, etc.
 • Polyandry
One woman married to multiple men. This is practiced generally in matriarchal societies and in
some tribal communities. Fraternal polyandry is said to be present when the husbands are bothers.
Non-fraternal polyandry is present when the husbands do not have any blood relation. Societies
practicing polyandry – Tribes in Africa, Nair, Toda and Khasi tribes in India.

Identifying fatherhood is a problem in polyandry. Some societies practicing polyandry solve this
by assigning fatherhood not necessarily on the basis of biological claim but by allowing any of the
husbands to claim, socially, the fatherhood of the child. In some others, freedom is given to the
child. He gets to choose, after an age, who his father is.

• Monogamy
One man married to one woman. This is the most common type of marriage practiced in and
given legal recognition to in civilised societies.

• Group Marriages
Multiple husbands married to multiple wives, with each husband being individually married to each
of the wives and vice versa. This is very rare. In ancient times, it was prevalent in Australia, Tibet
and in Todas in India.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGAMY AND POLYANDRY

• Imbalanced Sex-Ratio
Where issues like female foeticide lead to a lower female population, polyandry emerges. Where
males are fewer, polygamy gets encouraged.

• Preservation of Property
In order to keep property intact, sororal polygamy and fraternal polyandry are practiced, which
keeps the property within one family and helps avoid division among different families.

• Bride Price
Bride price is the practice of giving a price to the woman to allow her to marry. Due to poverty, it
became financially sensible for several men to pool in resources to pay the bride price, and thus,
get married together to the same woman. This was an encouraging factor for polyandry.
RULES OF MARRIAGE
Endogamy is the practice of restricting marriages within a particular group. For example – Allowing
marriages only within caste, sub-caste, village, etc. Sub-caste and caste endogamy is declining. Rigidity in
these terms has decreased substantially.

Exogamy is the practice of excluding marriages within a particular group. For example – Hindu tradition
does not allow marriages within Gotra, Pravar or Pind. Legally, exogamy is enforced only for Pind (incest
of sorts – relation within 5 paternal and 3 maternal relatives). Even here, an exception is made for certain
societies like the matriarchal system in Kerala, where marriage with uncle is permissible. Khap panchayats
demand legal recognition of exogamy for Gotra (people with shared lineage) and Pravar as well. At certain
religious ceremonies, people are asked to utter the names of Devis or Devtas. If the name uttered by two
persons is the same, they are said to be in the same Pravar.
 KINSHIP

Kinship is a social structure, over which the social system of family has been established. Kinship is the
subject of anthropological study. Kinship can be established either through blood or through marital
relationships.

Primary kin can be found in 8 kinds of relationships. These are seen between members of a nuclear family,
between husband-wife, parent-children, siblings. Secondary kin can be found in 33 kinds of relationships.
These are the relationships between an individual and the primary kin of his primary kin. Tertiary kin can
be found in 151 types of relationships. These are the relationships between an individual and the secondary
kin of his primary kin.

TYPES
• Primary – Your own family of Orientation.
− Husband – Wife
− Father to Son, Father to Daughter, Mother to Son.
• Secondary Kins
− 33 possible combinations. The primary kins of primary kins.
• Tertiary
− The secondary kins of the primary kins.

SIX NORMS WHICH GOVERN KINSHIP:

• Rule of Avoidance – Distance has to be maintained to avoid complexities. For example, Daughter
in law maintains distance from her father in law.
• Joking Relation (Casual Relation) – A joking, informal relationship is required in certain kinds
of relations so that the individuals do not become inappropriately close. The relationship between
Devar and Bhabhi, for example.
• Teknogamy – Where women do not refer to their spouse or any other relation, directly by their
name. ‘Aji sunte ho!’ and ‘Pappu ke papa!’, for example.
• Avunculate – Position/Status of Maternal uncle – This refers to the special relationship in some
matriarchal societies between a man and his sister’s children. The maternal uncle plays an
instrumental role in their lives.
• Amitate – Social position of father’s sister in the patriarchal structure. The name of the child is
given by the father’s sister.
• Covude – In order to give respect, husband takes part in the activities which are observed by the
wife. It is also called sympathetic pregnancy, i.e., a practice in which a husband experiences some
of the same symptoms and behaviour as an expectant mother.
 SOCIAL PROCESS

Kind of a Social interaction between various social groups. This interaction involves contact and
communication.
1) Communication – Both non-verbal and verbal.
2) Contact – Space and Time.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOCIAL PROCESS:

• Cooperation – This means working together for the common goal. Various types are:
a. Direct – Identical working together.
b. Indirect – Physically not present together
c. Primary – Primary relatives working together
d. Secondary – Different social groups/religious groups working together
e. Tertiary – Actually unwilling to cooperate but the goal remains the same.

• Competition – Target is a goal

• Conflict – Target is the individuals who are involved in the competition. This monopolizes the
goals. Less social positions, struggle to acquire the limited resources. This is seen to be a continuous,
universal and dynamic social process. However, the difference remains that the competitions are
governed by some norms while a conflict is not. In a situation of foregoing of the norms, a
competition turns into a conflict.

Types of Conflict:
a. Personal – knowledge of who you are fighting against
b. Impersonal – not aware as to who you are going against.
c. Constructive
d. Destructive

When this competition reaches the height of being destructive, it changes into a conflict. It cannot
be continuous. The target doesn’t remain the goal anymore but the individual who you are
competing against.
 Simmel proposed 4 types of conflicts:
- War
- Ingroup conflicts
- Litigation
- Conflict of Impersonal ideas

Conflict between the political leaders

- Class conflict
- Race conflict
- Religion Conflict

• Accommodation – Mere acceptance of the other’s ideologies. Two types:

a. When both the parties are not at an equal status. Use of Force.
b. Both parties are at equal level. Compromise will take place. Involvement of third party.

• Assimilation – merging of ideologies (Acceptance and Agreement) Example – Bheel Community

in the Indian society. Initially there was no segregation in the Bheel community. But due to the
influence of the Hindus’, a hierarchical system came into being.
 SOCIAL GROUP

Social groups are formed out of a collection of individuals with common ideas, interests and ideologies.

Man is a social animal. Thus, being social beings, people share a need for company. Natural psychological
instincts, social factors like security and togetherness, political factors, economic factors, geographical
factors, etc. lead to the formation of social groups.

Membership in social groups may or may not be forced.

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
• Sumner (On the Basis of Membership)
All people associating themselves to a particular group form the in-group. Any other person not
falling in that group falls in the out-group. Different value systems may lead to conflicts between
members of different groups. For example, communal clashes take place between Hindus, who
consider all Hindus to form the in-group and Muslims, who form the out-group.

• Elwood (On the Basis of Choice)

Voluntary social groups are those which are formed on the basis of the choice of its members. An
involuntary social group is one where choices have no role to play in deciding membership.
Example, caste system leads to formation of involuntary social groups. Other examples are family,
gender, etc.

• Sorokin (On the Basis of Structure)

Horizontal social groups spread horizontally. For example, in a nation. Every person is an member.
Vertical social groups involve the maintenance of a hierarchy. For example, religious social groups
and the caste system.
• Park (On the Basis of Territory)
Territorial groups, like nations, are bound by territorial limits. Non-territorial groups, like society,
transgress territorial limits.

• Cooley (On the Basis of Nature of Relationship)

Primary groups like family and community are formed on the basis of sympathetic contact,
dependant on condition. Secondary groups like associations are more formal, formed on the basis
of categorical contact, independent of condition.

• Tonnies (On the Basis of Nature of Relationships)

The basis of classification was similar to the one used by Cooley. Gesellschaft is based on indirect
impersonal interactions (society); Gemeinschaft is formed as a result of personal social interactions
(community).

• Simmel (On the Basis of Size)

Social groups may either be small or large.

• Muzafer Sherif (On the Basis of Following)

Individuals may either be a part of the membership group or the reference group. Reference
groups sets the ideal characteristics, which are followed by the membership group. Thus, members
of one group will be following the members of another.
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Though people might be equal, not everyone is the same. People can be differentiated on various grounds.
Equality aims at giving exposure and opportunity to all. There are primarily three types of differentiations
present – Caste, Gender and Class based.

Talcott Parsons, who is a functionalist has propounded 3 criteria which makes society functional.
Differentiation is primarily seen to be extremely relative in nature.

• Quality
These refer to inborn qualities shaped by society. Personality traits like intellectual capabilities are
included in this category.

• Possession
Refers to possession of resources, money, for example. It may either be acquired or ascribed. This
determines the opportunities that the individual would have access to.

• Performance
This factor determines how well the individual actualises his qualities and possessions in the
society.

Differentiation leads to stratification or layering. Society places people in positions or statuses on the basis
of criteria like class, caste, race, gender, age, etc. on the basis of this, a hierarchy is formed. Though we feel
equality should exist, this layering is a fact. The caste system is a good example of this.

Nimkoff defined stratification as the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more or
less enduring hierarchy of status. Diverse forms of stratification exist. Race based stratification and caste
based stratification in India are examples. We aim to end certain types of stratification, i.e., the social
recognition of the differentiation. For example, caste based discrimination. This is done through laws,
social activism etc.
FEATURES OF STRATIFICATION

• Universal
It is an ancient, universal concept. It may take diverse forms in different societies, but is found
universally nonetheless.

• Social
The layering is social in nature and not a natural consequence. Qualities may be inborn, but the
acknowledgment of these qualities is done by the society. It takes place only when the
differentiation is recognised by society. (Differentiation + Recognition = Stratification). For
example, intellectual qualities are placed above the artistic qualities.

• Consequentialist
Stratification is co-relative to many other factors. Therefore, stratification affects all the other
aspects of the life. Thus, it can be called consequentialist, as it affects the individual’s opportunities
and life chances.

APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING STRATIFICATION

How does social differentiation give birth to social stratification? – Social differentiation may be biological
in nature however social stratification is essentially social in nature.
• Functionalist
Constituent units work together to bring social harmony Social stratification is essentially bringing
harmony to the society – This is functional and has positive consequences, as it brings harmony.
Largely speaking the hierarchical structure is functional to the society. It helps in the identification
of roles and statuses. This teaches how to live our lives and behave in the various roles that we
occupy, as a student, friend, son, etc. for example. Despite the negative connotation, stratification
helps in social interactions. In Ancient India, for example, concepts of Swadharma and Swabhava
existed. When an individual identified which Guna (trait) dominated his personality, he would accept
the reality and decide his status accordingly. The determination of occupations was based on
personality. Thus, the system was not rigid, but actually allowed for mobility.

Stratification is the system of ranking or rewarding is quintessential to the society. It creates incentive.
A social system where efforts are rewarded would be happier and more functional.
− Talcott Parsons
Every social system works on certain social values. Social makes ranking on the basis of
these shared social values and therefore rewards the individuals. Importance is accorded
to achievement. Value systems differ from society to society however every society
operates on shared social values.

Stratification is inevitable, functional and the ranking in the society is based on the shared
value system. A society where there is no hierarchy or rewards is unimaginable.

− Kingsley Davis and Moore – Role Allocation and Performance

All roles must be fulfilled and these must be fulfilled by the best abled to do so. These
positions require some roles to be fulfilled. The best abled individual will have to fulfil
their respective roles.

How would you determine which role should be placed at the top of the hierarchal order?
Two principles are:
 Whether that role can be performed by any other social environment?
 To what extent are the other social units dependent on this role performed by an
individual – Example: - Doctor. Can the role of a doctor, his duties be performed
by another individual? To what extent are the other individuals dependent on this
individual?

If everything flows from that individuals performing that particular role, he enjoys the
highest portion in the hierarchal order.

− Tunin
He criticises Moore and Davis. How can one position be held over another in terms of
importance? It all depends upon power politics. How can you bargain power? It depends
on how well you monopolise the power politics. It is not a black and white area. There are
shades of grey involved as well. The best portions are bargained by the powerful
individuals. These people head the order of hierarchy because they are in a better position
to bargain power. Example of Medical profession in the American setup. There are certain
affluent and influential doctors who do not allow other individuals to become a part of the
profession.
 − Young
He proposed the ‘theory of merit’. Posited that the Hierarchal system is based on merit,
which is further based on Stratification.

• Conflict
Conflict views stratification as a means of dividing society on the basis of control over means of
production. Thus, society is divided on the basis of economic determinants. Thus, from the conflict
perspective, stratification is viewed in a negative light. Conflict exists in the society in the latent form,
not the manifest form. A class system exists. It talks about the haves and have nots. The haves enjoy
a superior position, manage, authorise all means of modification. The class system should be done
away with.

Webber believed that a class system existed with respect to the market position. All those individuals
who enjoy the same market position are a part of one class. Hierarchy on the basis of market
positions. He also accepts Karl Marx’s proposition however does not agree with the idea of division
into haves and have nots on the basis of whether they monopolise means of production, but on the
basis of their market position. Class is an open system while Caste is a closed one.

• Interactionist.
This approach views the effects of stratification in day to day interactions. Largely, it plays a positive
role, by teaching us how to behave in all kinds of situations. Students, for example, are able to
recognise the authority of teachers in the classroom, and this, in turn makes interaction constructive.
There exist diverse views even within this approach.

ROLE AND STATUS

It speaks of the role associated with the social status. Unless and until you understand the role, you will
not be in a position to appreciate the social status of an individual. Different roles are occupied by
individuals throughout their life. We are born with certain positions but there are some that you acquire
during your lifetime. Caste is an ascribed status, though. Throughout your life, your caste remains the same

Status can be divided into two: Ascribed (eg: caste, This is where the behaviour is associated with a role
or a position) and Achieved. Now, Status is a sociological concept while role is a psychological concept.
These terms are related to each other, hence are relational terms. You can understand the role and status
of an individual, only if you understand it in relation to the status and role of the other person. Like how,
the role of a Lawyer cannot be construed without a client, or a student without a teacher, or a son without
a parent, etc.

Status and role are dynamic and ever-changing. You can have a social status without a role and a role
without a social status. Example – a Mother taking care of a child. This is a role without a social status.

However, your actual behaviour is not always in line with the expected behaviour. Role conflict – conflict
between two roles that you enjoy at the same time. For example, a conflict between a friend and a student.
Due to the gap between actual behaviour and expected behaviour, conflict arises mainly of two types:
• Within your own body of roles
• Within two roles – when two roles are undertaken at the same time.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Social mobility refers to movement of individuals across strata. Mobility is said to be present when society
gives an opportunity to individuals to change their status. While the ascribed status remains the same, the
achieved status can be changed, since this is determined on the basis of individual performance.

There exist two types of social mobility. Vertical mobility is said to be present when a change in status is
secured. An example would be a clerk changing professions and becoming a IAS officer. Horizontal
mobility is said to be present where no change in status but a change in position is achieved. An example
of this would be a teacher changing colleges but remaining in the same profession. Similarly, mobility may
either be upward (for example, becoming richer) or downward (for example, becoming poorer).
Intergenerational mobility entails a change in status over two or more generations. For example, where a
clerk’s son becomes a IAS officer. Intra-generational mobility envisages a change within the generation.
Siblings with the same background securing professions of different statuses would be an example.
Structural mobility is said to be present when an entire group of people, rather than just one individual,
changes its status in society. Women empowerment and wall street professionals after the financial crisis
would be apt examples of the same.

Typical Hindu stratification – caste system (exclusive to Hindu society) and class system (universal). Caste
system is a closed system, not allowing any mobility. Originally, stratification was based on the Varna
system. Its origin is found in the Rig Veda. Strata of society were analogous to parts of the Purusha. The
Brahmins represented the head, Kshatriyas represented the shoulders, Vaishyas thighs and Shudras, the
feet. This system was not closed. It allowed mobility. However, over time, the stratification became rigid
and a complex system of castes, sub-castes and mechanisms of maintaining their rigidity were developed.
Thus, the caste system finds ancient, mythological and spiritual backing. The class system, on the other
hand, is universal, secular and open.

RACE, ETHNICITY AND MINORITY

These can be other bases of stratification. These three terms have differing meanings in sociology.

Race is differentiation based on skin colour and region of belongingness. These are the two central criteria
for determining race. Race is often associated with physical characteristics. Ethnicity is based on belief and
culture values. People with shared culture values will have the same ethnicity. There might be an
intersection between race and ethnicity. Where people in the same region share the same culture, their race
and ethnicity is the same. A minority is a group singled out from the rest of the society due to its physical
characteristics and cultural practices. Thus, minority entails separation from others. Since national
boundaries in contemporary societies have been shaken, these concepts are gaining importance in the idea
of global stratification. Globally, however, stratification is largely based on the economy.

Stratification is popularly believed to not be functional, since it confines people in certain fixed statuses
and positions. However, sociologists believe that it is inevitable and is actually functional to the society.
As discussed above, it helps us understand our social status and role, and thus helps us behave accordingly.
Stratification is dysfunctional for the extent to which it allows discrimination. Largely, however, society’s
survival is dependent on social stratification.
 SOCIAL CONFIRMITY AND CRIME

Deviation from conformity with norms leads to society calling such an individual a deviant. Conformity
with social norms leads to social harmony. Norms are rules and regulations that leads to social harmony.
Norms are rules and regulations which the society expects its individuals to follow or abide by. The norms
of different communities may vary because the social agents who communicate these norms to the
individuals are different.
• Internalization – of these norms by the individuals leads to social conformity (the individual
becomes habituated and the norms are ingrained forming a part of one’s personality.
• Socialisation – is one of the most important answers as to why we conform to social norms.
The utility concept basically talks about how at the completion of socialisation, there is a sense
of understanding of the rationale behind a social norm and the result/consequence of following
a particular norm. When an individual realizes that a particular norm has utility, he/she tends
to follow the norm in all its structures.
• Group Identification – If you are a member of the group or want to become a part of the
group, you tend to start following the norms of that particular group. Certain kind of behaviour
is expected from a group and therefore you start confirming with the norms of that particular
group because you wanted to be associated with that group.
Does an individual adhere to all the norms in every situation? No. It means that a certain kind
of deviance is always existing in the personality of an individual.
Emile Durkheim defines deviance as functional. Deviance might be construed both in a very
negative sense of the term and also in a positive light.

COMMISSION OF A CRIME
A violation of certain legal norms – Legal connotations. Deviance – Social connotations. There might be
certain situations when the individual is a deviant but not a criminal or vice versa.

Social Control is a mechanism to control the behaviour of an individual to make him adhere to the norms.
For example – Customary practices. In a formal set up, the legal system would be regarded as a control
mechanism (Legal codification).

Why exactly does a person commit a crime? Is he always responsible for the commission of a crime? The
answer is based on the question of freedom of will – Whether you were free to act or not?
Two Theories:
• Determinism – You are not free to act. These physical and social forces acting which influence the
acts of the individual.
• Indeterminism – The theory states that an individual is always free to do an act. There are absolutely
no external forces acting on him.

THEORIES OF CRIME
• Classical Theory
Classical Theory is based on the freedom of will and Hedonistic rationality – an individual is free
to calculate the consequences of his actions. You act only on the basis of that - the fact that you
want a reasonable consequence that is, you are to do as you will.

Origin of Punishment is a social contract. This social contract grants legitimacy of punishment
which includes special deterrence and general deterrence. Now, why exactly do you sacrifice certain
liberties? – Because you want to prevent the ultimate social chaos so as to inculcate harmony in the
society.
What is the two-fold object of Punishment?
- To ensure that the individual learns his lesson
- Deter others from committing this act.

Nowadays, a more reformative approach has been adopted. However, the strict penal laws still
find peace in the code.

• Neo – Classical Theory

This developed in the 1800s, which talks about certain mitigating factors and looks into the
limitations of classical theory. A human being cannot be completely free to act. Human behaviour
is determined on the basis of biological or psychological and is not a matter of free will. Criminals
are fundamentally different from non-criminals and crime is caused by multiple factors.

Society is based on consensus and not a contract. (There is consensus however there is no binding
of a contract upon the individuals). If it is agreed upon that a person was not free to act, the
quantum of punishment is bound to be affected/mitigated.
• Biological Theories
Looking into criminal physiology. Criminals are physiologically different from non-criminals.
− Lombroso – Physical
Criminal Type – Biological inferiorities in criminals. Now, this theory does not say that
there is 100% possibility of such an individual committing a crime, however if the
socialisation is such that he might indulge into criminal activities, the chances of him
becoming a criminal are high.

− Sheldon.
Theory extended by Sheldon – on the basis of Body type. This categorizes human body
into three types:
 Endomorphic – Soft, fat
 Mesomorphic - Athletic, shapely (These people are most likely to become
criminals)
 Enctomorphic – Tall, Thin.

Is there a heredity in crime? A lot of research has been conducted however no conclusion has been
reached at.

• Psychological Theories.
There was a realization that there could be correlation between crime and intelligence. People of
High intelligence are usually found committing crimes.
− Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud
Who is a psychopath? Someone who has difficulty in making social connections. They do
not feel guilty doing anything wrong. They have deep scathed problems and issues. There
is no evidence that they could be cured using therapy.

− Humanistic Psychology
Locate and look into human psychology and social environment. Some people might not
be able to satisfy their needs through legal means. Taking all these circumstances into
consideration. If a person is exploited, he will develop anti-social tendencies.
 − Emile Durkheim
Slow shift from biological and psychological traits found in criminals of the society. The
fact that society is the reason why an individual commits a crime. The manner in which
the society treats the individual, he gradually develops into the kind of person the society
wants him to be.

• Sociological Theories.
From free will of the individual to the free will of the society – shift. Response mechanisms to
crimes will have a social change in the society. It will always remain in the society. These could
probably be some problems in the individual’s personality or some breakdown between the society
and individual which leads to the individual committing the crimes. Durkeim contributed with his
theory of social facts. Things, External to you, control your behaviour. Crime is normal, inevitable
and functional – which is also a social fact.
− Anomy and Strain Theory.
 Durkeim said that there is an integration between the group and the individual.
This integration primarily means a state of normlessness is reached, a sense of
detachment is attained, a state of anomy which causes the individual to commit a
crime.
 Merton suggested five categories of people. He talked about innovators who
accept the goal but find innovative ways to achieve the goal. The probability of
such people becoming criminals is pretty high. Retreatism – Those individuals who
do not accept the goals.
 Cohaine propounded the strain and subculture theory wherein he talks about the
criminal tendencies persisting in the adolescents of the lower strata of the society.
In this social structure, middle class values dominate. The lower strata is not in a
position to cope up with these values. They just have two options:
 Compromise
 Develop their own values, culture (sub-culture) = This is exactly why gangs
are formed as the new values formed are appreciated in the new sub-culture
or the gang thus created.
 Clovard – What are the various types of gangs?
 Criminal – who want to make money
 Violent – their focus is to let the aggression come out.
  Detached Group – Disintegrated individuals who indulge in activities like
drugs.

− Social Disorganization
Shaw and Mckay – 1930 – Chicago School of Thought. Focused majorly on city
development/making. The crime rate is high in the Central zone. The criminals settle in
areas where expenses are less. The manner in which the city develops has a close relation
to the criminal activities. Eg. Slum areas – children exposed to crimes are more than
children from well-off families.

− Learning Theory.
We learn and get influenced by our peers and individuals who surround us. If one person
is surrounded by such people who indulge in such crimes, he is likely to indulge in such
activities as well. We as human beings imitate people who surround us.

− Social Control
The other discuss causal explanation of why a crime is committed, however this one
focuses more on why there exist law abiding citizens. Proponents are and Matza – Drift
theory.
 Travis Mirasechi
Why isn’t a person committing a crime? Norms are so inculcated in the personality
of an individual that he hesitates to break the norm or law. Four factors of
developing this bond:
 Attachment to the other
 Commitment to the Convention
 Involvement in Conventional Activity
 Belief in Moral order and Law

We’ve grown up in an environment which has taught us to follow norms and these
conventional values are inflicted in our behaviour. Therefore, it is unusual for an
individual to not follow rules or law.
  Matza – Drift Theory
Non-conventional and conventional values both exist in the society and we find
for a drift between the two. However, a self-control mechanism helps maintain a
balance between the two values.

− Critical Theories discuss the Criminalization process.

− Labelling Theory – If after a crime is committed and the individual is labelled as a

criminal, there is a high probability of him committing the crime again. Therefore, the
modern criminal theorists work on social re-integration of these individuals.

− Conflict Theory – Karl Marx – two classes. Conflict and a sufficient divide exists between
them. As a result of this excessive control and exploitation, the have nots commit crimes.

− Radical Theory – Karl Marx. This talks about Human rights violation.

− British School of Thought

Crimes committed by the powerful are due to two reasons:
 Relative deprivation/marginalisation – Primarily talks about being more/less
comparatively which creates anger within oneself, this in turn creates a sub culture.
 Developing a sub culture

− Peace making criminological theory – Remove the root cause itself. Mixture of
Humanism, Socialism and other scholarly tendencies. This ensures the creation of an ideal
society.

− Feminist – Major question raised about patriarchy and the difference in the causal
explanation of crime commission between a woman and a man should be acknowledged.
This difference should be reflected in the penal laws.

− Post Modern

− Integrated Theory.
THEORIES OF PUNISHMENT
Why does an individual adhere to the norms of the society? And when he fails to adhere to the norms of
the society, he is seen to be a deviant. The reasons for such deviance constitute the theories of crime
Integrative – when theories are clubbed together to study the reasons for commission of crimes.

Various theories of Punishment – These theories depend on whether you believe that the individual was
free to act or not. The various sociological, psychological, and biological factors come into picture while
we are determining the appropriate punishment for an individual. Punishment – Close relation to
adherence to the legal norms.

• Retribution.
Objective of this remains the fact that whatever wrong you have done; you will be held liable for it.
Equal proportion to the wrong done. Objective and focus of target is the individual based on the
idea of revenge.

• Deterrent and Preventive.

You want to create an example for the society. An environment of fear is to be created. There are
two types of Deterrence – Specific (deter the individual himself) and General (the individual is
treated as means to justify the other end. Primarily to set an example for the others. Others are
prevented from doing the same acts)

Major objective – the target remains the society. Punishment is henceforth not proportionate. It
might be a bit harsher as compared to the act.

Preventive – means to prevent forever. To go ahead and look for an action that the individual is
prevented forever from committing an act. For example – the concept of Capital Punishment. The
individual won’t be in a position to commit the offence twice. Hence, the target remains the society
and not the individual.

• Reformative.
An analogy is drawn between a crime and a disease. A criminal is a patient and needs to be cured
of such diseases. There might be various psychological, physical, biological or sociological reasons
for the commission of a crime or certain pressures under which he operates. Hence, a number of
policies, social integration policies are introduced to ensure that the individual does not remain
aloof and isolated.

Open Prison system – Reformation system – All the advantages that a normal free person enjoys
are granted to him. He learns to earn livelihood. Reformative programs/vocational training
programs are introduced to ensure that these criminals are reformed or cured of the disease.
Minimum punishment is to be given – Quantum of Punishment gets lessened owing to the
forgiveness factor which comes into the play only because of the good character of the person.
Now, this remains a morality principle but does not form a part of the legal system. All of these are
based on the morality concept and some sort of moral proportionate wrong in answer to the wrong
by the individual.
 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CONTROL

One of the most important objectives of socialisation is to train an individual in accordance to the norms
of the society. Social control is merely a mechanism to control the behaviour of an individual. Conformity
with the norms of the society is an essential requisite. In the instance of a deviation, is a control mechanism
functional? There are certain norms which are not codified however exist in the customary form. In the
absence of such a mechanism, there’ll be chaos in the society. What is a Formal Social Control? – Where
law comes into the picture and social control gets codified.

There is a sense of Formal social control wherein the Government tries to control the behaviour of its
citizens. Informal social control includes customary social practices. Eg – A certain coloured clothes worn
during Funeral proceedings.

An individual who does not adhere to the norms will become an object of social criticism. The person
shall also be subjected to social disapproval. Eg – Khap Panchayat

TYPES OF CUSTOMS
• Aachar – religious observance/norms
• Vyvhaar – Daily Routine
• Sadaachar – Customs or Customary Practice. These are long established rules and have been
followed since/for generations

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAW AND CUSTOM

Customs are of another type. They may either be legal or conventional. Legal customs have a binding
force. Conventional customs do not. But due to practice over a long period of time, these get some
authority. The relationship between law and customs can be of three types.

• Where the law accepts and recognises certain customs, legal customs are formed. Examples can
be found specially in cases of family laws, where religious customs are given recognition to.
Practices like using the Mangalsutra, Kareva marriage (marriage of the woman to the husband’s
brother after the former’s death) in Punjab, marriage of women to maternal uncles in the Nair
community, etc are examples of this.
 • Where the law prohibits certain practices, which are still considered acceptable in the society, a
conflict arises between the law and the custom. Often, the societal belief in the customs would
prevail, making the law ineffective. Dowry, child marriage, witchcraft, etc. are examples of the
same.

• Where the law gives recognition to a practice which is otherwise against customary norms, a
conflict may again arise. This happens usually when the majority of the population has not accepted
a change in a certain kind of norm. in such cases, the law is sympathetic towards these norms, and
provisions allowing them are made. Examples include live-in relationships and free entry into
temples in India, and homosexuality in conservative societies, where it has been legalised.

Where the media is controlled by the state and the public opinion is thus, shaped by the government,
media would form a means of formal social control. State propaganda moulding popular belief would fall
within this category. However, otherwise, media forms a type of informal control mechanism.

Fashion is another strong mechanism of social control. Despite not having any sanctions imposed against
not conforming to it, fashion moulds the behaviour of most individuals in society. This is the case because
individuals feel the need to conform with rules of fashion, like dressing and eating styles, in order to remain
integrated with the society. Means of spreading fashion may be different in different societies.
 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Conflict school of thought explained the idea of social change. The functionalists had very rarely
mentioned the idea of social change. Changes are functional and thereby necessary for a progressive
society. There are certain social structures operating in the society which witness continuous change
because they need change as and when they lose relevance. These changes could be both negative and
positive.

The Functional school – talks about harmony and balance. This does not absolutely talk about any kind
of a change rather draws references from biological determinism. They do not believe in the idea of social
change. Every unit in the society is assigned a role which it performs throughout its life – the question of
a change in this role does not arise. (Drawing an analogy to the human body) On the contrary, the conflict
theory states that since we cannot remain in a state of conflict forever, we need social changes to happen
which will resolve these conflicts. Change becomes absolutely necessary and it also leads to progress.

Changes in the family structure occurred after industrial revolution wherein people migrated from villages
to towns/cities or movement from one state to another.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

• Social change is a continuous process.
• Change is always talked about in context of time
• Social change refers to human change – Human interactionship/relationship.
• Chain of reactions – happens as a result of social change. One change leads to a series of changes.
For instance, one amendment in law will lead to a number of social changes.
• Social change might be planned (Majority of social reforms or policies introduced by the
government from time to time) or unplanned (Changes in the society which lead to an imbalance
in the social structure)
• It is an objective term. Not referring to the ethical or moral questions of right or wrong. These are
all ethically neutral terms.
• All social changes are cultural changes however it does not remain the same vice versa. Culture has
a wider ambit/scope. Social changes are henceforth a subset of cultural changes.
CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
• External social environment – A political treaty between two countries would definitely an
impact on the social structure. This might lead to forced migration which shall lead to a social
change.
• Non social environment – Divided into two:
− Human intervention – Like Deforestation.
− Natural Calamities – Indirect human intervention might be present.
• Strain and conflict – Different class based, religion based or gender based conflicts might exist in
the society. There is an existing/continuous struggle in the society to resolve these conflicts.
• Social Problems – Poverty, drugs, domestic violence, elder abuse
• Revolution – Industrial revolution for instance.

SOURCES OF CHANGE
• Diffusion – Any culture is not complete. It always borrows culture elements and then there is
diffusion of different cultural elements – integration of these elements.
• Invention – Every society has the potential to invent. These interventions lead to social changes
in the society.

THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

• Evolutionary.
Society moved from simple to complex (analogy drawn to a living organism), change because of
differentiation. Linear Theory – Change in one direction – from simple to complex. Social change
is functional to society which leads to progress.
− Comte – talks about the Law of three stages – From theological to positive state – from
simple to industrial state where there is a specialisation of tasks. Talks about the
inevitability of changes.
− Spencer – Organic analogy. Theory of Evolution. An analogy is drawn to a human being,
from a simple to complex being.
− Durkheim – How a society moves from mechanical to organic solidarity, based on social
change. Society moving from simple to complex form.
• Cyclic – Rise and fall of civilization.
− Spengler talks about the destiny of civilization. A civilization is destined to be born and
die (Similarity to a being) Western civilization is nearing its end. This is not based on logic.
− Toynbee talked about the various challenges and responses.Every social structure pose
challenges in the society. However, there are a number of response mechanisms present
in the society which respond to these challenges. The society that can respond to these
challenges will survive. This is seen to be a better theory as it is logic based.
− Sorokin talks about the Sensate and Ideational types of culture in the society. Sensate type
of culture is primarily material in nature while Ideational is more spiritual which remains
the ideal of the society. As the society moves towards one of these cultures, the other one
pulls it towards itself. But, nevertheless, these two cultures exist in the society. Idealistic
societies are ones which are able to maintain a balance between the two.

• Functionalist.
They rarely talk about social change. According to them a certain role has been assigned to the
individuals or bodies. Hence, there is no need for a change.
− Talcott Parsons – Changes do take place in the social institutions. In the primitive times,
the functions of the institutions such as of families used to perform a number of functions
which now they do not.
− Merton – Talked about conflict and has added the idea of conflict to Functionalism.
Conflict happens in the society which is digested functionally in the society thus harmony
persists. He mildly advocates conflicts. Functional analysis of the role assigned to an
individual and the conflict which arises due to the conflict in the society.

• Conflict.
Factors of Social Change:
− Physical – Natural, Social environment or Human intervention that leads to change in the
natural setting.
− Biological – Population – Rise or Fall, Birth or Death.
− Technological – New inventions, Advancements in technology.
− Cultural – If there is a significant cultural change.
− Industrialization
− Urbanization – change in social standing
− Westernization – Imitation of the West
− Modernization – Change in the orthodox outlook
− Education – Formal and Informal education.
− Social Legislations – Hindu Marriage Act or Amendment of the Succession Act.