TEACHING MATH IN THE

INTERMEDIATE GRADES
Prepared by:

Prof. AURELIO A. ZUBIETO

Southern Luzon State University
College of Teacher Education
ELE02: TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS

LESSON 1: CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES OF A MATHEMATICS TEACHER

Teaching of Mathematics
Mathematics has no generally accepted definition. Different schools of thought particularly in
philosophy have put forth radically different definitions; and all are controversial.

Definition of Mathematics
“Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns”. Walter Wanoick Sawyer,
1955
Mathematics is “the science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from elemental
practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects” - Encyclopedia Britannica
Mathematics is a broad-ranging fields of study in which the properties and interactions of
idealized objects are examined. - Wolfram Mathworld
The term “Mathematics” may be defined in a number of ways as follows: It is an exact science
which is related to measurements, calculations, discovering relationships and dealing with the problems of
space.
According to the New English Dictionary, Mathematics in a strict sense is the abstract science
which investigates deductively the conclusions implicit in the elementary conception of spatial and
numerical relations. ‘Gania’ which means the science of calculations. It is systematized, organized and
exact branch of science. In the beginning, our observation of physical and social environment, we form
certain initiative ideas known as axioms and postulates. These are self-evident truths.
Starting the axioms and postulates we proceed to build up the structure of mathematics by a
process of deductive reasoning. Mathematics in the making is not a deductive science, it is an inductive,
experimental science and guessing is the experimental tool of mathematics. Like mathematicians, all other
scientists from their theories, form bunch analogies and simple example. They work out their rigorous
proofs only after they are pretty confident that what they are trying to prove is correct and in writing these,
they use only ball dozer of logical deduction.
Mathematics is used to communicate information about a wide range of different subjects. Here
are three broad categories. Mathematics describes abstract structures. On the other hand, there area of
pure mathematics which deal with abstract structures, which have no known physical counterparts at all.
However, it is difficult to give any categorical examples here, as even their most abstract structures can be
co-opted as models in some branch of physics.
“A natural science is a science only in so far as it is Mathematics.” - Kant
“Mathematics is the areas of saying the same things in different ways.” – Manswell
“Mathematics is the gate and key of sciences”. – Rojer Bacon
“The study of Mathematics is so easy that it affords real mental discipline”. - Hamilton and
Scottish
“Mathematics is always full of life as there is always abundance of problems.” – D. Hibbert
“Life is food for only two things discovering mathematics, and teaching mathematics”.
– Simeon Poisson
Mathematics has been the backbone of our civilization. It is also no exaggeration to say that
history of mathematics is the history of civilization. Mathematics has led to the development of various
subjects, vocations and technology. Mathematics is an exact science which is still playing an important
role in various walks of life.
 According to J.W.L. Glassier, “I am sure that no subjects lose more than mathematics by any
attempt to disassociate it from its history”.
Philosophical Positions
Mathematical realism, like realism in general, holds that mathematical entities exist independently
of the human mind. Thus, humans do not invent mathematics, but rather discover it and any other
intelligent beings in the universe would presumably do the same. In this point of view, there is really one
sort of mathematics that can be discovered.

Teacher
In education, a teacher is the person who provides schooling for pupils. A teacher who facilitates
education for an individual student may also be described as a personal tutor. The role of teacher is often
formal and ongoing, carried out by a way of occupations or profession at a school or other place of formal
education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain professional
qualifications of credentials from a university of college. These professional qualifications may include
the study of pedagogy, the science if teaching. Teachers may have to continue their education after they
qualify. Teachers may use a lesson plan to facilitate student learning, providing a course of study which is
called curriculum. A teacher’s role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide education instruction
in literacy and numeric, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion or spiritually, civics
community roles, or life skills countries formal education can take place through home schooling.

Mathematics Teacher
Mathematics should be taught with an emphasis on thinking process. All the steps and process
adopted by the teacher should lead him to achieve this goal, apart from preparing pupils for the day-to-day
life. Logical structures of mathematics should suit the thought structures of the learners. To enable the
learner to gasp the logic of “methodology of situations” and sharpen the students thinking properly.

Conceptual Framework
The teacher has to enable students to discover relations and patterns, diagrams and graphs and
interpret them, to solve problems and to help them think logically. In short, the teacher has to take all
steps to provide the mental existence of mathematical structures in students, leading them to have
“prolonged institution.

LESSON 2: VALUES, AIMS AND IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS

Man cannot live without mathematics. It is intimately involved in every moment of every one’s
life. Mathematics is a very useful subject for almost every vocation and for any specialized course of
learning. At the higher stage most of the physical and social science require the application of
mathematics. To deprive the student of the knowledge of this subject at the school stage means narrowing
the choices of vocation for him. Ignorance of mathematics will be a great handicap in the progress of his
studies in many other subjects. There can be no true schooling without mathematics, it is a great catalyst.
Without this catalyst there is no serial. Mathematics will continue in its many splendors.
The guiding social aims and beliefs which are regarded as important aspects of a culture are also
valued by the people. These ideas which they think worthwhile are called values. Thus, values include all
important religious beliefs, moral attitudes. Philosophies of life, ideologies etc., which not only help in
pin sustaining the society and its cultures but also any significant change in these aspects bring about
corresponding changes in the society and culture. A value is what is desired or what is sought. Values
may be operationally conceived as those guiding principles of life which are conclusive to one’s physical
and mental health as well as social welfare and adjustment and which are in true with one’s culture. The
value of teaching Mathematics can be categorized as:
 Practical or utilization value, disciplinary value and cultural value. The progress and the
improvement of mathematics are linked to the prosperity of the state. (Napoleon, 1971). There can be no
doubt about the validity of the statement that mathematical processes were invented in accordance with
requirements of mankind. Man cannot pull on without satisfying needs. A person may belong to the
lowest or highest class of society but he utilizes the knowledge of mathematics in one form or another.
A planner or a boss of any concern or even a labor has got to calculate his wages make purchases
from the market and just the expenditure to his income. Whosever earns and spends uses mathematics and
there cannot be anybody who lives without earnings and spending. Counting, addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, weighing, measuring, selling, buying and many more are simple and fundamental
process of mathematics which has got an immense practical value in life. In all major and minor activities
in life such as making purchases in the bazaar arranging a party, admitting the child to a particular class,
joining a profession, purchasing or selling a property, mathematical considerations are upper most in a
human mind. In order to create a system in life, we have to fix, prices, wages, rates, ratios, fares and
percentages. In the absence of these fixations, life in the present complex society will revert back into
confession and chaos. The world is passing through scientific and technological felt and recognized.
Mathematics trains or disciplines the mind. Due to its nature, it possesses a real disciplinary
value. It is exactly true and to the point and therefore creates a discipline in the mind. The learner has to
argue the correctness of the statement. If taught in the right sense, it develops reasoning and thinking
power. Reasoning in mathematics possesses certain characteristics which are suitable for the training of
the training of the learner’s mind. It properly emphasized and streamlined these characteristics which are
likely to develop the corresponding habits in the dearer. Some of the characteristics and their influences
are discussed here. Simplicity is characteristic of mathematics in mathematics definite facts are always
expressed in a simple language and definite facts are easily understandable. Therefore, mathematics
believes that if we want to be understood we should express ourselves in a simple to complex. The
teacher advances by degrees to harder portions. This procedure when practiced for a pretty long time and
it becomes a habit.
Accuracy is another characteristic of mathematics. Accuracy, reasoning, thinking and judgment
are essential for learning mathematics. The students learn the value and appreciation of accuracy and
adopt it as a principle of life. Certainty of results is another characteristic of mathematics. In
mathematics, the answer is either right or wrong. The student can verify his result by revised process. It
is possible for the child to remove his difficulties by self-effort and to be sure of the removal. The success
of personal effort is a source of pleasure for him. He develops faith in self-effort which is the secret of
success in life.
Originality is another characteristic of mathematics. Most of the work in mathematics demands
original thinking. Reproduction and cramming of ideas are not all very much essential when one has a
new or a different mathematical problem, it is only originality which keeps on going. This practice
originality enables the child to face new problems and situations with confidence in his future career.
Results can be easily verified. This gives a sense of achievement, confidence and pleasure. This
verification of result is also likely to calculate the habit of self-evaluation. Mathematics is the mirror of
civilization. Mathematics has got its cultural value and his value is steadily increasing day by day. It helps
a man to overcome difficulties in the way of his progress of various occupations such as agriculture,
engineering, surveying medicine industry, navigation, etc. These occupations build up culture and they
are its back bone but one should not forget that mathematics contributes and has contributed extensively to
the advancement of these occupations. Therefore, mathematics shapes the culture as a play back pioneer.
Mathematics is also a pilot for culture, arts such as music property and painting.

The aims of teaching mathematics are:

1. To enable the child to solve mathematical problem of his daily life.
2. To develop in the child an acquaintance with his culture.
3. To provide a suitable type of discipline to the mind of the learner.
 4. To prepare the child for technical professions such as those of accountants, auditors, bankers,
surveyors, cashiers, engineers, scientist, statisticians and mathematical teacher.
5. To prepare the child for economic purposeful, productive, creative and constructive learning.
6. To develop a scientific and realistic attitude towards life.
7. To bring about all around harmonious development of the child.
8. To develop in the child a sense of appreciation of culture arts.
9. To prepare him for elementary as well as higher education in science, economics, engineering,
psychology, etc.
10. To create in the child love for hard work.
11. To develop in the child the power of thinking and reasoning.
12. To develop in the child the powers of thinking and reasoning.
13. To enable him to understand and enjoy popular literature.

There are different branches of mathematics. These different branches of mathematics are useful
in different ways. They are Geometry, Trigonometry, Algebra and Arithmetic. Arithmetic is the
science of number and the art of computation. It is developed out of the need for a system of counting.
Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic, and it is taught for manipulative skill, solution of problems by
equations, a power of generalization and use of formula and idea of functionality. It may be related to
geometry by saying that algebra is only written geometry and geometry is merely pictured algebra.
Geometry is the science of space and extent, and it also deals with the position shape and size of bodies.
Trigonometry deals with measurement of sides of a triangle. Thus, mathematics occupies an important
place in the school curriculum.

LESSON 3: SEVERAL WAYS HOW CHILDREN LEARN MATHEMATICS

This lesson presents how children learn mathematics is a critical element of your beginning to
understand the errors and misconceptions they make. It also explores recent research into teaching
approaches to deal with the common mathematical errors and misconceptions made by primary-aged
children. It focuses on whether employing teaching approaches with seek to minimize or avoid children
making errors and forming misconceptions is likely to be successful. Alternative teaching approaches are
considered, based on discussion, dialogue and challenge to children’s existing mathematical constructions.
Choices and changes in mathematics teaching practices carry with them implications not only for
considerations of teaching approaches but also for how teachers view their role in teaching mathematics.

Distinguishing between macro-level and micro-level cognitive development

As a teacher you will be working within two levels of cognitive development as you plan, teach
and assess. At the macro level, you will be ensuring that you meet the statutory requirements of the
mathematics curriculum. At that micro level, you will be proactively responding to each individual’s
needs and considering effective personalized learning for every child in your class. This challenging to
do, even when you become an experienced teacher. It is challenging because the spiral curriculum we use
presents mathematical concepts hierarchically. This is evident in the level descriptions that can be found
for mathematics (DfEE, 1999).
Through these, the curriculum presents conceptual development as a smooth progression
throughout a child’s school years. We can expect most children through their primary years to make
steady progress from level 1 to level 4 (or above). However, you will probably know from your own
learning experiences and your teaching experience that learning is very much context-dependent, and this
has an impact on individual children’s progress.
Let’s pause to pursue this. A child working at level 3 is able to state the properties of shapes. Do
that now for a square. I suspect you have stated that is has four interior angles of equal size (all 90º) and
four sides of equal length. It is likely that you through about the order of rotation and number of lines of
 symmetry (and linked these to the square being a regular polygon with four sides). You may have also
visualized the square having equal-length diagonals that are perpendicular. These numerous properties
satisfy at least part of the level 3 National Curriculum level description (DfEE, 1999).
Now, do this with a less familiar shape, such as kite. You may wish to use these prompts to help
you. Using an inclusive definition of a kite, what are the: (the correct answers are on the last part of the
lesson.
 number of right angles?
 number of pairs of equal and opposite angles?
 number of pairs of equal and opposite sides?
 number of equal-length sides?
 number of pairs of parallel sides?
 number of lines symmetry?
 number of perpendicular diagonals?
 number of equal-length diagonals?
 number of bisecting diagonals?
 what is the order of rotation?

How did you get on? I suspect when you were carrying out the task, you had a prototypical
picture of a kite in your mind. That might be why you (probably) stated that the kite had just one line of
symmetry. However, if we are considering the properties of a kite using inclusive definitions, remember a
square is also a type of kite. Therefore, if you were using an inclusive definition of ʹkiteʹ, you should have
stated that a kite has ˊ at least one line of symmetrỳ, or that it has ʹan order of rotation of at least 1ʹ.
Am I confusing you? I hope so. (The notion of inclusivity is something that children-and adults –
find difficult. See, for example, Jones (2000), Hansen and Pratt (2005), Hansen (2008).) My point is that
when we track children’s progress over time, it appears smooth and (often) reflects the expectations of the
prescribed curriculum. However, when we take a close look at a moment in that learning journey in
detail, we no longer see a smooth development. Instead, we observe oscillation which is all rather messy.
What does this tell you about Shaun’s mathematical understanding of number (decimals),
measurement (length) and use and application of mathematics? What does it tell you about his attainment
at the macro-level and at the micro-level?

Macro- and micro-level cognitive change: planning and assessment

Macro- and micro-level cognitive change is seen reflected in a number of the aspects of a
teacher’s role. Two of these are planning and assessment. Although these two aspects are strongly
interrelated, Table 1.1 provides a summary of these discretely in order to exemplify them.

Macro-level Micro-level
Planning Follows long-term curriculum learning Follows short-term
objectives unit/weekly/lesson learning
objectives

Provides an overview of a yearly / termly Identifies learning outcomes

/half-termly intended learning journey
Any changes will impact on the longer term
Focuses on a larger group of children
(typically the whole class, a year group or in
some instances a key stage)
based on actual data gathered
about very recent outcomes
Changes will occur in lessons
and between lessons.
Focuses on a smaller group of
children or individuals
 Macro-level Micro-level
Planning Planning focuses mainly on content and Planning considers how the
context/ themes content is learned, e.g., learning
styles, resources, grouping, etc.
Changes may or may not be made to Change is inevitable
planning
Any changes will be minimal Changes may be significant
Any changes will impact on the long term Changes will occur in lessons
and between lessons

Macro-level Micro-level
Assessment Summative in nature Formative and diagnostic in
nature
Happens at key points in the year/key stage Happens continuously

Assesses children’s attainment over a longer Assesses children’s attainment

term using curriculum levels or part thereof according to short-term learning
(e.g., 1b, 1a) objectives
Often uses a limited range of assessment Often uses a wide variety of
strategies (typically pencil-and-paper tests Assessment for learning
or ˊtasksˊ carried out independently) strategies
Assesses the yearly/termly/ half-termly Identifies ˊnext stepsˊ learning
intended learning outcomes outcomes based on recent
assessment data gathered
These are used systematically to inform Used spontaneously or
further long-term planning and to support systematically to inform
transition between years pedagogical decisions within
lesson or for the next lesson(s)
Often used to inform communication to Can be used to inform
parents at the end of a year communication with children,
teaching assistants, parents or
other adults supporting the
child’s learning
Used to inform tracking of individual Focus on the number of children
pupils’ progress changes depending on the
learning/teaching undertaken
Can be used to prompt lesson study in a Can be used in lesson study to
particular area of a teacher’s performance support professional
development through peer
support

Macro-level Micro-level
Assessment Assessment focuses on a narrow curriculum Assessment focuses on a wider
range of knowledge, skills or
understanding
Any assessments will impact on the longer Any assessments will occur in
term lessons and between lessons

Table 1.1 Comparison of macro- and micro-level planning and assessment

 The outcomes associated with macro- and micro-level cognitive change can be seen in many
aspects of our teaching. Exploring the literature around these levels helps us to continue to develop our
understanding. Therefore, the next section will consider in more detail the two levels. First, it will take at
macro-level cognitive change, identifying how the literature represents the hierarchical nature of
mathematical learning. Next, the notion of micro-level conceptual change is discussed. This goes on to
explore some of the literature related to micro-level conceptual change and offers an explanation for why
children make errors and develop misconceptions in mathematics.

Macro-level cognitive change: exploring the notion of hierarchy

The long- and medium-term planning teachers undertake is led by statutory and other curriculum
which are in part informed by macro-level theories of learning (e.g., Dubinsky, et al., 2005; Tall, 2007;
Weber, 2005).
These are usually hierarchical in nature, involving earlier concepts becoming the foundations for
later concepts to be built upon. This can be explained as a process where a new concept becomes
developed sufficiently for it to become an object that can be used in a more advanced concept. For
example, addition may be seen as an object that can be used in multiplication. Once we know how to
calculate 3+3+3+3, this knowledge can be used to calculate 3 x 4. To explain this, we can use the image
of spiral - as Jerome Bruner did - to model how concepts are expanded upon as they are developed.
As you read the literature review below, consider what model you have developed in your mind to
explain this process and the different terms that are used to explain. Many mathematics educators and
theorists have written about these ideas. For example, Anna Sfard explored mathematical development
taking guidance from mathematics history. She explained that the history of mathematics can be
characterized as an ongoing process of reification in which the processes are interpreted as objects (Sfard,
1991). We can see this through the historical development of mathematics. For example, the evolution of
a base ten number system enabled written calculations to be developed. This is seen in curriculum
guidance, where children are expected to have a good understanding of place value and mental calculation
before they are taught formal written calculation methods (see, for further guidance, Teaching Written
Calculations from QCA, 1999).
Hans Freudenthal is a well-known figure in mathematics education. He was the founder of the
Freudenthal Institute in Holland, where the Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) curriculum is being
developed. Some aspects of this curriculum, such as the empty number line, have been borrowed within
English mathematics non-statutory frameworks and guidance. Freudenthal (1973) proposed that children
should develop their mathematical understanding through reinventing mathematics. He suggested that
children be given the opportunity to experience a similar process to the way a particular topic of
mathematics was invented. He was clear that children should not repeat history as it occurred
(Freudenthal, 1981), but rather as if our ancestors had known what we now know. He maintained that
conceptual development is psychological, rather than historical, in its progression. Gravemeijer and
Doorman (1999), also from the Freudenthal Institute, explain that the core activity within reinvention is
mathematizing, a way of organizing from a mathematical perspective. Reification identifiable here
because the operational matter on one level becomes a subject matter on the next level.
Dubinsky's A-P-O-S theory (Dubinsky, et al., 2005) identifies a common cyclic development
called encapsulation. This cycle involves four levels whereby the last relates to a combined object-schema
that in turn becomes the first level of a new cycle (Actions that are perceived as external, are interiorized
into internal Processes, encapsulated as mental Objects developing within a coherent mathematical
Schema) (adapted from Poynter and Tall, 2004). Gray and Tall (2007) explain how the process of
compression involves taking complicated phenomena, focusing on essential aspects of interest to conceive
of them as whole to make them available as an entity to think about. While this all seems fairly
straightforward at the macro-level, what is unclear in all these approaches is the specific point at which a
child has reified, reinvented, encapsulated or compressed a concept.
At the macro-level, it is possible to identify a qualitative difference between the attainment of
children who are five years of age and ten years of age. However, if we focus on an individual child, their
attainment is less straightforward. The clear, Snooth progression at the macro level appears to give way to
apparent fluctuation at the micro level, demonstrating a gap between macro-level and micro-level theories
of conceptual change (diSessa and Cobb, 2004).

What is micro-level conceptual change?

In the literature review on macro-level conceptual change above it was possible to see that
although different theorists use different terminology, there exists a broadly agreed model about the
learning of mathematical concepts. This is also observable within the literature about micro-level
conceptual change. For example, there is common reference to children cognitively making systematic
associations that they develop from their experiences within the rich world around them. This may be
thought of as a web, where connections are made between the particular instances (Tennyson, 1996 of a
concept that children experience. As these instances become increasingly associated, prototypes (early
concepts) are formed.
Similarly, diSessa and Sherin (1998) refer to a co-ordination class. They define it as
systematically connected ways of getting information from the world. This is developed through a process
they refer to as conceptual bootstrapping. Both of these views of children’s early conceptual change rely
on children noticing what is happening around them and (usually subconsciously) making connections
with other experiences or understanding of the ideas being developed
Noss and Hoyles (1996) put forward a case for learning which involves the construction of a web
of connections between resources. Resources may be formal or informal internal (cognitive) and external
(physical or virtual). The web is developed through connections being made between these resources. By
drawing on the webbing of a particular setting, children will shape the way that they express their
mathematical ideas (Noss and Hoyles, 1996). Noss and Hoyles call this process/object situated
abstraction. Learners abstract within rather than away from (the literal meaning of ˊabstractˊ) a situation,
webbing their own knowledge and understanding by acting within the situation.
Wilensky (1991) also suggests that children establish connections to bring about cognitive change.
He sees that this process of development moves from the abstract to the concrete. Wilensky labels the
process of concretizing as concretion: the process of new knowledge coming into relationship with itself
and with prior knowledge, and thus becoming concrete. Wilensky postulates that adults express difficult
(higher order) concepts as abstract because they have little or no understanding of the concept themselves,
therefore it is abstract to them. Likewise, the easy (lower-order) concepts are very concrete for them –
they understand these concepts because they are grounded. From this, adults then assume that these easier
concepts are concrete and as children develop, they move on to more abstract concepts (or, as he calls
them, object). Wilensky maintains that all objects are abstract when an individual’s relationship with that
objects is poor. It is only when we use the object in various and multiple ways- when we develop a
relationship- that we are able to begin to make sense of it, or it becomes concrete.

LESSON 4: ERRORS AND MISCONCEPTIONS IN MATHEMATICS AND COGNITIVE LOAD

THEORY

Misconceptions and the classroom context

From the literature review on micro-level cognitive change, it is possible to see how
misconceptions are inevitable. As situated abstractions develop, or as concretion occurs, children are
going to draw on their own understanding of the world around them and unavoidably misconceive some
ideas. For example, have you witnessed a young child point to a horse and say ˊcowˊ? They have
noticed: (a) an animal in a field; (b) eating grass; (c) swishing its tail; and (d) colored white and black.
These attributes satisfy, for the child, the definition of a cow. They have misconceived the being as a cow.
Later, they will be able to distinguish between a cow and horse. How can this development be mediated?
 The classroom setting is a complex learning ecology (Cobb, et al., 2003) that encompasses the
historical, cultural, social, and political contexts of both mathematics and mathematics education
(English, 2007). In the above example, it is likely that an adult or older sibling will correct the young
child to explain that the animal is horse and not a cow.
While misconceptions do occur naturally; it is important for you to be aware that learning can be a
laborious (unconscious or conscious) process. Cognitive load theory explains how schemata become
automated and become part of our long-term memory. At first, when new information is presented to us,
we process it within our working memory; but our working memory extremely limited in capacity and
duration (Miller, 1956; Peterson and Peterson, 1959). Once schemata have transferred from working
memory to long-term memory and the information is used, it is not limited (Ericsson and Kinstch, 1995).
Information can then be returned to the working memory later to be used efficiently (Tabbers, 2002). In
every recent research, Peters (2010) used eye-tracking technology to observe how mathematicians and
non-mathematicians work through mathematical problems. He showed how non-experts require explicit
processing while they read and interpret mathematics. They tended to read fully all the questions, and
after working out the most relevant information, they would check to see if it was actually relevant.
Mathematics, on the other hand, was able to process information effectively by selecting the relevant
information very quickly.
Alloway (2006) undertook a comprehensive literature review that considered how working
memory works in the classroom. She identified how a child with a poor working memory capacity will
struggle and often fail in such activities, disrupting and delaying learning and notes that children with low
working memory scores also have poor computational skills. Therefore, Alloway suggests reducing
working memory demands in the classroom. This involves”
 ensuring the children know what they are doing (i.e., they can remember the next step);
 reducing processing demands (e.g., simplifying vocabulary);
 breaking down tasks into simpler steps (displaying aides-memoire; encouraging use of
memory aids);
 developing effective strategies for coping with situations where a child experiences a failure
in working memory. (Adapted from Alloway, 2006)

Thinking about the process of learning as one which can be mediated in school by the teacher may
be helpful. It is likely that you will have already come across Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal
development (ZPD). It is defined as the distance between the actual development level as determined by
independent problem-solving and the level of potential to development as determined through problem-
solving through adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky, 1978). The
notion of the ZPD was developed by Wood, et al. (1979), port as necessary to help a child bridge the ZPD.
Cognitive load theory may explain the difference between a ˊnoviceˊ and an ˊexpertˊ (in this case,
a child and teacher). Sweller (1988) explains that the amount of information and how the information is
organized are quite different between working memory and long-term memory. He points out that
novices fall back on week problem-solving strategies.,. which leads to a high cognitive load because they
do not have the schemata to support their work.
Vygotsky played a major role in relation to individual and social processes of cognitive change
(John-Steiner and Mahn, 2003). Vygotsky understood the power and versatility of speech: For not only
does speech function as a tool that mediates social action, it also [mediates] the individual mental
activities of remembering, thinking and reasoning (Wells, 1999)
Misconceptions can become rigid and resistant to revision later on (Furani, 2003). Therefore, it is
the role of teachers to be aware of potential misconceptions, the possible reasons why they have developed
(overgeneralization is common).

LESSON 5: TEACHER’S ROLES IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Distinguishing between mathematical errors and misconceptions
A teacher’s response to dealing with a child’s mathematical error demands skill in diagnostic
terms: different responses will be appropriate depending upon the nature (and frequency) of the error
observed. An error could be made for many reasons. It could be the result of carelessness,
misinterpretation of symbols or text, lack of relevant experience or knowledge related to that mathematical
topic/learning objective/concept, a lack of awareness or inability to check the answer given, or the result
of a misconception. Ryan and Williams (2007) considered different levels of knowledge and view
mathematical errors to be principally formed within surface level of knowledge: as such, a child’s
response to a task is procedural and can be corrected by the teacher providing correct alternatives.
In addition to this, Cockburn (1999) discusses the nature of the mathematical tasks selected by the
teacher as having potential for children making errors: she suggests that consideration must be given to the
complexity of the task (is it sufficiently challenging or too challenging?), the way the task is presented and
the ability of the child to translate the task, i.e., does the pupil know what is required in mathematical
terms? This latter point is fundamental; for example, to a child’s ability to solve word problems.
Sometimes, errors can be exacerbated by teachers making assumptions about their children’s
experiences: this has particular resonance for teachers of young children. Some young children may, or
may not, have had experiences of handling money, using observing the use of a balance to measure an
item’s mass, or ‘reading’ time on analogue timepiece. Incorrect uses of resource can lead to children
making errors: a number line can only be an effective tool for assisting ‘counting on’ ‘counting back’ if
children are shown, and understand, how to count on/back from the first number without including that
number in the count.
The term ‘misconception’ is discussed in detail in lesson 1. It is commonly used when a learner’s
conception is considered to be in conflict with accepted meanings and understandings in mathematics
(Barmby, et al., 2009). A misconception could be the misapplication of a rule, an over-or under-
generalization, or an alternative conception of the situation. For example, a number with three digits is
bigger than a number with two digits works in some situation (e.g., 328 is bigger than 35) but not
necessarily in others where decimals are involved (e.g., 3.28 is not bigger than 3.5).
Misconceptions are far more problematic than errors as they set within deeper levels of
knowledge (Ryan and Williams, 2007). They demand diagnosis and dialogue to ascertain the
misconception, which can be time-consuming. Nevertheless, Barmby, et al. (2009) argue that
misconceptions should be regarded as evolving understandings in mathematics… essential and productive
for the development of more sophisticated conceptions and understanding. It is important to note that
misconceptions are not limited to children who need additional support: more able children also make
incorrect generalizations.

Should we teach to hide or avoid mathematical errors and misconceptions?

There is no doubt that some mathematical errors could be avoided by teacher awareness, skillful
choice of task and clarity of explanation. However, Swan (2001) suggests that, despite what they are
taught, children seem to make the same mathematical errors, and construct their own alternative meanings
for mathematics, all over the world. This challenges notions about teaching to avoid children developing
such mistakes and misconceptions.
The Primary National Strategy (PNS) advocated diagnosis and intervention schemes that provide
focused teaching activities which tackle fundamental errors and misconceptions that are preventing
progress (DfES, 2005). As Dowker (2009) points out, the focus here is one of using teacher assessment to
correct identified errors and misconception. In order to use Assessment for Learning (AfL) effectively,
emphasis also needs to be placed on children recognizing themselves that errors and misconceptions are
part of the learning process.
Opinions on whether this is possible or even desirable alter from the differing perspectives of
primary children and their teachers. Koshy (2000) reports that when primary children were asked how
they felt about making mathematical mistakes, they expressed strong feelings of anger, frustration and
disappointment. In contrast, Cockburn (1999) and Koshy (2000) both reflect a growing view in the
research evidence that mathematical errors can provide a useful insight for teachers into a child’s thinking
and understanding, an effective mechanism for assessment for learning and, with sensitive handling, can
enable children to learn from mathematical mistakes.
Current thinking and research are recommending a shift in how both teachers and children regard
mathematical errors and misconceptions, moving from a ‘let’s plan to avoid’ strategy to one which seeks
to give greater status and value to diagnosis, explanation and negotiation of meaning. Lee (2006) argues
that strategies lead to more creative approaches to Assessment for Learning (AfL), help pupils see
themselves as successful learners and encourage both teachers and pupils to attempt more challenging
work. Rather than simply correcting an error or misconception, it would appear far more productive for
teachers to investigate the reason a child provides a given answer. Indeed, Barmby, et al. (2009)
maintains that identifying and building on incomplete or incorrect conceptions are important ways of
developing coherent mathematical knowledge.
It is self-evident that such a shift will necessitate teachers adopting a constructive attitude to their
children’s mistakes (Koshy, 2000), and children recognizing that analysis and discussion of mistakes or
misconceptions can be helpful to their mathematical development.
Spooner (2002) suggests that placing children in situations where they feel in control of identifying
mathematical errors/misconceptions leads to greater openness on the part of the children to explore and
discuss their own misconceptions. In order to do so they had to engage with mathematical question set,
discuss the errors with peers and explore why the error/misconception wasn’t ‘their’ work under
investigation. The process allowed children to be placed in the role of the teacher, encouraged open
dialogue and consolidated their understanding of the concepts which underpinned the given examples.
This approach has an underlying belief that children’s mathematical understanding is more likely to
be developed if children are given opportunities to:
 explain their thinking;
 compare their thinking with that of peers and teachers.
To be effective in terms of long-term gains these opportunities need to embedded within a school
and classroom ‘culture’ which accepts and promotes that children can learn effectively from their peers
and need encouragement to ‘be brave’ to express their mathematical ideas. Support for this can be found
in a report by Ofsted into the Primary National Strategies and their impact upon the rest of the primary
curriculum.
The most effective teachers…cultivate an ethos where children do not mind making mistakes
because errors are seen as part of the learning. In these cases, children are prepared to take risks with
their answers.
A significant feature of such approaches would be recognition by children that learning often
involves having to ‘shift’ ones’ thinking.
Swan (2001) encourages a more radical shift in teachers’ thinking; suggesting that far from trying to
teach to avoid children developing misconceptions, the latter should be viewed as helpful and, possibly,
‘necessary’ stages in children’s mathematical development. This suggests that a focus on how children
are taught mathematics, rather than on what mathematics they are taught, is needed.
Changing perspectives in this way involves implications for teaching approaches, the way in which
mathematical dialogue is ‘controlled’ by teachers, the role attached to questioning, and the impact of all
these considerations on teachers’ planning.

Implications for Teaching Approaches

Research into effective teaching and teachers of numeracy (Askew, et al., 1997) highlighted that one
factor involved in effective teaching was the emphasis placed on child/teacher discussion. In a school
deemed to be one of the most effective in the teaching of numeracy there was a consistent expectation that
children would develop skills in explaining their thinking processes: lesson in this school were
characterized by dialogue in which teacher and children had to listen carefully to what was being said by
others. Significant to this approach was a teacher belief, described as a connectionist belief, which views
mathematics teaching and learning as something based on a dialogue between teacher and children and is
characterized by extensive use focused discussions in practice. Such a belief has connections with social
constructivist perspectives on social and cultural dimensions to learning in which it is recognized that
children can learn effectively from others including their peers.
One concern here for trainee teachers and experienced teachers alike could be the possibility of
peer discussion and/or peer collaboration compounding existing mathematical errors and misconceptions
through persuasive dialogue. However, Anghileri (2000) refutes the notion that common errors or
misconceptions will be ‘spread’ among children through discussion: rather, she suggests that such
activities will encourage children to review their thinking, leading to self-correction. Pound’s research in
Early Years settings support this and found that peer discussion in play situations provided opportunities
for rehearsing misconceptions. Through such rehearsals- providing that there were no interjections from
adults- children develop better understandings as they are able to challenge their own and other
children’s misconceptions (Pound, 2008).
The value in listening to explanations and the reasoning of others is viewed not only in the benefits
to the restricting of the specific and immediate mathematical idea, but also in the overall contribution to
the development of individual mathematical thinking. This would suggest that the skills involved in using
logic, reasoning, communication and problem-solving – the very skills inherent in children’s ability to use
and apply mathematics- are actively developed by teaching beliefs and approaches which are deemed as
connectionist.
Tanner and Jones (2000) suggest that restricting thinking to accommodate new knowledge is not
easy. In Piagetian terms this presents the children with uncomfortable learning as previously assimilated
knowledge has to be revisited, reshaped and challenge. In order for this to happen the authors suggest
that:
 children need to accept and appreciate that their response is not quite right;
 the learning process and environment need to be or sufficient importance to the children in
order to make the effort to restructure and change their thinking;
 teachers need to accept that just explaining the misconception is not – enough the children
will need help in the restructuring process.

The above is referred to as teaching for cognitive conflict: this describes children presented with
examples and problems which lead to illogical outcomes. An example could be addition of fraction 1/2 +
1/4 …; if the strategy of ‘add across top and bottom’ is applied, this result (2/6) can be compared to a
demonstration of a bar of chocolate where ½ is given to pupil A and 1/4 is given to pupil B – how much is
left? (1/4). The two different answers to the same example create conflict between existing conceptual
understanding (to add fractional values just ‘add across’) and new information which challenges this
existing framework. This conflict can be resolved through peer discussion, sharing of ideas, justifying
responses, listening to others and teacher questioning. Accommodation can only occur when restructuring
takes place within one’s schema deal with this cognitive conflict.
Ryan and Williams (2007) argue that misconceptions are often intelligent constructions that should
be valued by learners and teachers alike as such suggest that what is needed is a related teaching design
or strategy that engages or conflicts with the underlying misconception and reasoning directly.

Controlling mathematical dialogue in classrooms

Lesson 1 introduced the notion of the teacher mediating children’s learning. Swan (2001) believes
that mistakes and misconception should be welcomed, made explicit, discussed and modified if long-term
learning is to take place. He suggests that this unlikely to happen unless the teacher and children negotiate
the social nature of the classroom and establish a classroom ethos based on trust, mutual support and
value of individual viewpoints: there is recognition that this is not easy and could result in teacher loss of
confidence through apparent reduction in ‘control’, reduction in amount of ‘work’ produced on paper as
more emphasis is placed on discussion, and noisier classrooms.
It is interesting to note, however, that effective learning in mathematics appears to be connected
with a school policy on an expectation that all children within the primary school will explain their
mathematical ideas and methods (Askew, et al., 1997). The notion of provoking cognitive conflict is not
alien to a young child’s mathematical learning experiences: consider the ‘conflict’ caused by noticing that
a ‘small’ object appears to be heavier than a ‘big’ object, a ‘tall’ container holds less water than a ‘short’
container or that the digit 4 can be ‘worth’ different amounts depending on the position of that digit in, for
example, two-or three-digit numbers. The following chapters provide further discussion on this.
 the language of success- I know you can;
 the language of hope- you can do it and what help do you need to do it?
 the language of possibility- supporting a climate of greater possibility by the choice of
response comment- yes, you did get it a bit mixed up but let’s see which bit is causing your
problems.
Ryan and Williams (2007) take this further by suggesting that teachers and pupils should view
themselves as belonging to a community of enquiry in which the notion of persuasion with coherent
reasoning is the norm. In such a community, pupils are encouraged share responsibility for sustaining the
dialogue.
A key factor appears to be the ‘control’ and use made of teacher/pupil and pupil/pupil
mathematical dialogue. Effective teachers of numeracy (Askew, et al., 1997) encourage both types of
dialogue, allow it to be sustained, and use the results to help establish and emphasis connections and
address misconceptions.

LESSON 6: THE ROLE OF QUESTIONING IN TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Watson and Mason (1998) describe the learning of mathematics taking place with in a social
situation of talk, comprising of discussion, questions, prompts and answer in which the teacher and
children are as much a part of what mathematical activity is in what is in textbook, on the worksheets, or
on the board. Teacher and/or child questioning is viewed as questioning to enhance and develop learning
rather than questioning to see if the ‘correct’ answer has been achieved. While there is some need for the
latter, if it becomes the focus for teacher questioning there is a danger that children will develop a model
of mathematical behavior which gives the responses they think acceptable; it avoids suggesting
alternatives and hides queries/areas of confusion. Relying on answers alone, therefore, will not alert
teachers to any underlying misconceptions. Worse still, simply correcting mathematical ‘errors’ without
explanation, or engaging with reason, could lead to a pupil regarding mathematics as meaningless.
A Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) report into using assessment to raise
achievement in mathematics (QCA, 2001) identified the need for teacher questioning to make greater use
of probing questions to extend into dialogue which built upon pupil responses in order to elicit the child’s
thinking and develop the child’s understanding further Ofsted (2003) noted that one characteristic of
mathematics lessons they deemed unsatisfactory was a tendency for teachers to do most of the talking.
This resulted in children having too few opportunities to try out their ideas orally, testing their thinking
against that of others. Where teachers used oral work well, they were more likely to:
 discover and deal with errors or misconceptions and adjust their teaching in the light of these;
 help children to reflect on and sort out ideas and confirm their own understanding.
(Ofsted, 2003)
Listening to children’s questions also provides opportunities to gain insights into levels of
understanding, errors in use of terminology and underlying misconceptions. Providing children with a diet
of closed questions or tasks is therefore unlikely to allow teachers to ascertain children’s errors or
misconceptions. Skillful questioning can have the additional benefit of providing opportunities for
children to engage in creative thinking and responses in mathematics (Briggs and Davis, 2008).

Implications for planning

 Misconceptions are a natural outcome of intelligent mathematical development involving
connections, generalizations, and concept formation… they signal learning opportunity or zone and so,
potential for development- for example- through targeted teaching (Ryan & Williams, 2007).
It appears that effective teaching of mathematics involves planning to expose and discuss errors
and misconceptions in such a way that children are challenged to think, encouraged to ask questions and
listen to explanations, and helped to reflect upon these experiences. This suggests that the more aware
teachers and trainee teachers are of the common errors and possible misconceptions associated with a
topic, the more effective will be the planning to address and deal with such.
Ofsted (2009) identify that a good teacher of mathematics recognizes quickly when pupils already
understand the work or what their misconception might be. They extend thinking through building on
pupils’ contributions, question and misconceptions to aid learning, flexibly adapting to meet needs and
confidently departing from plan.
The role of questioning, dialogue and discussion is significant if children are to shift their
perspectives on only contributing if they think they have a ‘correct’ answer, or the answer they believed is
wanted by their teacher.
Swan (2003) discusses types of activities which are helpful to generate discussions likely to
uncover children’s misconceptions: the use of cards which have equivalent representations of the same
concept, or statement cards which have to be sorted as always true, never true or sometimes true, place
children in situations where choices have to be justified or counter-examples provided.
It seems that a growing emphasis on children participating in meaningful mathematical dialogue
which assists in the exposure of ‘alternative’ constructions has implications for the amount of time
teachers should plan to teach new content.

LESSON 7: THINGS TO REMEMBER IN PLANNING INSTRUCTION AND/OR

TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES

Planning is an important and often underappreciated aspect of teaching practice, when teachers
make decisions that ultimately impact students’ opportunities to learn (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Floden,
Porter, Schmidt, Freeman, & Schwille, 1980; Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). Planning commonly refers to the
time teachers spend preparing and designing activities for students. From tasks and activities to
instructional practices employed during lessons, teachers need to consider a variety of aspects of their
instruction before students even enter the classroom. Teachers need to pay careful attention to designing
their lessons; “effective teachers understand that teaching requires a considerable effort at design. Such
design is often termed planning, which many teachers think of as a core routine of teaching.” (Kilpatrick,
Swafford, & Findell, 2001). Reviews of teacher planning and decision-making further emphasize the
centrality of planning processes in teachers’ practice (Clark & Peterson, 1986; Clark & Yinger, 1977;
Shavelson & Stern, 1981). Despite this general agreement about the importance of planning, few
researchers have explicitly examined the precise ways in which teachers plan for mathematics instruction.
Prior research related to teacher planning presented a “linear” or “rational” model of teacher planning by
delineating the various lesson elements teachers generally considered when planning their lessons
(Popham & Baker, 1970; Taylor, 1970; Tyler, 1950). Under this model, teachers first consider the
learning activities that take into account students’ interests and abilities, then the learning goals and
objectives of the lesson, and finally the evaluation procedures to be used during the lesson. Some
researchers later argued that linear models of teacher planning do not adequately describe experienced
teachers’ planning processes and do not account for the complexities inherent in mathematics teaching.
Rather, a variety of additional factors, such as teachers’ experiences and conceptions of mathematics
teaching and learning, also influence the ways in which teachers plan their lessons (Kilpatrick, et al.,
2001; Leinhardt & Greeno, 1986; Yinger, 1980). Moreover, there is even less research that focuses
explicitly on teachers’ planning in the context of the reform mathematics curricula that provide much of
the instructional design for teachers (Kilpatrick, et al., 2001; Trafton, et al., 2001). Such reform curricula
are increasingly prevalent in classrooms in the United States, embodying new modes of instruction (Reys,
2002). The challenges of planning lessons using such curricula may be somewhat different from the
challenges of planning lessons with more conventional mathematics curricula. Thus, exploring how
teachers plan in the particular context of reform curricula is critical if mathematics educators want to
understand this important phase of teaching.
Past research on teacher planning focused on the broad features and order of teachers’ planning
decisions and considerations, with minimal attention given to the particular ways that teachers considered
engaging students with the content. Adhering to a linear model of teacher planning, Tyler (1950) and
Popham and Baker (1970) found that teachers specified ordered objectives, selected learning activities,
organized learning activities, and specified evaluation procedures. Similarly, Taylor (1970) found that
teachers sequentially considered four aspects of a given lesson when planning: materials and resources,
students’ interests, the aims and purposes of teaching, and evaluation. Implicit in these studies is the
notion that teachers create their own objectives and activities for students, which may reflect the design of
the types of curriculum materials available to teachers at the time in which these studies were conducted.
In a later study on teacher planning, Brown (1988) examined the extent to which 12 teachers adhered to a
linear model of planning. Focusing on teachers’ planning in different subject areas, Brown found that
teachers tend to use curriculum materials and the objectives expressly stated in these resources as a
starting point for their planning. She noted, “teachers operate as curriculum implementers and not
curriculum planners as they consider objectives already written in curriculum guides”. Yackel and Cobb
(1996) noted that planning decisions about ways of facilitating students’ activity in a history or English
classroom are considerably different from those in a mathematics classroom. Nevertheless, Brown’s
(1988) study points to the integral role of curriculum materials in the process of teachers’ planning, which
was not clearly addressed by proponents of the linear planning model. Some researchers have focused on
the role of curriculum materials as a resource for teachers to draw upon when making planning decisions.
For example, McCutcheon (1981) found that when planning for daily lessons, teachers tend to rely heavily
on suggestions in the teacher’s guide. In a study of one teacher’s planning throughout the school year,
Clark and Elmore (1981) found that curriculum materials are primary resources in the teacher’s planning.
Similarly, Smith and Sendelbach (1979) studied this issue at the level of teachers’ unit planning. They
found that teachers tend to construct a mental image or plan of the unit and then supplement their plan
with notes based on the suggestions in the teacher’s guide.
The following are some of the things to consider in planning instruction for mathematics in the
intermediate grades:
 Understand the big ideas of math.
 Create models of math ideas.
 Have computational fluency.
 Have a strong sense of numbers.
 Understand the math procedures they do before memorizing them.
 Understand how math ideas are connected.
 Solve a variety of math problems.
 Reason mathematically.
 Communicate their math ideas.
 Have a positive disposition.
MODULE 2 NUMBERS AND NUMBER SENSE: DEFINITION,
IMPORTANCE AND EXAMPLES

LESSON 1: NUMBERS AND NUMBER SENSE

In mathematics education, number sense can refer to an intuitive understanding of numbers, their

magnitude, relationships, and how they are affected by operations. Other definitions of number sense
emphasize an ability to work outside of the traditionally taught algorithms, e.g., "a well-organized
conceptual framework of number information that enables a person to understand numbers and number
relationships and to solve mathematical problems that are not bound by traditional algorithms" (Bobis,
1996). Number sense is an important construct that separates surface level understanding from subject
mastery. The National Council of Teachers (USA, 1989) identified five components that characterize
number sense: number meaning, number relationships, number magnitude, operations involving numbers
and referents for numbers and quantities. These skills are considered important because they contribute to
general intuitions about numbers and lay the foundation for more advanced skills.

Number and Number Sense

Here, a person has the ability to use and understand numbers through:
* knowing their relative values
* using them to make judgments
* using them in flexible ways when adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing
* developing useful strategies when counting, measuring or estimating

Importance of Number Sense for Learners

The construct of number sense refers to a child’s fluidity and flexibility with numbers. It helps
children understand what numbers mean, improving their performance of mental mathematics, and giving
them the tools to look at math in the outside world and make comparisons.
Researchers have linked good number sense with skills observed in students proficient in the
following mathematical activities: 
 mental calculation (Hope & Sherrill, 1987; Trafton, 1992)
 computational estimation (Bobis, 1991; Case & Sowder, 1990)
 judging the relative magnitude of numbers (Sowder, 1988)
 recognizing part-whole relationships and place value concepts (Fischer, 1990; Ross, 1989)
 problem solving (Cobb, et al., 1991)
How Does Number Sense Begin?
An intuitive sense of number begins at a very early age. Children as young as two years of age
can confidently identify one, two or three objects before they can actually count with understanding
(Gelman & Gellistel, 1978). Piaget called this ability to instantaneously recognize the number of objects
in a small group 'subitizing'. As mental powers develop, usually by about the age of four, groups of four
can be recognized without counting. It is thought that the maximum number for subitizing, even for most
adults, is five. This skill appears to be based on the mind's ability to form stable mental images of patterns
and associate them with a number. Therefore, it may be possible to recognize more than five objects if
they are arranged in a particular way or practice and memorization takes place.
Whole Numbers
In Mathematics, whole numbers are the basic counting numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, … and so on.

7, 99,
267, 8107 and
999999999 are
examples of
whole numbers.
Whole numbers include natural numbers that
begin from 1 onwards. Whole numbers include positive
integers along with 0.
A number is a count or measurement that is
really an idea in our minds. We write or talk about
numbers using numerals such as "4" or "four". But we
could also hold up 4 fingers, or tap the ground 4 times.
These are all different ways of referring to the
same number. There are also special numbers (like π (Pi)) that can't be written exactly, but are still
numbers because we know the idea behind them.

Numeral
 A numeral is a symbol or name that stands for a number. Examples: 3, 49 and twelve are all
numerals. So, the number is an idea, the numeral is how we write it.

Digit
A digit is a single symbol used to make numerals. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are the ten digits
we use in everyday numerals.
  Example: The numeral 153 is made up of 3 digits ("1", "5" and "3").
Example: The numeral 46 is made up of 2 digits ("4", and "6").
Example: The numeral 9 is made up of 1 digit ("9"). So, a single digit can also be a numeral
We can use other symbols too, for example hexadecimal also uses some letters.

Four Fundamental Operations in Mathematics

The four fundamental operations in
mathematics are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. In this worksheet, we
will learn about these operations involving whole
numbers. 
Operations refer to the mathematical
processes used to solve problems. The four basic
operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
1. Addition - It simply means that it
is a combination of distinct sets
of same things or quantities. A
plus sign ( + ) is a symbols that
indicates addition. The answer
when two addends were added is
called sum.
This operation is used when you want to
find the total, or sum, of two or more amounts.
2. Subtraction - It is the opposite of addition. It means removing one quantity from the other. The
minus sign ( - ) is used to represent subtraction. When a subtrahend is subtracted from the minuend, the
answer is called difference. This operation is used when you want to find the difference between two
amounts or how much of something you have left after a quantity is used – for example, if you want to
find the change owed after spending an amount of money.
3. Multiplication - It is a repeated addition.  It means that a certain number is being repeatedly added to
itself by several times.  The times sign ( x ) is used to represent multiplication.  When a multiplicand is
multiplied by its multiplier, the answer is called product.  This operation is also used for totals and sums
but when there is more than one of the same number – for example, if you are buying five bags of sand
that cost P120 each, you would do 5 × 120.
4. Division - It is the inverse of multiplication.  It means splitting quantities into same or equal parts.  The
divide symbol (➗)  is used to represent division.  When a dividend is to be split into a certain divisor, the
answer is called quotient.  Not all numbers when divided by a divisor produces equal amount. The extra
amount is called remainder.  Division is used when sharing or grouping items. For example, if you want
to know how many cans of paint you can buy with 1 000 if one can costs P250, you would do 1
000 ÷ 250.

Ordinal Numbers
Cardinal numbers. The numbers which give us the exact quantity of an object are called
cardinal numbers. In other words, cardinal numbers answer “How many?”
For instance: The given picture shows 4 cars in a parking lot.  Hence, 4 or ‘four’ here is a cardinal
number.
 
Ordinal numbers. The numbers which give us the exact position of an object are called ordinal
numbers. Ordinal numbers tell the position of an object rather than their quantity. 
For instance:
Example 1 - The given picture shows different floors in a building. We can use ordinal numbers
to define their position.
The numbers 1st (First), 2nd (Second), 3rd (Third), 4th (Fourth), 5th (Fifth), 6th (Sixth), 7th (Seventh),
8 (Eighth), 9th (Ninth) and 10th (Tenth) tell the position of different floors in the building. Hence, all of
th

them are ordinal numbers.

Example 2 - The given picture shows some athletes
competing in a 400 m race. We can use ordinal numbers to
define their position.
The numbers 1st (First), 2nd (Second), 3rd (Third), 4th
(Fourth), 5th (Fifth), 6th (Sixth), 7th (Seventh), 8th (Eighth), 9th
(Ninth) and 10th (Tenth) tell the position of different athletes in
the race. Hence, all of them are ordinal numbers.

Basic Concepts of Fractions

Fractions
Fractions are numbers that represent a part
of the whole. When an object or a group of objects is
divided into equal parts, then each individual part is a
fraction. It is a mathematical expression of
something that is divided into two or more pieces or
parts.
A fraction is usually written as 1/2 or 5/12 or
7/18 and so on. A fraction simply tells us the
following: It is divided into a numerator and
denominator where the denominator represents the total number of equal parts into which the whole is
divided. The numerator is the number of equal parts that are taken out.
Examples: in the fraction 3/4, 3 is the numerator and 4 is the denominator.
Had we divided the apple into 6 parts the denominator would have been 6 instead of 4. And the
half of an apple is going to be 1/2.
Let’s divide a thing into parts. Let’s just divide an apple into 4 parts. Once we are done dividing
the apple, we want to give away 3 parts to someone so we are left with only one. If we want to make a
fraction out of the division that we just did then it will be 3/4 th apple donated by us.
We just wrote a fraction in two numbers that were separated by a slash. The number before the
slash is called a numerator whereas the one after the slash is referred to as a denominator. The slanted
slash can be replaced by a horizontal line which divides a number on top and the other one on the bottom.
Fractions represent equal parts of a whole or a collection. 

Fraction of a whole: When we divide a whole into equal parts, each part is a fraction of the whole. 
For example: 

Fraction of a collection: Fractions also represent parts of a set or collection. 

For example:
There are total of 5 children.
3 out of 5 are girls. So, the fraction of girls is three-fifths (3/5).
2 out of 5 are boys. So, the fraction of boys is two-fifths (2/5).
Fraction Notation
A fraction has two parts. The number on the top of the line is called the numerator. It tells how
many equal parts of the whole or collection are taken.  The number below the line is called the
denominator.  It shows the total divisible number of equal parts the whole into or the total number of equal
parts which are there in a collection. 

Fractions on a number line: Fractions can be represented on a number line, as shown below. 

For example:

 
Real life examples
The most common examples of fractions from real life are equal slices of pizza, fruit, cake, a bar
of chocolate, etc.

Non-examples
When the parts of the whole are unevenly divided, they don’t form fractions.

Types of Fractions
Unit fractions
Fractions with numerator 1 are called unit fractions.
Proper Fractions
Fractions in which the numerator is less than the denominator are called proper fractions.

Improper Fractions
Fractions in which the numerator is more than or equal to the denominator are called improper
fractions.

Mixed Fractions
Mixed fractions consist of a whole number.

Types of Fractions:
Fractions can be classified into the following types:
1. Proper and improper fractions
 2. Like and unlike fractions
3. Mixed fractions
Proper and Improper Fractions
We know that fraction consists of two number values, the numerator one and the denominator
one. If the numerator value is less than the denominator then it is referred to as a proper fraction, whereas
the improper fraction is the one in which the denominator is smaller than the numerator.
For example, 3/4 is a proper fraction and 8/5 is an improper one.
An improper fraction requires the remaining parts from another piece of the same object. For
example, 6/4th of an apple would mean that the remaining two apple slices were borrowed from another
apple.

Like and Unlike Fractions

Now, these are a bit tricky. Like fractions, as the name suggests, are those, that have the same
value.  For example, the fractions 4/6 and 8/12 are like fractions because both the fractions are 2/3 rd of a
thing in their simplified form. They are also called equivalent fractions.
Contrary to the above, unlike fractions are different fractions. For example, ½ and ¾ are unlike
fractions.

Mixed Fractions
They are also referred to as mixed numbers. They are written with a whole number. So, a mixed
fraction would comprise the following:
1. A whole number
2. A proper fraction

Some of the examples are as follows:

 1 2/3
 5 3/4

The question is how are they formed? What brings out such a weird structure of fractions? Well,
these are just another way to put the improper fractions that we just studied.
For instance, let’s assume a fraction of an apple 3/2. Another way to write this improper fraction
is 1 ½ which means we took a slice from an additional apple. Both 3/2 and 1 ½ are the same values;
however, the latter is in the form of a mixed fraction.

Facts about Fractions:

 Every fraction has two parts: a numerator = the actual number of parts and a
denominator = the total number of parts as a whole.
 You can write any number as a fraction by keeping 1 as the denominator.
 You can multiply 2 fractions straight across.
 You can multiply a fraction with any form of a number.
 You can compare 2 fractions by multiplying the numerators with the denominators
diagonally; the larger product denotes the larger fraction.
 Every full number has a denominator, that is 1.
LESSON 2: ADDING AND SUBTRACTING SIMILAR FRACTIONS WITHOUT REGROUPING

1. Starts with a drill

For example:
Have a drill on giving the Least Common Denominator (LCD) of the pair of fractions. Use
flashcards. Encourage the pupils to give answers with speed and accuracy. (In giving this, it should be
from simple to complex) Use flashcards for this activity.

a) 1/4 and 1/6 d. 1/5 and 3/4 g) 1/10 and 2/3

b) 2/3 and 1/2 e. 2/9 and 1/8 h. 1/5 and 1/7
c) 2/7 and 1/3 f. 2/3 and 3/4

The term drill and practice is defined as a method of instruction characterized by systematic

repetition of concepts, examples, and practice problems. Drill and practice is a disciplined and
repetitious exercise, used as a mean of teaching and perfecting a skill or procedure. As an instructional
strategy, it promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through systematic training by multiple
repetitions, rehearse, practice, and engages in a rehearsal in order to learn or become proficient. Similar
to memorization, drill and practice involves repetition of specific skills, such as spelling or
multiplication. To develop or maintain one’s specific skills, the subskills built through drill and practice
should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning.

2. Review
Next is review. When certain key concepts learned in a previous class are reinforced
through review before continuing the subject, this helps remind students of what they learned and
develops a concrete base for their learning. This important component of classroom teaching can be
helpful in all subject areas.
For example:
How do you add/subtract similar fractions without regrouping? What can you say about their
denominators? Use flashcards. Call a pupil to answer and ask “How did you get the answer?” How did
you add the two fractions? Instead of asking low-level/convergent questions such as “What is the
answer?” What operation did you use? Teachers should ask high-level/divergent questions to develop the
critical thinking of students.

a) 1/4 + 2/4 e. 9/17 – 6/17

b) 1 5/7 + 1/7 f. 5 6/11 – 3/11
c) 3 3/5 + 1 1/5 g. 9 7/8 – 4 3/8
d) 2 1/3 + 3 1/3 h. 17 4/9 – 15 2/9

3. Motivation
Next is the motivation part. This part is where you engage the students to sustain their level of
interest to the lesson. However, motivation is one of the biggest challenges in the classroom. There are
two types of motivation for learning are intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic learning occurs when the student
already has an interest in learning the subject and is inspired internally. However, it is the teacher's
responsibility to engage students in learning by tapping into intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. In this
case, motivating students should be all through teaching-learning process. The following are some ways to
develop motivation of the pupils in the classroom:

Foster a Positive Learning Environment

 Your personality sets the overall tone in the classroom. When you show enthusiasm and passion
for the subject you're teaching, it can be contagious for most students, who will model your positive
behavior. Besides teaching the curriculum, be a role model to reinforce positive actions to motivate
students to learn. Ensure that classroom rules are detailed so students feel safe to participate and share
their opinions and comments without ridicule. Feeling free to express themselves will encourage students
to be engaged.

Build Rapport with Students

Students who have positive relationships with teachers are more engaged in learning. Conduct
group discussions about subjects that interest them to uncover their personalities. Give surveys with
questions about their favorite books, movies, hobbies and sports. Open up to your students as well about
your background and interests to show you are genuinely interested in making connections.

Prepare Engaging Lessons

No matter the subject covered, find ways to make the material fun and exciting for your students.
Facilitate student activities that give insight to their interests, backgrounds and future goals. Students often
are unmotivated because they are bored. Grab their attention with stimulating music, art and hands-on
activities to tune them in to the curriculum. For example, if you're delivering a lesson on poetry, play
contemporary music and discuss poetic devices within the lyrics instead of just reading poems. Use
technology, to liven up classroom activities.

Give Students Options

Each student learns differently and should have a variety of projects and activities to peak her
interest. For example, instead of a written exam, give students a list of assignments to choose from,
including writing an essay, delivering a presentation, and drawing art. By doing this, you address various
learning styles, such as auditory, visual and tactile, helping students to participate in ways that are most
natural to them.

Start a Rewards Program

Rewarding students reinforces positive behavior, and students eventually internalize a desire for
learning. A rewards program includes giving praise to students for completing assignments and being
active participants in classroom activities.
For this lesson, we can motivate the pupils by showing a picture of a cassava cake or budin. You
can choose any picture or any motivational activity in this lesson. As a teacher always make sure that you
are contextualizing lessons. When we say contextualizing lessons. According to contextual learning
theory, learning occurs only when students process new information or knowledge in such a way that it
makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their own inner worlds of memory, experience, and
response). The mind naturally seeks meaning in context by searching for relationships that make sense and
appear useful. Building upon this understanding, contextual learning theory focuses on the multiple
aspects of any learning environment, whether a classroom, a laboratory, a computer lab, or a worksite.
It encourages educators to choose and/or design learning environments that incorporate many
different forms of experience in working toward the desired learning outcomes. In such an environment,
students discover meaningful relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the context
of the real world; concepts are internalized through the process of discovering, reinforcing, and relating.

After showing a picture of a cassava cake or budin, you

can ask students first closed-ended questions like:
Have you eaten a rice cake or a cassava cake? Is it
delicious? Where can you buy cassava cake?
(Ask these questions with a very lively tone.)
 Then, ask these questions such as:
How can we divide this cake into 10 equal parts?
(In this case, it’s better that you provide a manipulative such as piece paper. Let your pupils manipulate
objects even though they are in the intermediate level. Manipulatives have the potential to become
powerful tools in helping children to improve their number sense, and build an understanding of the base
ten number system (Pagar, 2013). Then ask, why do we need to divide it? In here, we can integrate the
value of sharing to others.

4. Presentation
This part should be aligned with motivation and it will be starting point of discussion of the
lesson. In this area, you are now introducing the lesson.

Ask this question:

“What are the ingredients used in cooking these cakes?”
Then present the lesson through a situation or problem. Students’ mathematical representation
ability will grow by giving them chances to solve various mathematical problems since by solving
mathematical problems they will grasp various mathematical representations (NCTM, 2000). Therefore,
through solving problems, students will develop their capabilities wholly in doing Mathematics (Minami
& Napitulpu, 2017).

Sample Problem
Mimi is good at cooking. Every Saturday, she sees to it that she cooks some rice cakes and
cassava cakes to be sold in the community. These cakes use coconut milk. For the rice cake, it needs 2
3/4 cups and 1 1/8 cups for cassava cake.
Mimi found out that the cooked rice cake is too sticky so she reduces 1 1/2 cups from the original
amount of the coconut milk. How many cups of coconut milk does she use in the newly-baked rice cake?

Ask these questions by starting from closed-ended to open-ended questions.

What does Mimi bake every Saturday? What is the common ingredient used in cooking rice and
cassava cakes? What do the situations ask for? How will you solve the problems?
To solve this problem, you can group your pupil into 4 groups depending on your class size.
Group the pupils into four working teams. Two groups are assigned in each situation.
Expected answers:
Solution 1 for question 1: bar modelling. A bar model can be defined as a pictorial
representation of a number in the form of bars or boxes used to solve number problems.  Bar models help
us to attain an understanding of how a problem needs to be solved and calculated. It also an effective
strategy for increasing elementary students’ accuracy in solving math word problems and their ability to
use cognitive strategies to solve the problems (Morin, et al.)

2 6/8=2 3/4
1 6/8

2 6/8 + 1 1/8 = 3 7/8 Answer: 3 7/8 cups of milk are needed

To get the answer: Rename the dissimilar fractions using LCD. Add the numerators. Add the
whole numbers. Write the sum of the numerators over the common denominator. Change your answer to
lowest term if possible.

Solution 1 of question 2: by bar modelling

Solution 2 of question 2:
2 3/4 - 1 1/2 = 2 3/4 - 1 2/4 = 1 1/4
To get the answer: Rename the dissimilar fractions as similar fractions using LCD. Subtract the
numerators. Subtract the whole numbers. Write the difference of the numerators over the common
denominator. Change your answer to lowest term if possible.

5. Processing the activities

Ask the groups to present and discuss their answers on the board.
Ask: How did you solve for the answers? What are the strategies did you do to answer the
problem? Sharing strategies of students in front of the classroom enables them to become aware of their
ways to solve a problem (Jacobs & Ambrose, 2008). In addition, National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (2000) asks teachers to use mathematical activities that help students develop a conceptual
understanding of mathematic which involves: (a) encouraging students to use a variety of mathematics
strategies to solve problems effectively: (b) discussing and examining mathematical strategies through
classroom discourse for the underlying mathematical concepts; and (c) determining what students
understand by listening to and probing their student’s thinking.

6. Reinforcing the concept and skill or guided practice

 Guided Practice is the transition phase, where children take more control of their learning and the
teacher slowly steps back. We keep the children up close on the rug during guided practice, so that we
can monitor and support them easily and quickly. the stage in which the teacher gradually releases task
responsibility to the students.” (This part could be answering on the board or using their learner’s
material) This should be guided by the teacher. The activity should also be aligned with the objectives.
Sample Activity:
Add or subtract the following:
a) 3/8 + 1/2 d) 2 5/7 + 1/4
b) 5 3/5 + 2 1/3 e) 7/9 – 2/5
c) 8 2/3 – 1/9 f) 7 5/8 – 3 21/4
7. Summarizing the lesson or generalization.
Generalization is the ability to use skills that a student has learned in new and different
environments. Whether those skills are functional or academic, once a skill is learned, it needs to be used
in multiple settings.
In this part, lead the class to give the following generalization by asking:
How do we add/subtract dissimilar fractions without regrouping?
Expected answers:
To add/subtract dissimilar fractions without regrouping:
 Change dissimilar fractions to similar fractions before adding/subtracting.
 Add/subtract numerators. Write the sum/ difference over the common denominator.
 With mixed forms, add/subtract the fractions first, then the whole numbers.
Add/subtract the results. Reduce the answers to lowest terms when needed.

Another question is that “What are other ways to add/subtract dissimilar fractions?” In this way,
students are encouraged to think and not just answering based on the rules given. This method is letting
the students to share their own strategies.

7. Applying to the new and other situations

Word problems and group work can be used here. Group work is a perfect avenue for cooperative
learning and brainstorming. Cooperative learning is helpful in eliminating competition among learners. It
encourages them to work together towards common goals. It fosters learners’ positive attitudes in
working with teams. Its tangible benefits are learning to share, taking turns and cooperation. Meanwhile,
brainstorming is a teaching strategy in which teacher elicits from the learners as many ideas as possible
while refraining from evaluating them until all possible ideas have been generated. It is an excellent
strategy for stimulating creativity among learners.
Examples:
1. Albert use 2 3/4yards of cloth for his two pants and 1715 yards for his polo. How many yards
of cloth did he use?
2. Aling Maring bought 5 ½ kilograms of flour. She used 2 15 kilograms in cooking hot cake for
their merienda. How many kilograms of flour was left?
3. Marlon walked 2 512 kilometers going to San Agustin and 1 25 kilometers going to San
Agapito. How many kilometers did he cover?

8. Assessment/Evaluation
This part determines the extent to which students have met the lesson learning goals. Find the
sum/difference. Express your answers in lowest terms if needed. Write the answers on your
answer sheets. Use any strategy to answer the questions.
 9. Assignment
This part is an activity which reinforces the achievement of the goals.
Find the sum/difference. Express your answers in lowest terms if needed.
1. 16 1/4 - 13 1/8 4. 6/7 – 1/2
2. 2 1/6 + 1 1/7 + 3 1/14 5. 3 1/16 + 2 1/8 + 3 1/4
3. 1/3 + 3/10 + 1/15

LESSON 3: MULTIPLYING SIMPLE FRACTIONS

1. Drill: Basic Multiplication Facts

Mental Computation. Mental calculation comprises arithmetical calculations using only the
human brain, with no help from any supplies (such as pencil and paper) or devices such as a calculator.
Mental calculation often involves the use of specific techniques devised for specific types of problems.
a. Activity 1 (Mental Calculation)
Solve for N:
1. (3 x 7) + 5 = N 4. (6 x 2) + 3= N
2. (5 x 5) + 6 = 𝑁 5. (3 x 5) + 10 = N
3. (4 x 3) + 4 = N

b. Activity 2
Change to improper fractions
 1. 10 1/4
2. 2 1/4
3. 4 2/6
4. 5 1/2
5. 3 3/4

2. Review:
Multiplication of fractions by cancellation.
Ask: How did you multiply fractions by cancellation?
1. 3/5 x 15/36 4. 3/5 x 15/18
2. 4/7 x 14/16 5. 3/12 x 5/6
3. 1/2 x 6/8

3. Motivation
This can be a form of questioning. Questioning is an important mechanism for teachers to get
learners more actively in the lesson development. However, teachers must remember that there is always
room for improvement in getting learners to ask appropriate questions and actively evaluate responses.
“How many of you help at home during weekends?” What help do you offer? Why do you offer
help?
What is the importance of being helpful? In this question, we are using integrative approach.
Integrative approach helps students to acquire knowledge and skills in more than one learning area in the
same teaching time. Through this question, we are integrating mathematics and values at the same time.

4. Presentation
In this part, the problem below can be used in a discovery approach. The discovery approach is
an effective strategy for helping learners to understand concepts and generalizations and for developing
higher-thinking skills. The teacher should guide the pupils in answering the problem and later ask them
the ways on how did they arrive at the correct answer.
Sample Problem:
Mario harvested 7 1/2 kilograms of carrots from his vegetable garden. He sold 3/5 of it in the
market and the rest in the neighborhood. How many kilograms were sold in the market?
Give the mathematical sentence:
3/5 of 7 1/2 = 3/5 x 7 1/2 = N

5. Performing the Activity

a. Group pupils so that they can solve the problem cooperatively. Each group will be given 8
sheets of bond paper.
b. Fold each of the sheets horizontally making 2 equal parts each. Shade the box across the
crease.
 6. Processing the Activities
After all groups have presented, ask the pupils how did they find the activity? How did you solve
the problem? What are the other ways in doing the activity?

7. Reinforcing the concept and skill

Example activity: (The teacher should provide feedback in order for the pupils to better
understand the lesson.) Feedback in educational contexts is information provided to a learner to reduce
the gap between current performance and a desired goal. The primary purpose of feedback is to help
learners adjust their thinking and behaviors to produce improved learning outcomes (Shute, 2008).
Direction: Change the mixed fraction to improper fraction before multiplying. Reduce the
product in simplest form.
1. 1/2 x 2 1/4 = 6. 2 1/4 x 3 2/4 =
2. 3 1/5 x 2/4 = 7. 6 x 3 5/9 =
3. 4/5 x 2 1/3 = 8. 2 x 3 3/6 =
4. 5 x 4 2/3 = 9. 6 1/3 x 4 1/2 =
5. 3 2/3 x 5/6 = 10. 1/5 x 2 2/6 =

8. Summarizing the lesson

Lead the pupils to give the following generalization by asking: How do you multiply simple
fractions and mixed fractions? Whole numbers and mixed fractions? What are other ways to multiply
simple fractions and mixed fractions? Mixed fractions by another mixed fractions?

Expected Answers:
To multiply simple fractions and mixed fractions, do the following:
 Change the mixed fraction to improper fraction.
 Get the GCF of any of the numerator and denominator. Simplify by cancellation.
 Multiply the numerator by the numerator, the denominator by the denominator.
 Express the product in simplest form.
Also, ask pupils to share their own ways on how the multiply simple fractions.

10. Applying to the new and other situations

 Directions: Group the pupils into four. Let the groups work collaboratively and solve the
following problems. Problem 1 for group 1, problem 2 for group 2, problem3 for group 3 and problem 4
for group 4. Label your answers.
Problem 1. Find the area of a room 5 1/3 meters long and 3 3/4 meters wide.
Problem 2. Mother had 1 1/2 dozen eggs in the refrigerator. She used 1/3 of the eggs. What part
of the eggs was used?
Problem 3. Mari uses 1 1/8 teaspoons of salt for every kilogram of ground pork. How many
teaspoons of salt will she use for 2 2/3 kilograms of ground pork?
Problem 4. For each day of the week, Joy spends 2 2/4 hours helping in the family store. How
many hours does she work in a week?
In this part also, we can include journal writing or journaling in math. Journal writing is the
process of recording personal insights, reflections and questions on assigned or personal topics. There are
benefits of journal writing in mathematics. These are connecting new mathematical ideas to their prior
knowledge, identifying what they do not know and articulating the importance of reasoning and proving in
mathematics teaching and learning. These benefits support the notion that using a journal in mathematics
can help students to develop profound understanding of Mathematics’ content and practices (Rogers,
2013).
Examples of journal writing:
1. I learned in this lesson that to multiply fractions_____________________
2. I feel that I was able _________________
3. What are those things that makes you complicated in learning this lesson?
4. What are the things you have learned in this lesson?

11. Assessment
Find the product. Write the answer in simplest form.
1. 1/3 x 2 1/4 =
2. 4 1/2 x 1/5 =
3. 3 x 2 2/4 =
4. 2 4/7 x 5 1/6 =

LESSON 4: MULTIPLYING MIXED FRACTIONS

To multiply mixed fractions:
 convert to improper fractions
 multiply the fractions
 convert the result back to mixed fractions

Example: What is 138 × 3 ?

Think of pizzas.

138 is 1 pizza and 3 eighths of another pizza.

First, convert the mixed fraction (138) to an improper fraction (118):

 Cut the whole pizza into eighths and how many eighths do
you have in total?
1 lot of 8, plus the 3 eighths = 8+3 = 11 eighths.

Now multiply that by 3:

138 × 3 = 118 × 31 = 338

You have 33 eighths.

 

And, lastly, convert to a mixed fraction (only because the original fraction was in that form):
33 eighths is 4 whole pizzas (4×8=32) and 1 eighth left
over.
And this is what it looks like in one line:
138 × 3 = 118 × 31 = 338 = 418

Another Example: What is 112 × 215 ?

Do the steps from above:
 convert to improper fractions
 multiply the fractions
 convert the result back to mixed fractions

Step, by step it is:

Convert mixed to improper fractions:
112 = 22+12 = 32
215 = 105+15 = 115
Multiply the fractions (multiply the top numbers, multiply bottom numbers):
32 × 115 = 3 × 112 × 5 = 3310
Convert to a mixed number
3310 = 3310
If you are clever, you can do it all in one line like this:
112 × 215 = 32 × 115 = 3310 = 3310

One More Example: What is 314 × 313 ?

Convert mixed to improper fractions:
314 = 134
313 = 103
Multiply
134 × 103 = 13012
Convert to a mixed number:
13012 = 101012
And simplify:
101012 = 1056
Here it is in one line:
314 × 313 = 134 × 103 = 13012 = 101012 = 1056

LESSON 5: DIVIDING SIMPLE FRACTIONS

Teaching your students how to divide fractions can be just as simple as teaching multiplication...

once you know all of the little tricks to get the right answer.
But — as with any math concept — when you teach division, you don't want your students to
just solve a problem. You want them to understand what's happening in each question.

Dividing Fractions
 One of the most valuable things to teach your students when dividing fractions is what the answer
means. Take a look at the example below:
½÷⅙=3
Why is the solution a bigger number than the fractions involved?
When you divide a fraction, you’re asking how many groups of the divisor (second fraction) can be
found in the dividend (first fraction). 
For the above equation, we’re asking how many ⅙ appear in ½. Imagine the example equation as a
cake. You’ve got half of the cake remaining. If each serving of the cake is ⅙ of the whole, how many
servings do you have left? As you can see, you’ve got three servings of cake remaining!

As you can see, you’ve got three servings of cake remaining.

How to divide fractions in 3 easy steps

If you simply divided fractions like you were dividing a normal math problem, you’d more than
likely create some complex fractions and have something that looks similar to this:
 Luckily, there’s a shortcut you can use that makes dividing fractions much simpler. You can solve
most division problems by following these three steps:
1. Flip (or invert) the divisor into a reciprocal.
2. Change the division sign to a multiplication symbol and multiply.
3. Simplify your answer if possible.

Essentially, what you’re doing when multiplying fractions is multiplying the first fraction by the
reciprocal of the second fraction.  We’ll go into this in more detail to streamline the division of fractions and
help you avoid complex fractions.

Step 1: Flip the divisor into a reciprocal

 A reciprocal is what you multiply a number by to get the value of one. If you want to change two
into one through multiplication you need to multiply it by 0.5. In fraction form this looks like:
²⁄₁ × ½ = 1
To find the reciprocal of a fraction you simply flip the numbers. The denominator becomes the
numerator and vice versa.
Take a look at the example equation again:
½÷⅙=?
The first step to solve the problem is to turn our divisor, ⅙, into a reciprocal.
⅙ → ⁶⁄₁

Step 2: Change the division sign to a multiplication symbol and multiply.

Dividing and multiplying are opposites of each other. When you create a reciprocal of a number, you’re
creating its opposite as well. In a division problem, when you turn the divisor into a reciprocal, you also need
to change the equation from division to multiplication.
Now that you’ve found the reciprocal of your divisor, you can change the equation from division into
multiplication.
½ ÷ ⅙ = ? → ½ × ⁶⁄₁ = ?
We’ve got an extensive guide on how to multiply fractions, but here’s a quick tutorial:
1. Multiply your numerators to get your new numerator
2. Multiply your denominators to get your new denominator
3. Simplify the final fraction, if possible

For the example equation you have two problems to solve:

1 × 6 = 6     2 × 1 = 2    ½ × ⁶⁄₁ = ⁶⁄₂
Now, you're ready to simplify to get the final answer!

Step 3: Simplify your answer if possible

Fractions symbolize a part of a whole. This means many fractions represent the same value, so why
not make the fraction as simple as possible?
For example, you almost never say five-tenths or ⁵⁄₁₀. Instead, you simplify that to one-half or ½.
To get a fraction down to its simplest form, you divide the numerator and denominator by their greatest
common factor. The greatest common factor in ⁵⁄₁₀ is five. Dividing both numbers down by five leaves you
with ½.
In the example question, the greatest common factor of ⁶⁄₂ is two. This turns your solution from
⁶⁄₂ to ³⁄₁, which is the same as saying three.
Therefore:
½ ÷ ⅙ = ? → ½ × ⁶⁄₁ = ⁶⁄₂ → ³⁄₁ → 3
Creating a reciprocal and multiplying an equation rather than dividing lets you skip several steps in
an equation. It’s a shortcut that will make your students’ lives a whole lot easier!

Dividing fractions examples

The three-step strategy is great for basic fraction problems, but what happens when you run into
whole numbers, mixed fractions, improper fractions, and word-based problems?
The process remains the same for the most part, but depending on the type of problem, there could be
a couple more steps.
Let’s look at some examples of different types of problems:
How to divide improper fractions
 An improper fraction is when you have a numerator with a value that is greater than the
denominator. Seeing these fractions can cause confusion, but the order of operations does not change.
Example 1:
⅓ ÷ ⁶⁄₅ = ? → ⅓ × ⅚ = ⁵⁄₁₈
Example 2:
⁷⁄₆ ÷ ¾ = ? →⁷⁄₆ × ⁴⁄₃ = ²⁸⁄₁₈ → ¹⁴⁄₉ → 1 ⁵⁄₉

No matter where the improper fraction is placed, you still flip the divisor into a reciprocal and then
multiply the two fractions.

How to divide mixed fractions

 A mixed fraction is when you have a whole number along with a fraction. For example, 2 ½ would
be considered a mixed fraction. How do you divide a mixed fraction?
Change your mixed fraction into an improper fraction and then proceed with the three-step strategy.
To do this, multiply your whole number by the denominator. Then take that value and add it to your
numerator.2 ½ changes to ⁵⁄₂.
Example 1:
3 ⅓ ÷ ⅖ = ? → ¹⁰⁄₃ ÷ ⅖ = ? → ¹⁰⁄₃ × ⁵⁄₂ = ⁵⁰⁄₆ → ²⁵⁄₃ → 8 ⅓
Example 2:
¼ ÷ 2 ⅙ = ? → ¼ ÷ ¹³⁄₆ = ? → ¼ × ⁶⁄₁₃ = ⁶⁄₅₂ → ³⁄₂₆
Example 3:
2 ½ ÷ 1 ⅓  = ? → ⁵⁄₂ ÷ ⁴⁄₃= ? → ⁵⁄₂ × ¾ = ¹⁵⁄₈ → 1 ⅞

How to divide fractions with whole numbers

 Questions with whole numbers are similar to problems with mixed fractions. Before you can start
dividing, you need to turn the whole number into a fraction.
To turn a whole number into a fraction, make the numerator the whole number and make the
denominator one.
3 → ³⁄₁
Once the whole number is turned into a fraction you can continue to solve the problem with the three-
step strategy.
Example:
⅓ ÷ 3 = ? → ⅓ ÷ ³⁄₁= ? → ⅓ × ⅓ = ⅑

How to divide fractions with the same denominator

When you’ve got the same denominator, there’s no need to find the reciprocal or multiply. You can
simply divide your fractions to get the answer. The denominators will cancel each other out and give you one.
Any fraction with a denominator of one can be simplified to just the numerator.
Example 1:
⅘ ÷ ⅖ = ²⁄₁ → 2
Example 2:
⅓ ÷ ⅔ = ½/1 → ½

MODULE 3 MEASUREMENT: DEFINITION, LEVELS, IMPORTANCE, USES

AND FUNCTIONS
LESSON 1 MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
Measurement is fundamental to the sciences; to engineering, construction, and other technical fields; and
to almost all everyday activities. For that reason, the elements, conditions, limitations, and theoretical
foundations of measurement have been much studied. Measurements may be made by unaided human
senses, in which case they are often called estimates, or, more commonly, by the use of instruments,
which may range in complexity from simple rules for measuring lengths to highly sophisticated systems
designed to detect and measure quantities entirely beyond the capabilities of the senses, such as radio
waves from a distant star or the magnetic moment of a subatomic particle.
Scientists use many skills as they investigate the world around them. They make observations by
gathering information with their senses. Some observations are simple. For example, a simple
observation would be figuring out the color or texture of an object. However, if scientists want to know
more about a substance, they may need to take measurements. Measurement is perhaps one of the most
fundamental concepts in science. Without the ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to
conduct experiments or form theories. Not only is measurement important in science and the chemical
industry, it is also essential in farming, engineering, construction, manufacturing, commerce, and
numerous other occupations and activities. The word “measurement” comes from the Greek word
“metron,” which means “limited proportion.” Measurement is a technique in which properties of an
object are determined by comparing them to a standard. Measurements require tools and provide
scientists with a quantity. A quantity describes how much of something there is or how many there are. A
good example of measurement is using a ruler to find the length of an object. The object is whatever you
are measuring, the property you are trying to determine is the object’s length, and the standard you are
comparing the object’s length to is the ruler. In general, scientists use a system of measurement still
commonly referred to as the “metric system.” The metric system was developed in France in the 1790s
and was the first standardized system of measurement. Before that time, people used a variety of
measurement systems. In 1960, the metric system was revised, simplified, and renamed the Système
International d’Unites (International System of Units) or SI system (meters, kilograms, etc.). This system
is the standard form of measurement in almost every country around the world, except for the United
States, which uses the U.S. customary units system (inches, quarts, etc.). The SI system is, however, the
standard system used by scientists worldwide, including those in the United States.

Converting Metric Units of Measure

Recall that the metric system is the system of measurement primarily used in science and in
countries outside of the United States. In the metric system, the base unit of length is the meter (m). The
base unit of mass is the gram (g). The base unit of capacity is the liter (L). The same prefixes are used
throughout the metric system. The prefix of each unit of measurement indicates how that unit relates to
the base unit.
 “milli” means one thousandth. For example, there are 1000 millimeters in 1 meter.
 “centi” means one hundredth. For example, there are 100 centimeters in 1 meter.
 “kilo” means one thousand. For example, there are 1000 meters in 1 kilometer.

The metric system is based on powers of 10 just like our number system. To move between
different units of length, mass, and capacity all you need to do is move the decimal point.
 Any time you are going from a smaller unit of measure to a larger unit of measure you will
need to divide or move the decimal point to the left.
 Any time you are going from a larger unit of measure to a smaller unit of measure you will
need to multiply or move the decimal point to the right.
 The table below shows the most common metric conversions.

Common Metric Length Conversions

Move decimal point 3 to the

Kilometers (km) to Meters (m) ×1000
right

Move decimal point 2 to the

Meters (m) to Centimeters (cm)  ×100
right

Move decimal point 3 to the

Meters (m) to Millimeters (mm) ×1000 
right

Centimeters (cm) to Millimeters Move decimal point 1 to the

 ×10
(mm) right

Millimeters (mm) to Centimeters

 ÷10 Move decimal point 1 to the left
(cm)

Millimeters (mm) to Meters (m)  ÷1000 Move decimal point 3 to the left

Centimeters (cm) to Meters (m)  ÷100 Move decimal point 2 to the left

Meters (m) to Kilometers (km)  ÷1000 Move decimal point 3 to the left

The same conversions will work for grams and liters. Just use the prefixes to find the correct
conversion.
Here is an example.
Convert 525 meters to centimeters.
First, notice that you are going from a larger unit to a smaller unit. This means you will need to
multiply and move the decimal point to the right.
Next, remember that there are 100 centimeters in a meter. This means you will need to multiply
by 100 or move the decimal point 2 to the right. Insert zeros into the blank spaces.
525 × 100 = 52,500
The answer is 525 meters = 52,500 centimeters.

Here is another example.

Convert 95,231 milligrams to kilograms.
First, notice that you are going from a smaller unit to a larger unit. This means you will need to
divide and move the decimal point to the left.
 Next, remember that there are 1000 milligrams in a gram and 1000 grams in a kilogram. This
means there are 1,000,000 (1000 × 1000) milligrams in a kilogram. You will need to divide by 1,000,000
or move the decimal point 6 to the left.
952311000000 = 0.095231
The answer is 95,231 milligrams = 0.095231 kilograms.

Example 1
Earlier, you were given a problem about Charlotte and her family trip with her baby brother.
Her brother drinks 750 milliliters of formula a day and her mom has 6 liters of formula packed for the 7
day trip. Charlotte wants to make sure they have enough formula.
First, Charlotte should figure out how many milliliters of formula her brother will need for the 7
days. He drinks 750 milliliters a day, so multiply 750 times 7.
750 × 7 = 5250
Her brother will need 5250 milliliters of formula for the trip.
Next, convert 5250 milliliters to liters. Charlotte should notice that she is going from a smaller
unit to a larger unit. This means she will need to divide and move the decimal point to the left.
Now, Charlotte needs to remember that there are 1000 milliliters in a liter. This means she will
need to divide by 1000 or move the decimal point 3 to the left.
5250 ÷1 0005250 milliliters = 5.2505.25 liters
The answer is that because Charlotte’s mom has 6 liters of formula and Charlotte’s brother will
need 5.25 liters of formula, Charlotte’s mom has enough formula for the trip.
Example 2
Convert 150 grams to centigrams.
First, notice that you are going from a larger unit to a smaller unit. This means you will need to
multiply and move the decimal point to the right.
Next, remember that there are 100 centigrams in a gram. This means you will need to multiply by
100 or move the decimal point 2 to the right. Insert zeros into the blank spaces.
150 × 100 = 15,000
The answer is 150 grams = 15,000 centigrams.
Example 3
Convert 500 meters to centimeters.
First, notice that you are going from a larger unit to a smaller unit. This means you will need to
multiply and move the decimal point to the right.
Next, remember that there are 100 centimeters in a meter. This means you will need to multiply
by 100 or move the decimal point 2 to the right. Insert zeros into the blank spaces.
500 × 100 = 50,000
The answer is 500 meters=50,000 centimeters.
Example 4
Convert 120 meters to kilometers.
First, notice that you are going from a smaller unit to a larger unit. This means you will need to
divide and move the decimal point to the left.
Next, remember that there are 1000 meters in a kilometer. This means you will need to divide by
1000 or move the decimal point 3 to the left.
120 ÷ 1000 = 0.120 or 0.12
The answer is 120 meters=0.12 kilometers.
Example 5
Convert 50 centiliters to liters.
First, notice that you are going from a smaller unit to a larger unit. This means you will need to
divide and move the decimal point to the left.
Next, remember that there are 100 centiliters in a liter. This means you will need to divide by 100
or move the decimal point 2 to the left.
 50÷100 = 0.5
The answer is 50 centiliters = 0.5 liters.

Activities:
Direction: Convert the following metric units of length.
1. 100 cm to millimeters
2. 1000 kilometers to meters
3. 453 meters to kilometers
4. 1,567 kilometers to meters
5. 8,900 centimeters to meters
6. 9.2 meters to centimeters

Direction: Convert the following measurements into milliliters.

7. 85.55 liters
8. 28.203 centiliters
9. 0.009866 kiloliters

Direction: Convert the following measurements into centigrams.

10. 13.464 grams
11. 0.0763 milligrams
12. 0.0150784 kilograms

Direction: Convert the following measurements into kiloliters.

13. 85.75 liters
14. 46,212 milliliters
15. 5,120,900 centiliters

Customary System. The customary system is the measurement system commonly used in the
United States, including: feet, inches, pounds, cups, gallons, etc.
Equivalence. Equivalence is the condition of being equal in value or meaning.
Estimate. To estimate is to find an approximate answer that is reasonable or makes sense given
the problem.
Measurement. A measurement is the weight, height, length or size of something.
Proportion. A proportion is an equation that shows two equivalent ratios.
Ratio. A ratio is a comparison of two quantities that can be written in fraction form, with a colon
or with the word “to”.

LESSON 2: FINDING THE PERIMETER OF A SQUARE

A square is a type of rectangle in which the adjacent sides are equal. In other words, all the sides
of a square are equal.

The following are the properties of a square: 

(i) All the angles in a square are the same and equal 90º. 
(ii) All the sides of a square are equal.
 The perimeter of a square is the total length of all the sides of the square. Hence, we can find the
perimeter of a square by adding all its four sides.

The perimeter of the given square is a + a + a + a. Since all sides of a square are equal, we only
need one side to find its perimeter.
The perimeter of the given square is:  
a + a + a + a = 4  a units.
Hence, the formula of the perimeter of a square = 4 × (length of any one side).

Tricky Math problems with the Squares:

Type I: Finding side length when only the perimeter is given.
Example 1. If the perimeter of the given square is 12 cm. What will be the length of its side?
Solution: Given, that the perimeter of the square is 12 cm.
Let the side length be ‘a’ cm.
We know that, the perimeter of a square = 4 × (side length)
12=4×(a)
a = 3 cm

Type II: Finding sides using square properties.

Example 2. If a = 4 cm in the given square. Find b, c. and d.

Solution: Given that side a = 4 cm.

To find sides b, c, and d, we use the property of the square which states that all the sides of a
square are equal.

Therefore, a = b = c = d = 4 cm
Type III: Finding perimeter when one of the sides is given.
Example 3. One of the sides of a square is 5 cm. What will be its perimeter?

Solution: Given, one side of the square is 5 cm.

We know that, the perimeter of a square = 4 × (side length)
= 4 × (5)
= 20 cm

Example 4. The length of the side of the square wooden frame is 5 cm. Find the total length of the wood
used in the frame.

Solution: Given, that the length of a side of this wooden frame is 5 cm.
As we know, the perimeter of a square = 4 × (side length)
= 4  (5)
= 20 cm.
Hence, the total length of the wood used is 20 cm.

LESSON 3: FINDING THE PERIMETER OF A RECTANGLE

Many of us know what rectangles look like, but what exactly makes a rectangle a rectangle?
To start off, all rectangles have four sides. But that alone doesn't make a rectangle. If that were
the case, this would be a rectangle:
 That, however, is a trapezoid—definitely not a rectangle because in a rectangle, the four angles
are all right angles.

Also, a rectangle's opposite sides are congruent, and when we say congruent, we mean they're of
equal size.

We show congruence by marking the sides of equal length with the same number of hash marks as
each other. So, a square is a type of rectangle because it has four sides with opposite sides congruent, and
all its angles are right angles.
 A square, however, has all four sides the same length, or congruent with each other, so we mark
them with the same number of hash marks.

A Rectangle's Perimeter
The perimeter of a rectangle is equal to the sum of all the sides. However, since a rectangle's
opposite sides are congruent, we only need to know the length and width.
We can write this in an equation this way:
P = l + w + l + w
where P is the perimeter, l is the length of the rectangle and w is its width. But instead of writing
the l and w twice, we can simplify the equation like this:
P = 2l + 2w
What if we were given the following measurements?
 This rectangle has a length of 6 inches and a width of 3 inches. We can still calculate the
rectangle's perimeter because we know that the other two sides also measure three and six inches,
respectively.
So, we plug in 6 for l and 3 for w in our equation, and we have:
P = 2(6) + 2(3) = 18
This rectangle's perimeter is 18 inches.
What if we were given the measurements for these two sides?

The image tells us that this rectangle's length is 4 feet, but we know nothing about its width. Even
though we're given two sides, they're not the length and the width, both of which we need to determine
perimeter. So, we can't calculate this rectangle's perimeter from the information given.

Math Problem: Late for Practice

Sammy was late to football practice, so his coach is making him run around the entire field three
times. The field, including the end zones and the practice area behind the end zones is 160 yards long and
53 yards wide. What's the total distance Sammy has to run?
 Well, since Sammy is running along all sides of the rectangular field, we're dealing with perimeter
here.
Let's make a diagram of the field:

This rectangle has a length of 160 yards and a width of 53 yards. We have the information we
need to plug into our perimeter formula.
P = 2l + 2w
Plugging in 160 for l and 53 for w, we have:
P = 2(160) + 2(53)
Multiplying 2 times 160 gives us 320, and multiplying 2 times 53 gives us 106, so we now have:
P = 320 + 106
We add 320 plus 106 and get:
P = 426
The field's perimeter is 426 yards.
Since Sammy has to run around the field three times, we'll need to multiply the perimeter by 3:
426 x 3 = 1,278

LESSON 4: FINDING THE AREA OF A SQUARE

Area of a two-dimensional shape is the space occupied by it. In the given square, the space
shaded in blue is the area of the square.

 
 The space occupied by the swimming pool below can be found by finding the area of the pool.

Or we can calculate the area of a square field to find the

number of saplings to be planted. We measure the area in square
units. 
By finding the number of unit squares that are required to
fill a shape, we can find its area. The total number of unit squares
in a shape give its area.
Consider a square of each side 3 cm long. It can be filled
with 3 rows and 3 columns of unit squares.

The square can be shown on top of a 10 x

10 grid with shaded inside the square.
Area of each unit square = 1 sq. cm.
No. of squares = 3 x 3 = 9
So, total area = 9 sq. cm
In other words, the area of a square is
the product of the length of each side with itself.
That is, Area A = s x s where s is the length of
each side of the square. 

For example, the area of a square of each side of

length 8 feet is 8 times 8 or 64 square feet.

 
 Let us solve another example. A square
shaped chocolate cake in needs chocolate icing on top. If
each side of the cake is 18 inches long, what is the area of
the cake that needs icing?
A simple square chocolate cake, preferably the
vertical sides covered with colorful gems/kitkat.
The area covered in chocolate icing is equal to
the area of the square on top of the cake. 
Length of each side = 18 in.
Area = 18 x 18 = 324 sq. in.
Therefore, the top area of the cake that will
need icing will be 324 square inches.

Summary

 Each diagonal divides a square into two congruent isosceles right triangles.
 Each of these right triangles has base and height both equal to the length of each side of the
square. So, if the square has each side s units long,
then the area of each triangle equals 1⁄2 x s x s
=  1⁄2 s2. Since the two triangles are congruent, they
have equal area. Thus, the total area of the square
is 1⁄2 s2 +  1⁄2 s2 = s2 .

LESSON 5: FINDING THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE

 The area of a polygon is the number of square units
inside the polygon. To understand the difference
between perimeter and area, think of perimeter as the length of
fence needed to enclose the yard, whereas area is the space
inside the yard. Perimeter is 1-dimensional and is measured in
linear units such as inches, feet or meters. Area is 2-dimensional:
it has a length and a width. Area is measured in square units such
as square inches, square feet or square meters.

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the length by the width. The formula is:
A = L * W 
where A is the area, L is the length, W is the width, and * means multiply.

A square is a rectangle with 4 equal sides. To find the area of a square, multiply the length of one
side by itself. The formula is:
 or   
where A is the area, s is the length of a side, and · means multiply.
Let's look at some examples of finding the area of rectangles.

Example 1: Find the area of a square with each side measuring 2 inches.
Solution: 
 = (2 in) · (2 in) = 4 in2

Example 2: A rectangle has a length of 8 centimeters and a width of 3 centimeters. Find the area.
Solution: A = L * W
A = (8 cm) · (3 cm) = 24 cm2

In Examples 1 and 2, we found the area given the dimensions of the rectangle. Let's look at some
examples in which we are given the area of the rectangle, and are asked to work backwards to find the
missing dimension.

Example 3: The area of a square is 9 square centimeters. How long is one side?
 Solution: 
9 cm2 =   * 
Since 3 · 3 = 9, we get 3 cm · 3 cm = 9 cm2. So   must equal 3 cm.
 = 3 cm.

Example 4: The area of a rectangle is 12 square inches and the width is 3 inches. What is the
length?
Solution: A = L * W
12 in2 = L * 3in
Since 4 · 3 = 12, we get (4 in) · (3 in) = 12 in2. So L must equal 4 in.
L = 4 in.

Summary: 
The dimensions of a rectangle are length and width. Given the length and width of a rectangle,
we can find the area. Given the area and one dimension of a rectangle, we can find the other
dimension. The formula for area of a rectangle is:
A = L * W 
where L is the length and W is the width.

A square is a rectangle with 4 equal sides.

The formula for area of a square is:
 or   where S is the length of one side.