Handbook On Research

Fundamental Research Handbook መሠረታየጥናትና ምርምር ማጣቀሻ መጽሐፍ
CHAPTER ONE
1. CONCEPTUALIZATION OF RESEARCH
1.1. The Meaning of Research
The term research has a number of various meanings and explanations in different contexts.
Etymologically, the word research is come from the French word “recherche” that means ‘to
search after or investigate.’ Research is also composed of two words: A prefix re and a verb
search. From this, re means again, a new and over again. In ordinary sense, research refers to a
search for knowledge. Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specifically through search
for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Research is a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge. Research is also a systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of human
knowledge. Research is a process of identifying and investigating a fact or a problem with a view
to acquiring an insight into it or finding an apt solution. Research is a careful, critical inquiry or
explanation and diligent investigation in seeking facts or principles in order to ascertain
something.
In addition, research is a systematic investigation into the study of materials, events, sources and
phenomena to gain new knowledge and to make conclusions based on rational evidences.
Research is a procedure by which researchers attempt to find the answer to a question or the
resolution of a problem systematically, and with the support of demonstrable fact. Research
involves systematic and scientific investigation of hidden or unknown facets with a view to
determine or ascertain something which may satisfy the curiosity of the investigator and carry
forward knowledge researcher. It is the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomena.
The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects
the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions.
In ordinary sense, the term refers to a search for knowledge. As Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
of Current English, research as a careful investigation or inquiry specifically through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a systematized
By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 1

effort to gain new knowledge. According to Webster’s International Dictionary, research is a

careful, critical inquiry or explanation in seeking facts or principles; diligent investigation in
order to ascertain something. Encyclopedia Britannica defines research as the act of searching
into a matter closely and carefully, inquiry directed to the discovery of truth and in particular, the
trained scientific investigation of the principles and facts of any subject, based on original and
first hand study of authorities or experiment. Investigations of every kind which has been based
on original sources of knowledge may be styled research and it may be said that without research
no authoritative works have been written, no scientific discoveries or inventions made, no
theories of any value propounded.
Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a
voyage of discovery. All human beings possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness when the
unknown confronts them, and their inquisitiveness makes them to probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the
method which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, and it can be
termed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a
technical sense. According to Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Slesinger and Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or
verify knowledge whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art. Thus, research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and
the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term research refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or

data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
1.2. What is not Research
There are a number of some common misconceptions about research. Research is not mere
information gathering. For example: Going to a library and learning about a certain topic is not a
research. It may be information discovery or learning reference skills. Research is also not mere
transformation of facts from one location to another. For example: You have collected data from
library and presented quite a good number of materials in class is assignment rather than
research. Research is not rearranging of facts. A person writing a report on a known subject is
not research. Indeed, you have done some research activities such as collected data, assembled
references, or referenced statements properly. However, these activities alone do not add up to a
true research paper. You missed the essence of research, which is interpretation of data. No
conclusion is drawn or facts interpreted by yourselves. This activity is more of fact discovery,
fact transformation or fact transcription.
Research is not an existing bag of techniques. Research is not a fishing expedition or an

encyclopedic gathering of assorted facts. Research is purposeful investigation. It provides a
structure for decision making. There are three parts involved in any investigation: (1) the implicit
question posed (2) the explicit answer proposed (3) collection, analysis and interpretation of the
information leading from the question to the answer. Research is not synonymous with common
sense. The difference involves around words such as systematic, objective and reproducible.
Both research and common sense depend on information, but the distinction lies in the
procedures and methods adopted by which information is obtained and used in arriving at
conclusions. Research cannot address itself to the complete information on a particular subject.
Hence, two secondary characteristic of research specify relevance and control.
1.3. Characteristics of Research
Research has the following unique features:

 Research gathers new data from primary or first-hand sources or secondary data using the
existing data
 It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation
 It uses certain valid data gathering devices
 It strives to be logical and objective inquiry
 It involves carefully designed procedures and applies rigorous analysis
 It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles
 The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences
 Research is patient and unhurried activity
 It also requires courage and tolerance
 Research can be carried out by carefully record and report of information, and
 Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.
1.4. Purposes of Research
The purpose of research is to acquire knowledge or to know about something in a scientific and
systematic way. The purpose of research may be to find solution to the identified problem. The
former is referred to as basic, pure or fundamental research while the latter takes the label of
applied or action research. Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with formulation of a theory or re-confirmation of the existing theory. The main aim of basic
research is to acquire knowledge for the sake of acquiring it. On the other hand, applied research
aims at finding or discovering solutions or answers to the identified problems or questions. The
basic purposes of research may include:
 To discover new knowledge

 To fill knowledge gap or build existing knowledge
 To solve problems or to take corrective measures
 For academic purposes
 To describe the existing facts and realities in scientific way
 To explain and evaluate solutions or phenomena
 To compare events

 To assess the rational relationships between variables

 To identify problems, and
 To predict the cause and effect of situations.
In addition to this, research objective of a given research study may fall under either of the
following broad categories of research objectives:
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated.
 To test causal relationship between two or more than two facts or situations.
 To know and understand a phenomenon with a view to formulating the problem
precisely.
 To describe accurately a given phenomenon and to test hypotheses about relationships
among its different dimensions.
1.5. Types of Research
There are different ways of categorizing research depend up on purpose, approach, outcome and
time frame. Based on the purpose, the research can be categorized as exploratory research,
descriptive research, analytical research and predictive research as explanatory research.
A. Exploratory Research
This research is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references can be
made for information, ideas or hypothesis for testing or confirming it. This is to discover new
idea, event or phenomenon. This research is conducted with a view to clarify and define the
existence and nature of a problem. Exploratory research has the goal of formulating problems
more precisely, clarifying concepts, gathering explanations, gaining insight, eliminating
impractical ideas, and formulating hypothesis. It provides quantitative, qualitative or combined
scenarios. In these studies, three inter-related activities such as (a) diagnosing a situation (b)
scanning the alternatives and (c) discovering new idea exist.

B. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research describes, interprets, and clarifies what in the present often done with
surveys may be done by observation or an observational instrument. It merely describes the
phenomenon or situation under study and its characteristics. Descriptive research comprises
surveys and fact-finding inquiries of different types. Descriptive research deals with numerical
data gathered through tests, surveys, observations, and interviews. Variables are not manipulated
but are measured as they occur; sub-groups may be compared on some measure. Two or more
variables of a group may be correlated; and does not attempt to identify cause of differences or
relationships, just if they exist. The methods commonly used in descriptive research are survey
methods of all kinds, including comparative and co-relational methods, and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. It answers the question of what is the current situation.
C. Analytical or Explanatory Research
This is a continuation of descriptive research and it answers the questions like why and how of a
phenomenon. It explains the reasons for the existence of a phenomenon which descriptive study
might have observed and explained. For instance: The Ministry of Revenue might be interested
to know why the revenue collection through the value added tax has fallen short of the target in a
particular period. There are two types of explanatory research:
 Experimental research: involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test
some hypothesis regarding causation. Experimental and control groups are required.
Experimental has at least one variable which is manipulated and its effects are measured.
Subjects randomly assigned to experimental treatment and control groups who are treated
the same except for the treatment variable that determines cause and effect. And when
intact groups are used then it is called quasi‐experimental. Experiment deals with the
question of what is the cause of the phenomena.
 Ex post facto research: Ex post facto in research means after the fact or retrospectively.
Conducting a research after the occurrence of some events and comparing of the changes
before and after the event or intervention. Ex post facto or causal comparative identifies

an effect that has already occurred and attempts to infer cause. A treatment variable is
alleged cause that identified but not manipulated and effects are measured. Groups
exposed to the treatment variable are compared to groups who are not; and identification
of cause can be called into question because groups were not randomly assigned and
other extraneous variables were not controlled. It concerns the question of what was the
possible cause.
D. Historical Research
The purpose of a historical research is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of
primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-
textual information, maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings. It studies about description of
past events, problems, issues, facts; data gathered from written or oral descriptions of past
events, artifacts; describes what was in an attempt to reconstruct the past; and involves much
interpretation of events and its influence on the present. Historical research is a systematic
process of searching for information and fact to describe analyze or interpret the past. The
limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.
Based on approaches, research can be qualitative, quantitative and mixed research. Qualitative
Research: is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, which implies phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research relies on reason
behind various aspects of human behavior. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount, statistics and numbers. The objective of quantitative research is to develop
and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to the phenomenon under
inquiry. Mixed research is a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.
Based on outcomes, research is classified in to fundamental research and applied research

Fundamental or pure research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation
of a theory and to build knowledge. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed as pure
or basic research. Fundamental research is to find additional information about a phenomenon

and thereby to add to the existing body of scientific knowledge. Applied Research aims at
finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society an industrial or business
organization. The central aim of applied or action research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem.
Research based on the time frame, research is classified as longitudinal study and cross-
sectional study. Longitudinal study is in-depth investigation of a particular event for long period
of time on the same case. For example: A research to find vaccine for HIV/AIDS. Cross-
sectional study involves two or more events that can be studied within restricted time period with
the involvement of various study groups. For example: A research on the socio-economic
impacts of HIV/AIDS.
1.6. Research Paradigm or Philosophy
Research paradigm is a perspective about research held by a community of researchers that is

based on a set of shared assumptions, concepts, values, and practices. More simply, it is an
approach to thinking about and doing research. Paradigm is an interpretative framework, which
is guided by a set of beliefs and feelings about the world and how it should be understood and
studied. Ontology is the branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality and truth.
Ontology deals with the question of what is real and fact. As ontological assumptions, social
reality is regarded as a social construction that is produced and reproduced by social actors in the
course of their everyday lives. It consists of inter-subjectively shared, socially constructed
meaning and knowledge. This social reality does not exist as an independent and objective world
that stands apart from social actors’ experience of it. Rather, it is the product of the processes by
which social actors together negotiate the meanings of actions and situations. It consists of
mutual knowledge of meanings, cultural symbols and social institutions.
Social reality is the symbolic world of meanings and interpretations. With these ontological
assumptions, knowledge of social reality can only be achieved by collecting social actors’
accounts of their reality, and then re-describing these accounts in social scientific language. This

position is known as interpretivism or social constructionism, and its data-gathering procedures

are mainly qualitative.
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy dealing with knowledge and its justification. It is the
philosophy of knowledge justifying why and how something is true. Search for what is the
relationship between the inquirer and the known. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that
studies the nature of knowledge and the process by which knowledge is acquired and validated.
Epistemological assumptions are assumptions about how social reality can be known.
Methodology is the identification, study, and justification of research methods. Methodology is
the practical ways, the methods used to gain knowledge. Methodology is concerned with how we
may know the world, or gain knowledge of it. Commonly known research paradigms are:
 Positivism
 Post-positivism
 Interpretivism or
 Structuralism.
A. Positivism
Positivism is the philosophy of science based on the assumptions that social reality is external to
the people involved and that knowledge of this reality can be obtained by the unprejudiced use of
the human senses. The measurement of concepts is regarded as establishing a bridge between
social reality and the observer, and inductive logic is used to advance knowledge. Positivism
asserts a deterministic and empiricist philosophy where causes determine effects, and aims to
directly observe, quantitatively measure and objectively predict relationships between variables.
It assumes that social phenomena, like objects in natural science, can be treated in the same way.
The positivist ontology believes that that there is a single objective reality to any research
phenomenon or situation regardless of the researcher’s perspective or belief.
It is important in positivist research to seek objectivity and use consistently rational and logical
approaches to research. Statistical and mathematical techniques are central to positivist research,
which adheres to specifically structured research techniques to uncover single and objective

reality. The goal of positivist researchers is to make time and context free generalizations. They
believe this is possible because human actions can be explained as a result of real causes that
temporarily precedes their behavior and the researcher and his research subjects are independent
and do not influence each other.
In general, the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena that we experience truly.
Study what we can observe and measure deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can
test. Empiricism is the idea that observation and measurement is the core of the scientific
endeavor. Main method is the experiment, the attempt to test natural laws through direct
manipulation and observation. It goes in line with quantitative approach.
B. Post-positivism
Criticizes of positivist ideas have led to an array of alternative approaches of post positivism.
One end of post-positivism is critical realism, there is a reality independent of our thinking
about it that science can study. It recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that
all theory is revisable. The other post-positivist extreme is subjectivism, there is no external
reality. It’s all in our heads; there are personal observations as well.
In general, a using of multiple measures is better because observations or other mathematical

measurements may possess different types of error. Hence, triangulation across these multiple
error full sources to try to understand better what's happening in reality. All researchers are
inherently biased by their cultural experiences, and world views. Most post-positivists are
constructivists who believe that we each construct our view of the world based on our
perceptions of it. It focuses on objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives.
Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual; it is inherently a social phenomenon. It
follows a mixed approach.
C. Interpretivism
Interpretivism is the philosophy of social science based on the ontological assumption that social
reality consists of inter-subjectively shared, socially constructed meaning and knowledge that is

produced and reproduced by social actors in the course of their everyday lives. It is assumed that
knowledge of social reality can only be achieved by collecting social actors’ accounts of their
reality and then re-describing these accounts in social scientific language, using abdicative logic.
It is also known as social constructionism. Interpretivism paradigm argues that the subject matter
investigated by the natural sciences is different to the social sciences where human beings as
opposed to inanimate objects can interpret the environment and themselves.
Researchers recognize that all participants involved, including the researcher, bring their own
unique interpretations of the world or construction of the situation to the research and the
researcher needs to be open to the attitudes and values of the participants or, more actively,
suspend prior cultural assumptions. These principles are important in ethnographic methodology.
Some interpretivist researchers also take a social constructivist approach, and focus on the social,
collaborative process of bringing about meaning and knowledge Interpretivism research methods
include focus groups, interviews, research diaries, that is, particularly methods that allow for as
many variables to be recorded as possible. It is a qualitative approach. In general, the position

of Interpretivism in relation to ontology and epistemology is that interpretivists believe the
reality is multiple and relative. These multiple realities also depend on other systems for
meanings, which make it even more difficult to interpret in terms of fixed realities. The
knowledge acquired in this discipline is socially constructed rather than objectively determined
and perceived.
Interpretivists avoid rigid structural frameworks such as in positivist research and adopt a more
personal and flexible research structures which are receptive to capturing meanings in human
interaction and make sense of what is perceived as reality. Therefore, the goal of interpretivist
research is to understand and interpret the meanings in human behavior rather than to generalize
and predict causes and effects. For an interpretivist researcher, it is important to understand
motives, meanings, reasons and other subjective experiences which are time and context bound.
Rationalism is the concern of interpretivism.

D. Post-structuralism
Post-structuralism is also interested in investigating individuals and social relations but focuses
more on selves as constructs and how they are formed through language and gain meaning
within specific relations of power. This relationship between meaning and power is embodied in
the term discourse which encapsulates not only what is said and thought but also who has the
authority to speak. This means that in contemporary post-structuralist research, there is a strong
emphasis on examining language which provides indicators of power-knowledge relationships.
An example of a research methodology that a post-structuralist researcher is most likely to use is

discourse analysis. Typical research methods include observations and audio-visual recordings
of interactions that focus on what is said or not said, how the participants position themselves
and the social and cultural consequences of the observations.
The Research Approach
The research continuum means the research approach is the continuation of the research
paradigm.
Qualitative Research Mixed Research Quantitative Research
Pure quantitative research relies on the collection of quantitative data such as numerical data.
Pure qualitative research relies on the collection of qualitative data like non-numerical data such
as words and pictures. Mixed research involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative
research methods, approaches, or other paradigm characteristics.
1.7. Research Title
The full title should be given without abbreviation. The title is given in a bibliography can be
shortened conveniently without creating ambiguity. A short form may also be used when there is
no bibliography if on a page at the beginning of the paper. A list is made in regular footnote form
of the books that will be cited in the short form. Short forms are only used for major works cited
many times in a paper. It is not necessary to give sub-titles if a sub-title is used, and it should be
made part of the underlined title, but separated from it by a dash. In English titles, the first letter

of the first word and every important word there after including all nouns, adjectives, adverbs
and names must be capitalized. Amharic titles and titles of other languages are translated into
English, and then follow the same principles of capitalization as in English titles.
Title is an important part of the article. It condenses article content in a few words and captures
readers’ attention. A good title for a research article is the one which is able to introduce the
research work to the fullest extent, but in a concise manner. Writing scientific titles that are
informative and attractive is a challenging task. This communication describes the importance of
titles and the methods of creating appropriate titles for research papers. Title is the gateway to the
contents of a scientific article. It is usually the first part of a manuscript that the editors and
reviewers read. After publication, it is the first part of an article that readers see.
Based on their understanding of the title, readers decide if the article is relevant to them or not.
Similarly, readers who are browsing through a database get to see only the title. The first
impressions created by the title, help them decide if there is a need to take a detailed look at the
article. Hence, authors should take efforts to choose an informative, appropriate and catchy title
for their research article.
1.7.1. Functions and Types of Research Titles
Titles are expected to describe the content of the paper so that readers can have an idea about
what the paper is about and take the decision regarding reading it. A title should help
differentiate that particular article from other papers on the topic. Titles should catch and hold
readers’ attention, thereby enticing them to read the entire paper. A title is also expected to
ensure that the paper gets picked up when interested readers are looking for articles on a
particular topic in a database. In short, researchers expect the title to attract readers so that the
article is read, appreciated and cited. Various categories of titles are described and each type
informs readers about the content in differing manner. Although Hartley has enumerated at least
13 types of titles, researchers will consider three broad categories are declarative, informative
and interrogative.

Declarative titles state the main finding or conclusion stated in the paper. A declarative title
states the outcome and it is believed that a casual reader may then not have much curiosity left
for reading the entire paper. For example: Administration of inhaled steroids to children with
bronchial asthma for a two-year period leads to reduction in final height achieved. Descriptive
titles describe the article theme, but without making known its findings or conclusions.
Descriptive titles are preferred as they inform the reader about what a study entails but not about
the study result. This helps to maintain the suspense about the outcome. For example: The role of
agricultural credit in alleviating poverty in highland area of Ethiopia.
Many descriptive titles include all aspects of the research question studied about participant,
intervention, control and outcome (PICO). Although this makes the title rather long; it has
certain advantages too: Once the readers get complete information about the article content. In
addition, as such a title contains several key words; it increases the article’s chances of being
discovered by search engines, being read by discerning readers, and being cited by investigators.
Interrogative titles usually restate the research question in part or in full. For example: Does
agricultural credit alleviates poverty in highland area of Ethiopia?
From the construct point of view, titles can be classified as nominal, compound and full sentence
titles. Nominal titles capture main premise of the study. For example: Off-label drug use in
neonatal intensive care unit. Compound titles or hanging titles have a sub-title. The sub-titles
are primarily used to present additional relevant information. The sub-titles may provide
additional context and inform about the study design. For example: Small to moderate decreases
in cold hypersensitivity up to 3 years after severe hand injuries: A prospective cohort study. Sub-
title also provides geographic ideas. For example: Human leukocyte antigen diversity: a South
African perspective. Sub-title sometimes deals with temporal scope. For example: Pelvic floor
muscle training for female stress urinary incontinence: Five years outcomes of the research.
A sub-title is also used to add substance to a provocative or a literary. For example: First know
thyself: Cognition and error in medicine. Compound titles also correlate with higher number of
citations. Full-sentence titles are uncommon and tend to be longer. They indicate an added

degree of certainty of the study results. For example: Serum vitamin D is significantly inversely
associated with disease severity in Caucasian adults with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome.
Titles for research articles that end with an exclamatory mark are scarce. No one construct is
ideal or better than the other and they need to be chosen depending upon the article’s premise.
Author’s individual preference and judgment also play a part.
1.7.2. Attributes of a Good Title

 Title informs the reader accurately about the contents of the article. It is the foremost duty of
the title that it would tell readers about what the article is about.
 Title simple, direct, clear, brief and attractive. A good title should be interesting, easy to read
and understand and catchy. It should convey information in an unambiguous and precise
manner. It should not be open to multiple interpretations and should not confuse the readers
about the message it intends to communicate. The issue of appropriate length of a title is
hotly debated with contrasting suggestions. A title should be clear, descriptive of the study
and should not be too long or too short. Some journals go to the extent of actually prescribing
the number of words from 10-15 words or characters that can be used in a title. A lengthy
title may seem unfocused, distracting and outright boring.
On the other hand, a short title may be able to provide information in general terms only
thereby failing in its primary duty of enlightening readers about the article content. Articles
with such general titles are likely to be read less frequently. Redundant words and phrases
such as investigation of or study of or observations on should be excluded from the title.
Puns and irony make the titles humorous and more attractive. Such titles grab immediate
attention. However, readers who are not familiar with these may fail to understand the title.
They may simply pass over the article even though it is relevant to them.
 Does not contain abbreviations or jargon. Use of non-standard abbreviations in the title
distracts and disturbs readers. If acronyms have to be used in the title, it is advisable to spell
them out. Otherwise, there is a possibility that readers not familiar with the acronym might
skip the article altogether. Similarly, titles with jargon, too many technical words or chemical

formulas are considered uninteresting, unwieldy and difficult to read and can confuse
readers, inducing them to shun the article altogether.
 Does not contain numerical values of the parameters. There is generally no need to include
numbers in the title. For example: Use of probiotics in children with diarrhea is associated
with reduction of 11.3+/- 2.1 hours in the duration of diarrhea. Some of authors use numbers
disclose the study period or to mention the number of participants if the sample size studied
is quite large.
 It is line with the tenor of the paper. Medical research is a serious business. Hence, it is better
to avoid amusing or hilarious titles for research articles. Although they might attract some
initial attention, findings in articles with amusing or humorous titles are usually taken less
seriously and are cited less often.
 Titles include keywords used for indexing. If key words that are used for searching or
indexing are used in the title, the article is more likely to be accessed.
CHAPTER TWO
2. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
2.1. Research Design
The term research methods refer to all those methods and techniques that are used by a
researcher in conducting his research. Research methods refers to the methods, techniques or
tools employed by a researcher for collecting and processing of data, establishing the relationship
between the data and unknown facts, and evaluating the accuracy of the results obtained. On the
other hand, research methodology refers to a way to systematically solve the research problem. It
is a science of studying how research is done scientifically. It involves a study of various steps
and methods that a researcher needs generally to adopt in his investigation of a research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is a study of not only of methods but also of explanation and
justification for using certain research methods and of the methods themselves. It includes in it

the philosophy and practice of the whole research process. The scope of research methodology is
wider than that of research methods.
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. A research design is a planning stage of research which is usually made
logically visualizing its practicability. The research design refers to the researcher overall plan
for answering the research question or testing the research hypotheses. A research design is a
framework for the research plan of action. It is a master plan that specifies the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information and a strategy for how the data
will be collected. A research design includes the following components:
A. Operational designs are the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational designs can be carried out. The overall techniques and activities
required to carry out the study.
B. Sampling design is the method of selecting items to be selected or observed.
C. Method of data collection design is the conditions under which the data can be collected;
D. Choice of research tools are the type of data collection tools.
E. Analytical design is how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.
The important features of a research design are:
 A plan: It specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem
 A strategy: It is about which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.
 The time and cost budgets: Considering the available time and budget used for the
study.
Research design must contain the population to be studied and sampling; procedures and
techniques to be used for gathering information; and the methods to be used in processing and
analyzing data.
Purposes of Research Design:

 It provides the scheme for answering research question.

 It maintains control to avoid bias that may affect the outcomes.
 It organizes the study in a certain way defending the advantages of doing while being
aware and caution about potential disadvantages.
 It results in the desired type of study with useful conclusions.
 It leads to reduced inaccuracy.
 It gives optimum efficiency and reliability.
 It minimizes the uncertainty and confusion.
 It is helpful for the collection of research material and required data.
 It operates as a guide post for giving research a right direction.
 It minimizes the wastage of time and beating around the bush.
The various concepts considered in research designs include:
 Dependent and independent variables
Independent Variable is experimental or treatment variable is the cause what researchers are
studying. It is what researchers are manipulating in their study. Dependent Variable is what is
measured to assess the effects of the independent variable. It is thought to be dependent on the
independent variable. Identifying variables of study properly:
 If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable is said to be a

dependent variable,
 The variable that is antecedent or cause to the dependent variable is an independent variable.
 Extraneous variable:
Independent variables are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable. For example: A researcher wants to test the hypothesis: a relationship between
children’s academic achievement and the method of teaching. Method of teaching is an
independent variable; academic achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence, income,
method of study etc. may as well affect the academic achievement, but since it is not related to

the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable is technically
described as an experimental error. Multi-collinearity effect is the effect of extraneous variables
on the dependent variable.
 Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of
extraneous variables. So, research design need to consider how to control the effects of
extraneous variables termed as controlling multi-collinearity effect.
 Confounded Relationship
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable it said to be
there is confounded relationship. The relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded or confused by an extraneous variables.
 Research Hypothesis
Formulation of hypothesis becomes essential in studies involving use of empirical research

techniques. Hypothesis is derived from two words: ‘Hypo’ means under, and ‘thesis’ means an
idea or thought. Hence, hypothesis means idea underlying a statement or proposition. In fact, the
word hypothesis is derived from the Greek, ‘hypo’ means under and ‘tithenas’ means to place. It
suggests that a statement when it is placed under evidence as a foundation becomes hypothesis. It
is a tentative statement of presumed relationship between two or more concepts or variables.
A hypothesis needs to be formulated in such a way that one can gather empirical evidence for
verifying or refuting its correctness. When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be
tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Researchers
need to consider hypothesis in their design if they have the hypothesis.
 Experimental and Control Groups

In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions is

termed as control group. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to some novel or special
condition is termed as an experimental group. The process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis and relating to some research problem is known as experiment. The pre-determined
plots or the blocks where different treatments are used are known as experimental units. Such
experimental units must be selected and defined very carefully. Identifying experimental and
control groups clearly at the design stage is very important.
 Treatments
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually
referred to as treatments. Identifying the treatments of research and knowing how to conduct it.
Characteristics of Good Research Design
Good research design has the following important characteristics:
 Appropriateness to the research question

 Free from bias
 There will be Precision.
 It is less complicated and clear
In addition to this, a good research design properly considers in order to conduct good study:
 Sources of data
 Data collection techniques
 Sampling techniques and
 Analytical techniques are used in quantitative, qualitative or mixed researches.
2.1.1. Types of Research Design
Sometimes, types of research design are descriptive or exploratory survey, correlational,

experimental and quasi experimental research design.
A. Descriptive or Exploratory Survey Studies

The purpose of descriptive studies is to provide a picture of a situation as it naturally happen, and
no manipulation variable is involved. This design is used to search for accurate information
about the characteristics of particular subject, group, and event or phenomena. For example:
Anthropological, sociological, and historical studies are exploratory surveys.
B. Correlational Design
Correlational design examines relationships between or among two or more variables in a single
group. It requires a large sample size. There is no control group. The correlational design does
not test the cause and effect relationship. It simply shows whether two or more variables have
relation or not.
C. Experimental Research Design
Test a causal hypothesis in terms of cause and effect relationship between the intervention or
treatment and the outcomes. Elements of true experiment design: Control group, sample
randomization for experimental group and manipulation of the independent variable.
D. Quasi Experimental Design
Quasi experiment is research design in which the researcher initiates an experimental treatment
but some characteristic of true experiment is lacking either control or randomization. It is also
used to test cause and effect relationship, but the basic problem with the quasi experiment is the
weakened confidence in making causal assertion. So, it is usually exposed to the subject
contamination. Quasi-experimental research is used whenever true control is not possible. It is
Common in social science, educational research. For example: Studying the effects of teaching
method on students’ academic achievement.
On the other hand, it is usually possible and certainly popular to characterize a research
methodology in educational research as qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. The term
research design is widely used in education, but it takes different meanings in different studies.
The terms research method and research design are used interchangeably by various researchers
and scholars. In one study, research design may reflect the entire research process from

conceptualization of a problem to the literature review, research questions, methods, and

conclusions. In another study, research design refers only to the methodology of a study such as
data collection and analysis.
I. Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research methods focus on discovering and understanding the experiences,

perspectives, and thoughts of participants. Qualitative research explores meaning, purpose or
reality. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the
world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings and
attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to the
humans. Central to this inquiry is the presence of multiple truths that are socially constructed.
Qualitative research is usually described as allowing a detailed exploration of a topic of interest
in which information is collected by a researcher through case studies, ethnographic work,
interviews, field notes, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos.
Qualitative research methods are also described as inductive, in the sense that a researcher may
construct theories or hypotheses, explanations, and conceptualizations from details provided by a
participant to the generalizations. Qualitative research approaches collect data through
observations, interviews, and document analysis and summarize the findings primarily through
narrative or verbal means. There are several categorizations of research designs in qualitative
research namely: Narrative studies, phenomenological studies, grounded theory studies,
ethnographies, and case studies.
 Case Study
Case study is one of the most common qualitative approaches. Case studies typically focus on
small groups or individuals within a group and document that group’s or individual’s experience
in a specific setting although they are wide ranging in their scope and sequence. In addition, the
gathering of this information or data through multiple sources and perspectives is another key

characteristic of the case study approach. Researchers working in case studies tend to use
interview, observation, and document analysis as their primary tools.
 Ethnographic Study
Ethnographic studies are often included in the same category as case studies, and for good
reason. Where case study researchers focus their energies on the interactions of individuals or
small groups in specific settings, ethnographic researchers tend to investigate how interactions in
a cultural group are influenced by the larger society. Like case studies, ethnographic studies also
gather information about the phenomena being investigated from multiple perspectives.
However, ethnographic researchers filter or assess the information gathered through the setting,
recognizing that the setting itself has a role and a function in the study. Ethnographic studies also
require that the researcher gain the perspective of the participants, to some degree, by becoming
part of the group being studied.
A researcher who clearly knows the setting culture and the participants in the setting gathers this
information by using interviews, observations, and some document analyses. However, the
researcher also recognizes that she or he has to be aware of alternative settings or issues that
need to be considered like diversity of curriculum mandated by the school; interaction between
minority students, the police, and the larger community; the interaction between the religious
community and the school; and legislation.
 Grounded Theory Study
In grounded theory research, the researcher uses data gathered through qualitative techniques to
develop a theory based on the data. In essence, the researcher builds a theory from the ground or
from the narrative data produced in the study. Taking the example just used for ethnographic
research, a grounded-theory researcher might take the findings of the study and develop a theory
of how schools in general might effectively deal with issues of diversity. There were four basic
components essential to an effective diversity program: Developing identity, tolerance training,
understanding differences, and building learning communities.

Then, theory could be based on these principles, and from these principles the researcher would
begin to develop a theoretical framework. As the theory begins to emerge, the researcher returns
to collect more data to either confirm or challenge the initial findings. In some ways, the
grounded theory researcher is attempting to use the findings generated in a particular context and
develop a theory that could be generalized to other contexts.
 Phenomenological Study
Like case studies, phenomenological studies are also a common qualitative approach.
Phenomenological studies attempt to capture the essence of the human experience. Like other
qualitative researchers, phenomenologists are interested in recording the individual perspectives
of the participants in the study. However, phenomenology stresses the importance of each
individual and his or her respective view of reality. To encourage these perspectives to emerge,
phenomenologists use open-ended interviews as their primary data collection tool. The
phenomenologist’s role is to give voice to those perspectives.
II. Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative research methods attempt to maximize objectivity, replicability, and generalizability

of findings, and are typically interested in prediction. Quantitative research focuses on an
assumption that researchers set aside their experiences, perceptions, and biases in conducting the
study and drawing conclusions. Key features of many quantitative studies are the use of
instruments such as tests or surveys to collect data, and reliance on probability theory to test
statistical hypotheses that correspond to research questions of interest. Quantitative methods are
frequently described as deductive whereby conclusions draw from general to specific in nature
and inferences from tests of statistical hypotheses lead to general inferences about characteristics
of a population. Quantitative methods are also frequently characterized as assuming that there is
a single truth that exists, independent of human perception.
All quantitative research approaches summarize results numerically. However, there are different
approaches of quantitative research design which differ in their goals and the procedures used to
collect data. The following are some of strategies of quantitative research design:

 Descriptive Survey Research
Descriptive survey research aims to describe behaviors and to gather people’s perceptions,
opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about a current issue in education. These descriptions are then
summarized by reporting the number or percentage of persons reporting each response. Good
descriptive survey research requires thoughtful and careful planning. Like experimental research,
this approach is quantitative, and surveys are typically administered to a random sample of the
population to which the researcher wants to generalize the survey results.
However, there is no manipulation of variables and data are not gathered to test a hypothesis in
contrast to experimental research. Therefore, descriptive survey is considered a non-experimental
approach. Survey questions are developed through an extensive review of the literature in the
area of study, and conclusions are drawn based on participant responses rather than demographic
items like background information of participants. Descriptive survey research is the most widely
used method of research in education.
 Experimental Research
The goal of experimental research is to test hypotheses or to establish cause and effect
relationships. For decades, experimental research has been a major approach used in quantitative
research. Indeed, reliable research may result in an increased use of experimental research
method. The overarching purpose of experimental research is to determine whether a particular
approach or way of doing something is better than the older or more traditional approach that has
served as the standard practice. So, experimental research is about studying the effect or impact
of an approach under stringent and controlled conditions to make statements of causality.
 Causal-Comparative Research
Causal-comparative research, or ex-post facto research, is a research approach that seeks to

explain differences between groups by examining differences in their experiences. Like
experimental research, it examines the effect of an independent variable of the past experience
on a dependent variable while also trying to control extraneous variables. However, the

independent variable of the past experience has either already occurred or it would be unethical
to manipulate unlike experimental research. Therefore, making sure that the two comparison
groups are as similar as possible on all other extraneous variables other than the independent
variable is a critical part of designing a causal-comparative study.
 Correlational Research
Correlational research is a quantitative method designed to show the relationships between two
or more variables. Correlational research is similar to descriptive survey in that it is non-
experimental, consisting of only one group of individuals and two or more variables that are not
manipulated or controlled by the researcher. The variables are examined to determine if they are
related, and the direction and magnitude of that relationship. Simple correlational research does
not seek to show causality that one variable is causing a change to occur in another.
Rather, the main purpose of correlational research is to determine through application of a

quantitative statistical analysis, whether a relationship exists between the variables under
investigation. One might make predictions based on these relationships but not statements of
causality. If such a relationship does exist, the strength and the direction of the relationship are
reported numerically in what is referred to as a correlation coefficient.
III. Mixed Methods
Mixed methods research is formally defined as the class of research where the researcher mixes
or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, concepts or
language into a single study. Mixed methods research also is an attempt to legitimate the use of
multiple approaches in answering research questions rather than restricting or constraining
researchers’ choices. It is an expensive and creative form of research and not a limited form of
research. It is inclusive, pluralistic, and complementary method. It suggests that researchers take
an eclectic approach to method selection and the thinking about how to conduct research. Instead
of relying on deductive reasoning and general premises to reach specific conclusions, or
inductive approaches that seek general conclusions based on specific premises, pragmatism
allows for a more flexible abdicative approach. By focusing on solving practical problems, the

debate about the existence of objective truth or the value of subjective perceptions can be
usefully sidestepped. As such, pragmatists have no problem with asserting both that there is a
single real world and that all individuals have their own unique interpretations of that world.
 Sequential Explanatory Design
Sequential explanatory design is mixed approach in which qualitative data are used to enhance,
complement, and in some cases follow up on unexpected quantitative findings. In this approach,
the focus is on interpreting and explaining relationships among variables and guided by a
particular theoretical perspective. Quantitative data are collected and analyzed first, followed by
the collection and analysis of qualitative data, meaning that qualitative and quantitative data are
not combined or mixed in the data analysis rather integration takes place when the findings are
interpreted. In general, results are interpreted in ways that usually give more weight to the
quantitative component. The expertise integrates qualitative and quantitative findings. Sequential
explanatory design is the most frequently used mixed methods approach.
 Sequential Exploratory Design
The sequential exploratory design is essentially the reverse of the sequential explanatory design,
with quantitative data used to enhance and complement qualitative results. This approach is
especially useful when the researcher’s interest is in enhancing generalizability, and it may be
guided by a theoretical perspective. The quantitative results are then used to enhance,
complement, and possibly extend the earlier pilot results. The strengths and weaknesses of this
approach are similar to those of the sequential explanatory design.
 Sequential Transformative Design
Sequential transformative design is an approach in which either qualitative or quantitative data

may be collected first. Here, the theoretical perspective underlying the methodology is critical to
the conduct of the study, and the chosen methods should serve the theoretical perspective. Once
again, qualitative and quantitative data are analyzed separately, and the findings are integrated
during the interpretation phase. This approach is often used to ensure that the views and

perspectives of a diverse range of participants are represented or when a deeper understanding of

a process that is changing as a result of being studied is sought.
 Concurrent Triangulation Design
Concurrent triangulation design is a mixed method that used when the focus is on confirming,
cross-validating or corroborating findings from a single study. Qualitative and quantitative data
are collected concurrently, such that weaknesses of one kind of data are ideally offset by
strengths of the other kind. Typically, equal weight is given to the two kinds of data in mixing
the findings, although one kind of data can be weighted more heavily. The qualitative and
quantitative data are analyzed separately, and mixing takes place when the findings are
interpreted.
 Concurrent Nested Design
Concurrent nested design, in which qualitative and quantitative data are collected concurrently
and analyzed together during the analysis phase. Greater weight is given to one kind of data, in
the sense that one kind of data is typically embedded in the other. However, there may be a
guiding theoretical perspective. A popular application of this approach is with multilevel
structures in which different levels or units of an organization are studied.
Strengths of this approach include the shorter data collection period and the multiple
perspectives embedded in the data. Weaknesses include the level of expertise needed to execute
the study successfully, especially in mixing the qualitative and quantitative data within the data
analysis, and difficulties in reconciling conflicting results from the qualitative and quantitative
analyses. In this design, qualitative and quantitative data are mixed in the analysis phase, a
process that can take many different forms.
 Concurrent Transformative Design
As with the sequential transformative design, there is a clearly defined theoretical perspective
that guides the methodology. In this approach, qualitative and quantitative data are collected
concurrently and can be weighted equally or unequally during the integration of findings.

Qualitative and quantitative data are typically mixed during the analysis phase. Strengths include
a shorter data collection period. Whereas weaknesses include the need to transform data so that it
can be mixed in the analysis phase and difficulties in reconciling conflicting results using
qualitative and quantitative data.
2.2. Sampling Terminologies
Researchers and statisticians have developed techniques for dealing with various sampling
issues. They also developed a specialized terminology to deal these issues. In the process of
sampling, there are a number of aspects or terms:
Sampling is a subset of units selected from a larger group or population. The subset that
provides data for use in estimating the characteristics of the larger set is sample. It is generally
selected for study because the population is too large to study in its entirety. The sample should
be representative of the general population. This is often best achieved by random sampling. It is
also important that the researcher carefully and completely defines the population including a
description of the members to be included before collecting the sample. There are two principles
that underlie all sample design. The first is the desire to avoid bias in the selection procedure and
the second is to achieve the maximum precision for a given outlay of resources.
Sample design is the set of procedures for selecting the units from the population that are to be
in the sample. The population is the set of people or entities to which findings are to be
generalized. It refers to all the people who possess the characteristics of interest. Population can
be defined as the total set of units in which the researcher is interested. The relevant
characteristic of population is referred to as a parameter. The population must be defined
explicitly before a sample is taken. Care must be taken not to generalize beyond the population.
Doing so is common error in social science writing. Finite population is one which contains a
finite number of members. The population of Addis Ababa and students in Addis Ababa are
finite population.

On the other hand, infinite population is one which contains infinite number of members. The
number of stars in the sky and listeners of a specific radio program are examples of infinite
population. Stratification is a technique of dividing the whole group from which the sample is
drawn/the population into a number of strata or groups, and thereby those strata are called Sub-
population. Sampling units are collections of elements which do not overlap and which exhaust
the entire population. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units the he or she
has too select his or her study. For example: All jobless in Addis Ababa is population. Sampling
units could be 28 woredas or 256 kebeles in the capital. Sampling element is the unit of analysis
or case in a population. It can be a person, a group or an organization that is being measured.
Sampling ratio or fraction is the size of the sample divided by the size of the target population.
Sampling frame is a list that closely approximates all the elements in the population. It is a
specific set of units from which sample is actually drawn. The researcher can choose from many
types of sampling frames: Telephone directories, tax records or PA household lists.
Unit of analysis refers to the type of object whose characteristics researchers measure and in
which they are interested. Statistic means the characteristics of a sample. Sampling precision
refers to how confident the researcher feels about the ability of the sample to allow the researcher
to make inferences. Significance is the percent chance that a relationship found in the data is just
due to an unlucky sample. Social scientists often use 0.05 levels as a cutoff. If there is 5% or less
chance that a relationship is due to chance, we conclude that the relationship is real or technical.
Significance testing is not appropriate for non-random samples, enumerations or censuses.
Confidence intervals are directly related to coefficient of significance. For a given variable on a
sample, one could compute the standard error which has a 95% confidence interval of plus or
minus 1.96 times the standard error assuming a normal distribution. The design effect (D) is a
coefficient which reflects how sampling design affects the computation of significance levels
compared to simple random sampling. A design effect coefficient of 1.0 means the sampling
design is equivalent to simple random sampling. A design effect coefficient greater than 1.0
means the sampling design reduces precision of estimate compared to simple random sampling.
For instance, cluster sampling reduces precision. A design effect coefficient less than 1.0 means

the sampling design increases precision of estimate compared to simple random sampling. For
instance, stratified sampling increases precision. Unfortunately, most computer programs
generate significance coefficients and confidence intervals based on the assumption of formulas
for simple random sampling. Sample size can be determined by:
 f = n/N = the sampling fraction where N = the number of cases in the sampling frame and
n = the number of cases in the sample.
 Cn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N
N
2.3. Sampling Design

2.3.1. Census and Sample Survey
Enumerations or censuses are collections of data from every person or entity in the population.
When researcher collects data from all the members of a population, this is called a census. All
items in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. A complete enumeration of all
items in the population is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry
when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. The
other method of conducting research is sample survey through selecting of samples. When field
studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to
a selection of respondents like selection of only a few items. The respondents selected should be
as representative of the total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section.
A population is the entire collection of a carefully defined set of people, objects, or events. For
example, if the insurance company in question employed 10,000 insurance agents in the USA,
then those 10,000 agents would constitute the population of agents hired by that company. The
selected respondents constitute what is technically called sample. A sample is a subset of the
people, objects, or events selected from that population. For example, the 100 agents used in the
experiment described earlier constitute a sample. Algebraically, N = population number and n =
sample size, then n < N. This implies sample size is less than total population.
The concept of sampling has been introduced with a view of making the research findings
economical and accurate. Generalizability of the research findings is, of course, dependent upon

the sampling procedures followed. A representative or random sample would be desirable to

provide maximum information about the generalizability of research data. Research work is
guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to generality. The sample
observation is the specific situation which is applied to the population, it is the general situation.
The sampling is fundamental to all representativeness, statistical techniques and statistical
analysis. While developing a sampling design, pay attention to the following points:
 Type of Universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the
set of objects, technically called the universe, to be studied.
 Sampling Unit: Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as country, region, zone,
district and village; a construction unit such as house, camps, industries; or a social unit
such as gender, ethnicity, family, club, school, health professionals, teachers and lawyers.
 Source List: It is also known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe in case of finite universe only.
 Size of Sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. The size of sample should neither be excessively large nor too small.
It should be optimum.
 Parameters of Interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest in the analysis.
 Budgetary Considerations: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the
type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
 Sampling Procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
2.3.2. Errors in Research Procedures and Sampling
The two causes of incorrect inferences in research can be systematic bias or error results from
errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size. Sampling error is resulted from too small or too large sample size. A systematic bias
is the resulted from:

 Inappropriate Sampling Frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate that means a

biased representation of the universe and it will result in a systematic bias.
 Defective Measuring Device: If the measuring device selected is inappropriate for a
particular study, it will result in systematic bias or an error of the result.
 Non-respondents: If researchers are unable to get all the individuals initially included in
the sample, there may raise a systematic bias.
 Indeterminacy Principle: Sometimes researchers find that individuals act differently
when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
 Natural Bias in the Reporting of Data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of
data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. This implies deliberately
respondents may give wrong responses.
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters. Lack of representativeness for statistical generalization to the whole population is
inappropriate sample size. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample,
and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design
Sample design must be:
o Result in a truly representative sample.

o Such which results in a small sampling error.
o Viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
o Designed in such a way that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
o Result of the sample study that can be generalized for the universe with a reasonable
level of confidence.
2.3.3. Types of Sampling Designs

There are two broad types of sampling designs based on the representation basis: Probability
sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection whereas non-probability sampling is non-random sampling.
 Non-probability Sampling Techniques
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not give equal basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
There is no equal opportunity or probability to all the population to be selected as a sample. Non-
probability sampling is also known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive
sampling and judgment sampling. Qualitative studies or substantiate quantitative findings in
mixed researches use non-probability sampling techniques. In non-probability sampling, the
results may not be easily quantified for statistical use and generalized for all population. There
could also be potential biasness of the researcher in selecting the samples. Convenient
(incidental) or accidental sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling and
judgment sampling are typical examples of non-probability sampling designs.
A/ Convenient, Incidental or Accidental Sampling
The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are most
frequently available. This refers to groups which are used as samples of a population because
they are readily available or researcher is unable to employ other more acceptable sampling
methods. It has high level of subjectivity and biasness. No criteria of selecting samples, except
their accessibility. It is not recommended unless it is difficult to use other methods. Advantages
of incidental or accidental sampling are: It is very easy method of sampling and it reduces the
time, money and energy. That means it is an economical method. Disadvantages of incidental or
accidental sampling are: It is not a representative of the population, it is not free from error and
parametric statistics cannot be used. Convenience sampling is also called availability or
haphazard sampling.
B/ Judgmental or Purposive Sampling

This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information
thought. It is to be representative of the total population. The selection of a group by intuition on
the basis of criterion deemed to be self-evident. The samples are selected based on pre-
determined criteria of the researcher. For example: Key informants, experts in the field area of
study, or officials, community leaders are selected having certain criteria. Advantages of
judgmental or purposive sampling: Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in this
technique of sampling as the samples are identified based on their knowledge of the issue under
study. This technique of sampling is also economical. This sampling is also known as expert
sampling.
C/ Quota Sampling
The population is classified into several categories on the basis of judgment or assumption or the
previous knowledge. Then, the proportion of population falling into each category is decided.
Thereafter, a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he or
she likes. Under quota sampling, the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the
different strata with some restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual
selection of the items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. Disadvantages of
quota sampling: This technique has subjectivity and it is not free from error.
D/ Snow-ball sampling
Snow-ball sampling is one of the non-probability sampling method at which the samples are
selected through social network. If you get one respondent, he or she will tell you the other
respondent that is socially networked with him or her and it continues one after the other. In
some communities, the only feasible way to find its members is by asking of other members. The
first step in this procedure is to find a few members of the population using any method. This
step is denoted as the first round. Then, you ask each of these first-round members if they know
of any others.
The names given will form the second round. Then, you go to each of those second-round
people, and ask them for more names. This process is repeated for several more rounds. The

process is stopped when you start hearing about the same people over and over again. Commonly
used for hidden population. Snow ball sampling is sometimes called chain referral sampling,
network sampling or volunteer sampling.
 Probability Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling is also known as random sampling or chance sampling. Under this
sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is,
so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process. It gives each element in the population an equal
probability of getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another. It gives
each possible sample combination of an equal probability of being chosen. In probability
sampling, there is randomization.
Randomization is a method of sampling in which each individual of the population has the equal
chance or probability of selection of the individuals for constituting a sample. All members of
the population have essentially the same probability of being selected. Characteristics of
randomization: Each individual of the population has equal chance of being picked up into the
sample. One individual does not have effect in selection of the other. There is no tie with one
another. It is free from subjective factor or personal error or bias and prejudices or imagination
of the investigator. It ensures that the sample formed by this method may be representative of the
population. It has scientific bases for statistical application.
Advantages of Randomization:
 It is an objective method of sampling

 It permits the application of statistical devices and treatments of data.
 The error due sampling can be estimated.
 It maintains the accuracy in the analysis of results.
 It is a convenient approach of sampling in the field of research.

Limitation of Randomization: If randomization is not done carefully, it may allow for personal
biasness or subjectivity.
How to select samples in random sampling
A researcher can use either of the two methods to select samples in random sampling: A lottery
method and random number table’s method. Simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multi-stage sampling and multiple or double sampling are
types of random sampling methods.
I/ Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample. The simplest form of random sampling is
called simple random sampling. Randomization is a method and is done by using a number of
techniques as: (a) Tossing a coin, (b) Throwing a dice, (c) Lottery method and (d) By using
random table of Tippet’s Table. Here is the quick description of simple random sampling:
 Objective: To select n units out of N such that each NCn has an equal chance of being
selected.
 N is the number of cases in the sampling frame.
 n is the number of cases in the sample.
 NCn is the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N.
 f = n/N is the sampling fraction.
 Procedure: Use a table of random numbers, a computer random-number generator or a
mechanical device to select the sample.
In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every item on a list. Sampling
of this type is known as systematic sampling. There should be a list of population or sampling
frame of all the individuals of the population in any systematic way. Systematic random
sampling is a sampling method where you determine randomly where you want to start selecting
in the sampling frame and then follow a rule to select every k th element in the sampling frame list

where the ordering of the list is assumed to be random. To achieve a systematic random sample,
follow these steps:
1. Number the units in the population from 1 to N.

2. Decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need.
3. Calculate k = N/n = the interval size.
4. Randomly select an integer between 1 and k.
5. Take every kth unit.
After researchers have decided the size of the sample, let sample size = n and population size =
N. Now, researchers select each N/nth individual from the list. For example: N= 1000 and n =
100. Hence, N/nth = 1000/100 = 10 is a sampling interval. Then within 10 intervals, researchers
draw one sample randomly using lottery method. For example: The randomly selected numbers
between 1 and 10 is 5, and then from the next 10 interval researchers take the 5 th one. That means
the samples are: 5th, 10th, 15th, 25th, 30th, 35th and so on.
III/ Stratified Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling, also sometimes called proportional or quota random sampling,
involves dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random
sample in each subgroup. The following restates this in more formal terms:
 Objective: Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (strata) N1, N2, N3----Ni,
such that N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + Ni = N. Then, do a simple random sample of f = n/N in each
strata.
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample.
Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into several sub-populations that are
individually more homogeneous than the total population. These different sub-populations are
called strata and then, researchers select items from each stratum to constitute a sample. The
strata are formed to take representatives from each group of the population.

The context of stratified sampling are: (A) how to form strata? Based on common characters
(homogeneity), (B) how should items are selected from each stratum? Using random sampling
method and (C) how many items are selected from each stratum or how to allocate the sample
size of each stratum? Based on proportionality of each stratum.
IV/ Cluster Sampling
The problem with random sampling methods when you have to sample a population that's
dispersed across a wide geographic region is that you will have to cover a lot of ground
geographically to get to each of the units you sampled. It is precisely to address this problem that
cluster or area random sampling was invented. In cluster sampling, you follow these steps:
1. Divide population into clusters, usually along geographic boundaries.

2. Randomly sample clusters.
3. Measure all units within sampled clusters.
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample can be
taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly
select a number of these smaller. In cluster sampling, the total population is divided into a
number of relatively small sub-divisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and
then some of these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample.
V/ Multi-stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. In this type of
sampling, primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within
these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. For example:
Country----Region----Zone----woreda-----kebele-------Household----University----campus-----
college-----department----batch----person.
VI/ Multiple, Double or Repetitive Sampling

Double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done because
some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously,
the missing data will bias the result of the study. To eliminate this bias, a second sample may be
drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed to obtain the desired
information as contingency for non-response of the already selected samples.
Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is
proportionate to the size of the unit. In case the cluster or stratified sampling units may not have
the same number elements. Hence, it is appropriate to use a random selection process where the
probability of each cluster or strata being included in the sample with proportional to the size of
the cluster or strata. Disproportionate sampling means size of the sample in each unit is not
proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal
judgment and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata
which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population
characteristics.
 Sample Size
Sampling and sample size are crucial issues in research work which seek to make statistically
based generalizations from the study that results to the wider population. It is essential that both
sampling method used and sample size are appropriate such that the results are representative,
and the statistics can detect associations or differences within the results of a study. There is no
single rule that can be used to determine sample size.
Technically, the size of the sample depends upon the precision the researcher desires in
estimating the population parameter at a particular confidence level. The best answer to the
question of size is to use as large sample as possible. A larger sample is much more likely to be
representative of the population. Furthermore, with a large sample the data are likely to be more
accurate and precise. It was pointed out in that the larger the sample, the smaller the standard

error. Other things being equal, the larger the sample, the greater the precision and accuracy of
the data it provides.
However, the term large sample is vague; it varies with nature of study. The exact procedure to
determine the sample size required varies with type of population (homogeneous or
heterogeneous), the nature of the variables studied, level of precision required and the type of
the study. It is advisable to consult statistician in determining sample size.
Yamane (1967: 886) provides a simplified formula to calculate sample sizes. This formula was
used to calculate the sample sizes shown below at 95% confidence level.
Where: n - Sample size
N - Population size
e - Level of precision ( 0.05)
Robert V. Krejcie (1970): University of Minnesota, Duluth, the research division of the National
Education Association has published a formula for determining sample size as follows:
2
x N (1−P)
Size = , Where:
d2¿ ¿
 s = required sample size.

 X2 = the table value of chi-square for 1 degree of freedom at the desired confidence level
(3.841).
 N = the population size.
 P = the population proportion assumed to be 0.50 since this would provide the maximum
sample size.
 d = the degree of accuracy expressed as a proportion (0.05) is at 95% confidence.

2.4. Tools and Data Collection Techniques
Primary sources are original or firsthand accounts of events or experiences, persons who
involved, documents, records or relics. Primary data are collected a fresh and for the first time,
and thus happen to be original in character. Primary sources provide first-hand information.
Information gathered using the first approach is collected from primary sources. Primary data are
collected using observation, interview, focus group discussion and questionnaire.
2.4.1. Observation
Observation is one way to collect primary data. Under the observation method, the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. There are many situations in which observation is
the most appropriate method of data collection. It is also appropriate in situations where full and
accurate information cannot be elicited by questioning because respondents either are not co-
operative or are unaware of the answers. While using the observation method, the researcher
should keep in mind:
 What should be observed?

 How the observations should be recorded?
 How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
There are six types of observation. These are: Participant observation is when researchers
participate in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with
or without their knowing that they are being observed. Non-participant observation is when
researchers do not get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions. Structured observation is
restricted observation of some selected characters. Unstructured observation is observing all
characters without restriction. Disguised observation: When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence, study may be unknown to the people who is observing. Non- disguised

observation: If the researchers conduct the observation with the understanding of the study
people.
2.4.2. The Interview
An interview involves an interviewer reading questions to respondents and recording their

answers. An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the telephone may be
used, in which an interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or opinions from another person.
Any person-to-person interaction, either face to face or otherwise between two or more
individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview. The strength of unstructured
interviews is the almost complete freedom they provide in terms of content and structure.
Unstructured interviews are prevalent in both quantitative and qualitative research. In
quantitative research, you develop response categorizations from responses which are then coded
and quantified. In qualitative research, the responses are used as descriptors, often in verbatim
form, and can be integrated with your arguments, flow of writing and sequence of logic.
In a structured interview, the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, using the same
wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. An interview schedule is a
written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an interviewer in a person-to-
person interaction through face to face, by telephone or by other electronic media. Interview
schedule is a research tool/ instrument for collecting data, whereas interviewing is a method of
data collection. One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform
information, which assures the comparability of data. Structured interviewing requires fewer
interviewing skills than does unstructured interviewing. Structured interviews are used in
quantitative research.
Semi-structured interview is perhaps the most common type of interview used in qualitative
social research. In this type of interview, the researcher wants to know specific information
which can be compared and contrasted with information gained in other interviews. To do this,
the same questions need to be asked in each interview. However, the researcher also wants the
interview to remain flexible so that other important information can still arise. For this type of

interview, the researcher produces an interview schedule. In some research, such as a grounded
theory study, the schedule is updated and revised after each interview to include more topics
which have arisen as a result of the previous interview.
Direct personal investigation: When the interviewer has to collect the information personally
from the sources concerned. Indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the
interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the
problem. For successful implementation of the interview method, interviewers should be
carefully selected, trained and briefed.
Advantages of the interview:
 The interview is more appropriate for complex situations. It is the most appropriate
approach for studying complex and sensitive areas as the interviewer has the opportunity
to prepare a respondent before asking sensitive questions and to explain complex ones to
respondents in person.
 It is useful for collecting in-depth information. In an interview situation it is possible
for an investigator to obtain in-depth information by probing. Hence, in situations where
in-depth information is required, interviewing is the preferred method of data collection.
 Information can be supplemented. An interviewer is able to supplement information
obtained from responses with those gained from observation of non-verbal reactions.
 Questions can be explained. It is less likely that a question will be misunderstood as the
interviewer can either repeat a question or put it in a form that is understood by the
respondent.
 Interviewing has a wider application. An interview can be used with almost any type of
population: children, the handicapped, illiterate or very old.
Disadvantages of the interview:

o Interviewing is time consuming and expensive. This is especially so when potential
respondents are scattered over a wide geographical area. However, if you have a situation

such as an office, a hospital or an agency where potential respondents come to obtain a

service, interviewing them in that setting may be less expensive and less time consuming.
o The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction. In an interview the
quality of interaction between an interviewer and interviewee is likely to affect the quality of
the information obtained. Also, the quality of the responses obtained from different
interviews may vary significantly because the interaction in each interview is unique.
o The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer. In an interview situation
the quality of the data generated is affected by the experience, skills and commitment of the
interviewer.
o The quality of data may vary when many interviewers are used. Use of multiple
interviewers may magnify the problems identified in the two previous points.
o The researcher may introduce his/her bias. Researcher bias in the framing of questions
and the interpretation of responses is always possible. If the interviews are conducted by a
person or persons, paid or voluntary other than the researcher. It is also possible that they
may exhibit bias in the way they interpret responses, select response categories or choose
words to summarize respondents’ expressed opinions.
2.4.3. Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussion is a qualitative data collection method in which one or two researchers
and several participants meet as a group to discuss a given research topic. These sessions are
usually tape-recorded, and sometimes videotaped. One researcher or the moderator leads the
discussion by asking participants to respond to open-ended questions that is, questions that
require an in-depth response rather than a single phrase or simple ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer. A
second researcher as the note-taker takes detailed notes on the discussion. Participants are
groups holding 5 to 10 members with having heterogeneous group participants.
Advantages of Focus Group Discussion
 It yields a large amount of information over a relatively short period of time.
 It is also effective for accessing a broad range of views on a specific topic, as opposed to
achieving group consensus.

Limitations of Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussions are not the best method for acquiring information on highly personal or
socially sensitive topics; but one-on-one interviews are better suited for such topics.
Characteristics of a good moderator in focus group discussions
Focus group discussion:
 Shows flexibility
 Shows sensitivity
 Has a sense of humor or funny
 Links ideas together
 Encourages participation from everyone.
Note Taker in Focus Group Discussion
The note-takers are responsible for taking detailed notes of the discussion. These notes serve as
supplementary documentation of the discussion, documentation. Note-takers may also be
responsible for tasks related to recording or operating the tape recorder, labeling the cassette
tapes, and taking appropriate security measures to protect the tapes once the session is over.
Note-takers typically facilitate the logistics of participant arrivals and departures, such as early
withdrawal and escort to the restroom.
2.4.4. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents.
In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down
the answers. In interview schedule, it is the interviewer who asks the questions, explains
questions if necessary and records the respondent’s replies on an interview schedule. In
questionnaire, replies are recorded by the respondents. This distinction is important in accounting
for the respective strengths and weaknesses of the two methods. In the case of a questionnaire,
there is no one to explain the meaning of questions to respondents so that the questions should be
clear and easy to understand. Also, the layout of a questionnaire should be such that it is easy to
read and pleasant to the eye, and the sequence of questions should be easy to follow. A
questionnaire should be developed in an interactive style.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form

or set of forms. Researchers also call this method as self-administer questionnaire. The
questionnaire is mailed or distributed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. Quite often questionnaire is
considered as the heart of a survey operation. Researcher should note the followings three main
aspects of questionnaire: General form, question sequence and question formulation and
wording.
General form can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire. The form of the question
may be either closed ended (of the type yes or no, alternative questions) or open ended. Question
sequence: The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the
relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions
that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. Question-sequence should usually go from
the general to the more specific. Question formulation and wording: the researcher should note
that each question must be very clear. Because any sort of misunderstanding can do severe harm
to a survey. Use simple and clear wordings in the questions. It should be easily understandable,
should be simple or should convey only one thought at a time.
Essentials of a good questionnaire: Questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple the
size. Questionnaire should be kept to the minimum. Questions should proceed in logical
sequence moving from easy to detail questions. Technical terms and vague expressions capable
of different interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be dichotomous
of yes or no answers, multiple choices as alternative answers listed or open-ended.
In an open-ended question, the possible responses are not given. In the case of a questionnaire,
the respondent writes down the answers in his/her words, but in the case of an interview schedule
the investigator records the answers either verbatim or in a summary. Open-ended questionnaires
are used in qualitative research, although some researchers will quantify the answers during the
analysis stage. The questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick, but instead leaves a blank

section for the respondent to write in an answer. As there are no standard answers to these
questions, data analysis is more complex. Also, as it is opinions which are sought rather than
numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.
In a closed question, the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire or schedule and the
respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent’s answer. It is
usually wise to provide a category ‘other or please explain’ to accommodate any response not
listed. This type of questionnaire is used to generate statistics in quantitative research. As these
questionnaires follow a set format, and as most can be scanned straight into a computer for ease
of analysis, greater numbers can be produced. However, many researchers tend to use a
combination of both open and closed questions. Many questionnaires begin with a series of
closed questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open
questions for more detailed response.
Advantages of a Questionnaire
A questionnaire has several advantages:
 It is less expensive. As you do not interview respondents, you save time, and human and
financial resources. The use of a questionnaire, therefore, is comparatively convenient
and inexpensive. Particularly when it is administered collectively to a study population, it
is an extremely inexpensive method of data collection.
 It offers greater anonymity. As there is no face-to-face interaction between respondents
and interviewer, this method provides greater anonymity. In some situations where
sensitive questions are asked it helps to increase the likelihood of obtaining accurate
information.
Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
A questionnaire has following several disadvantages:

 Application is limited. One main disadvantage is that application is limited to a study

population that can read and write. It cannot be used on a population that is illiterate, very
young, very old or handicapped.
 Response rate is low. Questionnaires are notorious for their low response rates; that is,
people fail to return them. If you plan to use a questionnaire, keep in mind that because not
everyone will return their questionnaire, your sample size will in effect be reduced. The
response rate depends upon a number of factors: the interest of the sample in the topic of the
study; the layout and length of the questionnaire; the quality of the letter explaining the
purpose and relevance of the study; and the methodology used to deliver the questionnaire.
Researchers should consider themselves lucky to obtain a 50 percent response rate and
sometimes it may be as low as 20 percent.
 There is a self-selecting bias. Not everyone who receives a questionnaire returns it, so there
is a self-selecting bias. Those who return their questionnaire may have attitudes, attributes
or motivations that are different from those who do not. Hence, if the response rate is very
low, the findings may not be representative of the total study population.
 Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking. If, for any reason, respondents do not understand
some questions, there is almost no opportunity for them to have the meaning clarified unless
they get in touch with the researcher which does not happen often. If different respondents
interpret questions differently, this will affect the quality of the information provided.
 Spontaneous responses are not allowed for. Mailed questionnaires are inappropriate when
spontaneous responses are required, as a questionnaire gives respondents time to reflect
before answering.
 The response to a question may be influenced by the response to other questions. As
respondents can read all the questions before answering which usually happens, the way
they answer a particular question may be affected by their knowledge of other questions.
 It is possible to consult others. With mailed questionnaires respondents may consult other
people before responding. In situations where an investigator wants to find out only the
study population’s opinions, this method may be inappropriate, though requesting
respondents to express their own opinion may help.

 A response cannot be supplemented with other information. An interview can

sometimes be supplemented with information from other methods of data collection such as
observation. However, a questionnaire lacks this advantage.
Secondary sources are an account that is at least once removed persons not involved directly
with an event but has close knowledge. Secondary data collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process. The sources used in the second
approach are called secondary sources. The collection of data from sources such as articles,
journals, magazines, books and periodicals to obtain historical and other types of information,
are all classified as secondary sources. Secondary sources provide second-hand data.
2.5. Measurement Scale
In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine weight, height,
or some other feature of a physical object. Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding
task, especially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena. Measurement is the
assignment of numbers to objects, events or people, or the assignment of objects, events or
people to a numerical scale, according to sets of predetermined but arbitrary rules. Technically
speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of correspondence. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales are: Nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
2.5.1. Nominal scale or Categorical Scale
Nominal-level measurement is categorical-level measurement in which categories identify

different types of objects, events or people that share the same characteristics. Assignment to a
category is in terms of some criterion and the categories have no intrinsic order to them. Analysis
is limited to frequency counts in each category and a comparison of these. This is the crudest of
measurement scales that classifies individuals and events into categories where no order is
implied. It is often referred to as a categorical scale. Nominal scale is the least powerful level of
measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. A
nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning them to categories.

Nominal data are counted data. It involves a simply count of the frequency of the cases assigned
to the various categories. For example: Sex, religion or marital status.
1. What is your religion?

1) Orthodox 2) Protestant 3) Catholic 4) Muslim 5) Other, specify
2. What is your marital status?

1) Never married 2) Married 3) Divorced 4) Separated 5) Widowed
3. For what purpose do you use your land?

1) To grow crops 2) To grow vegetable 3) For grazing 4) For tree planting 5)
Other, specify_____________
2.5.2. Ordinal scale
The ordinal scale places events in order of ranks. Ordinal scales permit the ranking of items from
highest to lowest. In ordinal scale one person or event is higher or lower on the scale than
another. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in class involves the use of an ordinal scale. Example:
educational level, family size and so forth. Ordinal-level measurement is also categorical-level
measurement in which categories identify different types of objects, events or people that share
the same characteristics. Assignment to a category is in terms of some criterion and, unlike
nominal-level measurement, the categories are ordered along some continuum.
1. What is your educational status?

1) No formal education 2) Grade 1-4 3) Grade 5-8 4) Grade 9-10
5) Grade 11-12 6) College diploma 7) Degree and above
2. The number of your family members?
1) 1-3 2) 4-6 3) 7-10 4) Above 10
2.5.3. Interval scale
Interval-level measurement is metric-level measurement that uses a scale with known and
usually equal intervals between the categories or scores. The zero point is arbitrary. In the case of
interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis

for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on
which the rule is based. Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales
as such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales. However, it must be
recognized that the zero point on an interval scale is arbitrary and is not a true zero. This of
course has implications for the type of data manipulation and analysis we can carry out on data
collected in this form. Examples of interval scale are:
1. As to your perception, what is the current existing service delivery of education office?
1) Excellent 2) Very good 3) Good 4) Fair 5) Bad
2.5.4. Ratio Scale
Ratio-level measurement is also metric-level measurement that uses a scale with known and
usually equal intervals between the categories or scores and has an absolute or true zero. The
highest level of measurement is a ratio scale. This has the properties of an interval scale together
with a fixed origin or zero point. Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement.
Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions such as
weight, height, distance, length, time etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are
usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also
be carried out with ratio scale values. For examples: Land size, income, age, distance, weight or
time.
2.6. Scaling
Scale is a combination of measures, into a single score, and tasted for uni-dimensionality. In
research we quite often face measurement problem since we want a valid measurement but may
not obtain it, especially when the concepts to be measured are complex and abstract and we do
not possess the standardized measurement tools. While measuring attitudes and opinions, we
face the problem of their valid measurement. In such cases, we need look for some procedures
which may enable us to measure abstract concepts more accurately. This brings us to the study of
scaling techniques. Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of

opinion, attitude and other concepts. Hence, the term scaling is applied to the procedures for
attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts.
Important Scaling Techniques
1) Rating scales: Rate is a comparative measure of the frequency of events occurring in a

population or category over time, or between different populations or categories. The rating
scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of traits of a
person. When we use rating scales (categorical scales), we judge an object in absolute terms
against some specified criteria. We judge properties of objects without reference to other
similar objects. These ratings may be in such forms as:
 Like---dislike---above average---average---below average
 Like very much---like somewhat---neutral---dislike somewhat---dislike very much
 Excellent---good---average---below average---poor
 Always---often---occasionally---rarely---never.
There is no specific rule whether to use a two-point scale, three-point scale or scale with still
more points. In practice, three to seven point scales are generally used.
2) Summated Scales or Likert-type Scales
Summated scales (Likert-type scales) are developed by utilizing the item analysis approach
wherein a particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those
persons whose total score is high and those whose score is low. Thus, summated scales consist of
a number of statements which express either a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the
given object to which the respondent is asked to react. The respondent indicates his agreement or
disagreement with each statement in the instrument. For example: when asked to express opinion
whether one considers his job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond in any one of the
following ways: (i) strongly agree, (ii) agree, (iii) undecided, (iv) disagree, (v) strongly disagree.
1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly disagree

1 The existence of park around your area is good to your community 1 2 3 4 5
2 This park is more of liability than an asset 1 2 3 4 5

3 This park should be abolished 1 2 3 4 5

4 The park belongs to you and local communities 1 2 3 4 5
5 The park employees are good to support the local communities and you 1 2 3 4 5
6 The park employees and the local communities have smooth relationship 1 2 3 4 5
3) Differential Scales (Thurstone-type Scales)
The name of L.L. Thurstone is associated with differential scales which have been developed
using consensus scale approach. Under such an approach, the selection of items is made by a
panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and
unambiguous in implication. The detailed procedure is as under:
 The researcher gathers a large number of statements, usually twenty or more those
express various points of view toward a group, institution, idea, practice or statements
belonging to the topic area.
 These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of whom arranges them in
eleven groups or piles ranging from one extreme to another in position.
 This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the items. In case of
marked disagreement between the judges in assigning a position to an item, that item is
discarded.
 For items that are retained, each is given its median scale value between one and eleven
as established by the panel. In other words, the scale value of any one statement is
computed as the median position to which it is assigned by the group of judges.
 A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose, a sample of statements
whose median scores are spread evenly from one extreme to the other is taken. The
statements so selected, constitute the final scale to be administered to respondents.
4) Cumulative scales or Louis Guttman’s scalogram analysis
Cumulative scales consist of series of statements to which a respondent expresses his agreement
or disagreement. The special feature of this type of scale is that statements in it form a
cumulative series. This means that the statements are related to one another in such a way that an
individual who replies favorably to say item number 3, also replies favorably to item number 2

and 1, and one who replies favorably to item number 4 also replies favorably to items number 3,
2 and 1, and so on. This individual whose attitude is at a certain point in a cumulative scale will
answer favorably all the items on one side of this point, and answer unfavorably all the items on
the other side of this point. The individual’s score is worked out by counting the number of
points concerning the number of statements he answers favorably. If someone knows this total
score, one can estimate as to how a respondent has answered individual statements constituting
cumulative scales. The major scale of this type of cumulative scales is the Guttman’s scalogram.
The technique developed by Louis Guttman is known as scalogram analysis at the times of scale
analysis. Scalogram analysis refers to the procedure for determining whether a set of items forms
a uni-dimensional scale. A scale is said to be uni-dimensional if the responses fall into a pattern
in which endorsement of the item reflecting the extreme position results also in endorsing all
items which are less extreme. Under this technique, the respondents are asked to indicate in
respect of each item whether they agree or disagree with it.
5) Factor Scales
Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of inter-correlations of items
which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationships between items. Factor scales
are particularly useful in uncovering latent attitude dimensions and approach scaling through the
concept of multiple-dimension attribute space. More specifically, the two problems namely, how
to deal appropriately with the universe of content which is multi-dimensional and how to
uncover underlying latent dimensions which have not been identified, are dealt with through
factor scales. An important factor scale based on factor analysis is semantic differential and the
other one is multidimensional scaling.
Semantic differential scale is developed by Charles E. Osgood, G.J. Suci and P.H. Tannenbaum
(1957) which is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings of an object to an individual.
This scale is based on the presumption that an object can have different dimensions of
connotative meanings which can be located in multi-dimensional property space, or what can be
called the semantic space in the context of semantic differential scale. This scaling consists of a

set of bipolar rating scales, usually of 7 points by which one or more respondents’ rate one or
more concepts on each scale item. Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) is relatively more
complicated scaling device, but with this sort of scaling one can scale objects, individuals or both
with a minimum of information. Multidimensional scaling can be characterized as a set of
procedures for portraying perceptual or affective dimensions of substantive interest. It provides
useful methodology for portraying subjective judgments of diverse kinds.
Multidimensional scaling is used when all the variables in a study are to be analyzed
simultaneously and all such variables happen to be independent. The underlying assumption in
MDS is that respondents perceive a set of objects as being more or less similar to one another on
a number of dimensions instead of only one. Through MDS techniques one can represent
geometrically the locations and interrelationships among a set of points. In fact, these techniques
attempt to locate the points, given the information about a set of inter-point distances, in space of
one or more dimensions such as to best summarize the information contained in the inter-point
distances. The distances in the solution space then optimally reflect the distances contained in the
input data.
2.6.1. Sources of Error in Measurement
Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. However, this
objective is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must be aware about the
sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible sources of error in measurement:
a) Respondents condition: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative
feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his
ignorance. All this reluctance is result in an interview of guesses. Transient factors like fatigue,
boredom or anxiety may limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.
(b) Situation factors: Any condition which places a stress on interview can have serious effects
on the interviewer-respondent relationship. For instance, respondent can distort responses by

joining in or merely by being present if someone else is present. If the respondent feels that
anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.
(c) Measurer or interviewer situation: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or
reordering questions. Interviewer’s behavior, style and looks may encourage or discourage
certain replies from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors
may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and statistical calculations in the
data analysis stage particularly.
(d) Data collection Instrument used: Error may arise because of the defective measuring
instrument. The use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous
meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, and response choice omissions are a few
things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors.
(e) Wrong sampling frame: Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the
universe of items of concern.
2.6.2. Tests of Sound Measurement
The three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool:
a) Tests of validity,
Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Validity
is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure. One can certainly consider three types of validity in this connection:
i. Content validity: Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides
adequate coverage of the topic under study.
ii. Criterion-related validity: Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some
outcome or estimate the existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects
the success of measures used for some empirical estimating purpose.

iii. Construct validity: Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said
to possess construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with
other theoretical propositions.
b) Test of reliability
Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure. A measuring
instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does
contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument may not be a valid instrument. For instance, a
scale that consistently overweighs objects by five kilograms is a reliable scale, but it does not
give a valid measure of weight. But a valid instrument is always reliable. Reliability can be
improved in the following two ways:
i) By standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place. This implies
researcher must ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom and fatigue are
minimized to the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group
using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research. This will improve equivalence
aspect.
c) Test of practicality
Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and

interpretability. The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms
of economy, convenience and interpretability. Economy consideration suggests that some trade-
off is needed between the ideal research project and that which the budget can afford.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For this
purpose one should give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument. For
instance, a questionnaire with clear instructions is certainly more effective and easier to complete
than one which lacks these features. Interpretability consideration is especially important when
persons other than the designers of the test are to interpret the results.

CHAPTER THREE
3. DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
3.1. Data Processing and Analysis
Data refers to facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys that used as a basis for
making conclusions or drawing conclusions. Data are regarded as being the products of the
measurement of concepts according to agreed and replicable procedures. The data after
collection has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for
ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis.
Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. Analysis of data in a general way involves a
number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the
collected data and organizing these in such a manner that they answer the research questions.
Data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that
they are ready to analysis.
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data, especially in surveys to detect
errors and omissions, and to correct these when possible. Editing involves a careful inspection of
the completed questionnaires and schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered as completed as possible and have been

well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. Editing can be of field editing and central
editing. Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the investigator for
completing, translating or rewriting. While doing field editing, the investigator must restrain
himself and must not correct errors of omission by simply guessing what the informant would
have said if the question had been asked.
Central editing has written in abbreviated or in illegible form at the time of recording the
respondents’ responses. This type of editing is necessary in view of the fact that individual
writing styles often can be difficult for others to decipher. This sort of editing should be done as
soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the next day. Central editing should take place
when all forms or schedules have been completed and returned to the office. This type of editing
implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a single editor in a small study and by a
team of editors in case of a large inquiry.
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Coding is necessary for efficient
analysis and through it several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which
contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at
the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to pre-code the questionnaire
choices and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight forward key
punch from the original questionnaires. But in case of hand coding some standard method may
be used. One such standard method is to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other
method can be to transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet.
Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data that must be reduced
into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates
classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on
the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class
and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of related groups or classes. Depending
upon the nature of the phenomenon involved, classification can be categorized in to two types:
1. Classification according to attributes

Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive such
as literacy, sex, honesty and so forth or numerical like weight, height, income and so on.
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained
this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their
classification is said to be classification according to attributes. Such classification can be simple
classification or manifold classification. In simple classification, researchers consider only one
attribute and divide the universe into two classes: One class consisting of items possessing the
given attribute and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute.
But in manifold classification we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divide that
data into a number of classes.
2. Classification according to class-intervals
Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon
which can be measured through some statistical units. Data related to income, production, age,
weight and others. come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and
are classified on the basis of class intervals. In this way, the entire data may be divided into a
number of groups or classes are called class-intervals. Thus, each group of class-interval has an
upper limit as well as a lower limit which are known as class limits. The difference between the
two class limits is known as class magnitude. Researchers may have classes with equal class
magnitudes or with unequal class magnitudes. The number of items which fall in a given class is
known as the frequency of the given class. All the classes or groups with their respective
frequencies taken together and put in the form of a table are described as group frequency
distribution or simply frequency distribution.
3.1.1. Tabulation of the Data
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form or
in the form of statistical tables for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows. When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes
necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order.This
procedure is referred to as tabulation. Tabulation has the following essential advantages:

 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.

 It facilitates the process of comparison.
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation can be done by hand or mechanical or electronic devices. The choice depends on the
size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the availability of tabulating
machines or computers. In relatively large inquiries, researchers may use mechanical or
computer tabulation if other factors are favourable and necessary facilities are available. Hand
tabulation is usually preferred in case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is
small and they are of relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally,
the list and tally or the card sort and count methods. The card sorting method is the most flexible
hand tabulation. Researchers can use the mechanical devices or the computer facility for
tabulation purpose in case they want quick results, their budget permits their use and have a large
volume of straight forward tabulation involving a number of cross-breaks.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. The simple tabulation gives
information about one or more groups of independent questions. The complex tabulation shows
the division of data in two or more categories and as such is designed to give information
concerning one or more sets of inter-related questions. Simple tabulation generally results in one-
way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data only. As against
this, complex tabulation usually results in two-way tables which give information about two
inter-related characteristics of data, three-way tables giving information about three interrelated
characteristics of data or still higher order tables also known as manifold tables which supply
information about several interrelated characteristics of data. Two-way tables, three-way tables
or manifold tables are all examples of cross tabulation.
Characteristics of a good table:
 Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title.
 Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.

 The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should be clear
and brief.
 The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated
 Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the
table, along with the reference symbols used in the table.
 Sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated just below
the table.
 Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more
readable and attractive.
 Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be
used in the table.
 There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class from the data under
another class and the lines separating the sub-divisions of the classes should be
comparatively thin lines
 Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible
 The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
 It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal points and (+) or (–)
signs should be in perfect alignment.
 Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right column and that of columns
should be placed at the bottom.
 The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical and
alphabetical.
Data entry can be made by:

o By hand (manual or tally method) and
o By computer such as excel (spreadsheet), SPSS (statistical software) and there are also
other software including STATA, SAS and SISTAS.
3.1.2. Data Analysis

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns
of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions in the process of
analysis. Data analysis is an essential step in the process of answering research questions about
characteristics, relationships, patterns or influences in social phenomena. Data analysis is also
defined as the process of systematically applying statistical and logical techniques to describe,
illustrate, condense, review, and evaluate data. Collected data can be analyzed in any of the three
ways of analysis based on the nature of the study and the data character. These methods
of analysis are qualitative, quantitative and mixed method of analysis.
i. Qualitative Method of Analysis
Qualitative analysis is the organization and interpretation of non-numeric data for the purpose of
discovering meaning and important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationships. Textual
data, narratives, logs, experiences of focus groups, interviews, open-ended survey items,
observations, diaries and journals, notes from observations, photographs, and video recordings
are sources of qualitative data for analysis.
For qualitative analysis, it is useful to produce an interview summary form or a focus group
discussion summary form which you complete as soon as possible after each interview or focus
group discussion has taken place. This includes practical details about the time and place, the
participants, the duration of the interview or focus group, and details about the content and
emerging themes. For qualitative data, the researcher might analyze as the research progresses,
continually refining and reorganizing in light of the emerging results through identifying themes
or patterns, and tag text segments with themes. Qualitative data is thick in detail and description
and it is a data often in a narrative format. Analysis often emphasizes on understanding
phenomena as they exist, but not following pre-determined hypotheses.
Content analysis steps:
 Transcribe data if audio taped
 Read transcripts

 Highlight quotes and note why important

 Code quotes according to margin notes
 Sort quotes into coded groups (themes)
 Interpret patterns in quotes and
 Describe these patterns.
ii. Quantitative Method of Analysis
Quantitative data is presented in a numerical format and collected in a standardized manner and
analyzed using statistical techniques. Quantitative analysis uses data that is numerical, counted,
or compared on a scale. Data from surveys, laboratory tests, demographic data, answers to
closed-ended survey items and scores on standardized instruments are examples of quantitative
data sources. For quantitative data, the analysis can be started after the end of the data collection
process, and if it is a large survey, statistical software is the easiest and most efficient method to
use.
3.1.3. Preparing Data

Once the data has been collected, the researcher must prepare the data to be analyzed, and check
editing, coding, classification and tabulation. Organizing the data correctly can save a lot of time
and prevent mistakes. Using a database or statistical analysis program (Microsoft Excel, SPSS)
for large survey data is the simplest way of preparing data for analysis.
Summarizing of Data
The two main ways of summarizing data are by using tables and charts or graphs. A table is the
simplest way of summarizing a set of observations. A table has rows and columns containing
data which can be in the form of absolute numbers or percentages or both. Charts and graphs are
visual representations of numerical data, and if well designed, they will convey the general
patterns of the data. To make your tables and graphics as self-explanatory include:
 Every table or graph should have a title or heading
 The x-axis and y-axis of a graph should be labeled, include value labels such as a
percentage sign like a legend

 Always cite the source of your data and put the date of data were collection or
publication
 Provide the sample size or the number of people to which the graph is referring (N)
 Include a footnote if the graphic is not self-explanatory.
Use the right type of graph
Bar graph is almost identical to a histogram in both form and purpose. The only difference
between these two techniques for summarizing data concerns the nature of the dependent
variable that defines the baseline. In a histogram, the horizontal axis is labeled with numerical
values that represent a quantitative variable. In contrast, the horizontal axis of a bar graph
represents different categories of a qualitative variable. In a bar graph, the ordering of the
columns is quite arbitrary. On the other hand, the ordering of the columns in a histogram must be
numerically logical.
Bar chart is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution across the categories of a
categorical variable, represented by a set of vertical or horizontal bars. Bar charts are used to
compare data across categories.
6
5
4
3
Series 1 (Blue)
2 Series 2 (Red)
1 Series 3 (Green)
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Pie chart is the pictorial representation of a categorical distribution in the form of segments of a
circle such that the area of a segment corresponds to the frequency in that category. Pie charts
show percentages or the contribution of each value to a total.

Sales (%)
9 Coffee (Blue)
11 Skin (Red)
Sun Flower (Green)
55 Cotton (Pink)
25
3.2. The Important Statistical Measures

1. Measures of Central Tendency or Statistical Averages
In addition to tabular and pictorial representations of distributions, it is also possible to describe
their characteristics with summary statistics known as measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion. Measures of central tendency are designed to indicate the middle or most
typical point like category or score in a distribution. The everyday term for this is the average.
However, there are three commonly used measures of an average: The mode, median and mean.
The following measures of central tendency or central location are covered in this section:
Categorical, discrete and grouped metric data are used to calculate mode of nominal-level data,
median of ordinal-level data and Metric data for mean. To measure mean, researchers can use the
arithmetic average or mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean.
 Mean
Mean is the average of your sample, computed by taking the sum of the individual scores and
dividing them by the total number of individuals as follows: 2, 6, 9, 32 and74 = 123/5 = 24.6.
The mean is the arithmetical average of a set of scores. To find the mean, simply add up the
scores and divide by the number of scores. If numbers are in a frequency table, first multiply
each score by its frequency. The mean is the sum of a set of values divided by the number of the
values in the set. Values are usually scores or frequencies. The mean, or arithmetic mean, is the

most commonly used and the most useful measure of central tendency. However, it can only be
calculated with interval level and ratio-level data.
 Median
Median is the middle of a distribution in which half the scores are above the median and half are
below the median. If you rank the observations according to size, the median is the observation
that divides the list into equal halves, for instance: 2, 6, 9, 32 and 74 = 9. The median is less
sensitive to extreme scores than the mean and this makes it a better measure than the mean for
highly skewed distributions. For example: The median income is usually more informative than
the mean income. If a distribution has an even number of scores, the median is the score halfway
between the two scores in the middle. If a distribution has an odd number of scores, the median
is an actual score. The median is a stable measure of the central tendency of a set of scores. The
median is half-way along a distribution. The median is not appropriate for nominal-level data,
but it can be used for all the other three levels of measurement.
 Mode
Mode is the crudest of the three measures of central tendency and has limited value. It is defined
as the value that occurs with the highest frequency and is obtained by inspecting a distribution.
Mode is the observation that occurs most frequently. In a frequency polygon, the mode is the
score represented by the highest point on the curve. Some distributions can have more than one
mode if two or more scores have similarly high frequencies. This is called a bimodal distribution.
The mode is a somewhat imprecise measure of central tendency because it simply summarizes
the frequency of a single score. If the distribution is asymmetrical, the mode may not be a precise
estimate of central tendency.
2. Measures of Dispersion
In addition to measures of central tendency, it is also possible to describe the characteristics of a
distribution in terms of how widely it is spread. This is done with measures of dispersion or
variability. Dispersion refers to the way values are distributed around some central values such
as an average. To measure dispersion, researchers can use variance, its square root like the
standard deviation, mean deviation and range. Interquartile range and percentiles are used for

categorical ordinal-level data whereas range, mean deviation, standard deviation and variance are
used for metric data.
 Range
Range is simply the highest value minus the lowest value. Consider the test score values: 15, 20,
21, 20, 36, 15, 25 and 15. So, the range is 36 - 15 = 21. The range is the difference between the
highest and lowest scores in a distribution. To find the range, you subtract the lowest score from
the highest score. This indicates how many points separate these two scores. Although it is easy
to calculate, the range is not a precise or stable measure of variability because it can be affected
by a change in just one score. For that reason, most educational researchers use the standard
deviation as a measure of variability.
 The standard deviation
Standard deviation is the average distance between each of the scores in a distribution and the
mean. Standard deviation is the standard error of a sampling distribution. Essentially, the
standard deviation is an index of the amount of variability in a set of data. A higher standard
deviation means that the data are more dispersed; a lower standard deviation means that they are
more bunched together. Standard deviation described as the square root of the sum of the squared
deviances of all values from the mean, divided by the number of values. The equation for
grouped data from a sample is a variation of that for the mean deviation:
or
 Variance
Variance is arrived at by squaring both sides of equation. The left side becomes s 2 and the square
root sign on the right disappears. Hence, the equation for the variance is

The symbol for population standard deviations is σ and for population variances is σ 2. To find
variance and standard deviation, follow the step:
 The value for each category is multiplied by its frequency.
 This is squared.
 These squares are added together and divided by the number of categories.
 The square of the mean is subtracted.
 Then the square root is applied to the result.
3. Measures of Relationship
Measures of relationship are measures designed to indicate the strength of the relationship
between two variables. To measure relationships, researchers can use Karl Pearson’s coefficient
of correlation, multiple correlation coefficient, partial correlation coefficient, and regression
analysis. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of simple correlation is the most widely used method of
measuring the degree of relationship between two variables. This coefficient assumes the
following:
(i) That there is linear relationship between the two variables
(ii) That the two variables are casually related which means that one of the variables is
independent and the other one is dependent; and
(iii) A large number of independent causes are operating in both variables so as to produce
a normal distribution.
Correlation coefficient refers to a measure of the extent to which two continuous (interval-level
or ratio-level) variables are related. Two variables are can be associated if the values of one
variable vary or change together with the values of the other variable; the variables are said to be
co-relation. Multiple correlation coefficients (R) are a measure of association between predictor
variables and an outcome variable. Coefficient of multiple determinations (R2) is a measure of the
total amount of variance explained by all the predictor variables in regression analysis. Partial
correlation is a procedure for examining the effect of one variable, the control, on the
relationship between two other variables. It is possible to discover whether the relationship is
spurious, and whether the control variable is intervening in or moderating the relationship.

Partial correlation measures separately the relationship between two variables in such a way
that the effects of other related variables are eliminated. In other words, in partial correlation
analysis, we aim at measuring the relation between a dependent variable and a particular
independent variable by holding all other variables constant. Thus, each partial coefficient of
correlation measures the effect of its independent variable on the dependent variable. To obtain
it, it is first necessary to compute the simple coefficients of correlation between each set of pairs
of variables. Regression is the determination of a statistical relationship between two or more
variables. In simple regression, we have only two variables, one variable as independent variable
is the cause of the behaviour of another one as dependent variable.
Regression can only interpret what exists physically. This implies that there must be a physical
way in which independent variable X can affect dependent variable Y. The basic relationship
between X and Y is given by: Ỷ = a + bX, where the symbol Ỷ denotes the estimated value of Y
for a given value of X. This equation is known as the regression equation of Y on X (also
represents the regression line of Y on X when drawn on a graph) which means that each unit
change in X produces a change of b in Y, which is positive for direct and negative for inverse
relationships.
3.3. Methods of Quantitative Data Analysis
A. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are procedures used to summarize, organize, and make sense of a set of
scores or observations. Descriptive statistics are typically presented graphically, in tabular form
(tables) or as summary statistics (single values). Tables and graphs serve a similar purpose to
summarize large and small sets of data. Researchers can measure many behavioral variables such
as love, anxiety, memory, and thought. Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic
features of the data in a study. Descriptive analysis is procedure used to summarize the
characteristics of some phenomenon in terms of distributions of one variable or univariate and
patterns of association between two variables or bivariate. This method provides simple
summaries about the sample and the measures.
Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative
analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what it is and what the data

show. Descriptive statistics describe the data. Descriptive statistics do not draw conclusions
about the data. Researchers use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our
data. Descriptive statistics are normally applied to a single variable at a time. They can tell the
researcher central tendency or the average score like mean, media, mode and distribution of
scores such as range, variance, standard deviation, and mean deviation with frequency in terms
of number or percentage.
B. Correlation
Two variables are said to be associated if the values of one variable vary or change together with
the values of the other variable; the variables are said to be correlation. Correlation shows the
link or association between two or more variables. Correlation does not imply causation. There is
no way to assess from correlation alone that a causal relationship exists between two variables.
Chi-square is a test of significance for association between nominal-level variables. Chi-square
and T-test are used as statistical method to measure correlation. In Chi-square test, the value
ranges between +1 and -1. Then, + 1 implies strong and direct relation between the variables, - 1
implies strong but inverse relation between the variables, and 0 implies there is no association
between the variables. As the value is approaching 0, it implies that the associations become
weak and weak.
-1 0 +1
Weak relation No relation Strong relation
Significance tests of categorical variables involve the comparison of a set of observed

frequencies with frequencies specified by a hypothetical distribution. When data consist of one
categorical variable, it is often informative to ask whether the proportions of responses in the
categories conform to a particular pattern. Chi-square statistic used to test the hypothesis of equal
proportions. Analyze Nonparametric tests Chi-Square (SPSS)
C. Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are procedures used that allow researchers to infer or generalize observations
made with samples to the larger population from which they were selected. Inferential statistics

is measure for estimating population parameters from sample statistics. Inferential Statistics
investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential
statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. Researchers use inferential statistics to try to
infer from the sample data what the population thinks. Scholars use inferential statistics to make
judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or
one that might have happened by chance in this study.
Thus, researchers use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general
conditions. Inferential statistics investigate questions, models, and hypotheses; infer population
characteristics based on sample; make generalization and judgments about what we observe; and
it tells us the cause and effect relation between variables. For Example: Logistic regression.
3.4. Interpreting Data
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and experimental study. It is a search for broader meaning of research findings. Once researchers
have transformed data into information by summarizing them with tables, graphs, or narrative,
we need to interpret the data. That is, researchers need to consider the relevance of the findings
to their study, the potential reasons for the findings, and possible next steps. In this process,
researchers move from what is happening in their study to the why it is happening. Data
interpretation is the process of making sense of the information. It allows researchers to ask the
question: What does this information tell the investigators about the study?
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
4.1. Significance of Report Writing
Research report is considered as a major component of the research study for the research task
remains incomplete until the report has been presented and written. Writing of report is the last

step in a research study and requires a set of skills. This task should be accomplished by the
researcher with greatest care. The usual steps involved in writing report are:
A. Logical analysis of the subject-matter;

B. Preparation of the final outline;
C. preparation of the rough draft;
D. Rewriting and polishing;
E. Preparation of the final bibliography or reference; and
F. Writing the final draft.
A. Logical analysis of the subject matter
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two
ways in which to develop a subject logically and chronologically. Logical development is made
on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means
of analysis. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence.
B. Preparation of the final outline
Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. The outlines are an
aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the
report.
C. Preparation of the rough draft

This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a
step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what researcher has
done in the context of his research study.
D. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical
development or presentation. In addition, the researchers should give due attention to the fact

that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. Researchers should check the mechanics of
writing such as grammar, spelling and usage.
E. Preparation of the final bibliography
The bibliography is generally appended to the research report which is a list of books in some
way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically.
F. Writing the final draft
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language,
avoiding vague expressions such as it seems, there may be, and the like ones. While writing the
final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
4.2. Layout of the Research Report
The layout of the report means what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout
of the research report should comprise:
o Preliminary page part contains title page, contents page, list of illustrations,
acknowledgements, and abstract.
o The main text; and
o The end matter.
4.2.1. Preliminary Page
A) Title Page
All text on the title page is centered vertically and horizontally. The title page has no page
number and it is not counted in any page numbering. This contains the title of the report, the
name of the researcher and the date of publication. If the report is a dissertation or thesis, the title
page will include details about the purpose of the report. The title should be accurate, concise
and clearly printed in capital letters. It should convey the main theme of the problem investigated
and if possible one should give a clue about the method or type of research involved. For

example: A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master Degree of
Civics and Ethical Studies in Hawassa University.
 Sample of title page can be indicated as follows:
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF POLYGAMY IN THE HOUSEHOLD LEVEL

AMONG THE GAMMO PEOPLE: THE CASE OF BONKE WOREDA, GAMMO ZONE,
SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA
BY: TSALAFO CHAKA CHAME
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO COLLEGE OF LAW AND GOVERNANCE, HAWASSA

UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
MASTER OF ART DEGREE IN CIVICS AND ETHICAL STUDIES.
MAJOR ADVISOR: DEBREWORK DEBEBE (PhD)
CO-ADVISOR: HABIBA MOHAMMED
JUNE, 2019
HAWASSA, ETHIOPIA

Fundamental Research Handbook መሠረታዊ የጥናትና ምርምር ማጣቀሻ
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B) Table of Contents
This section show or lists the contents of the report, either in chapter or section headings with
sub-headings, and their page numbers. The listing of main chapters is generally preceded by
some preliminaries like preface or acknowledgement, list of tables, list of figures, abstract or
synopsis and their respective pages in small Roman numbers and followed at the end by
appendices, and indexes. Contents should neither be too detailed nor should too sketchy the table
of contents serve an important purpose in providing an outline of the contents of the report. The
capitalized title ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS’ should be the central heading of the page and the
capitalized word ‘CONTENTS’ and ‘PAGE’ should lead to the numbers of chapters and those of
pages respectively on the left and right margins.
C) List of Illustrations
This section includes title and page number of all graphs, tables, illustrations, and charts. If the
research has been funded by a particular organization, details of this may be included on the title
page.
D) Acknowledgements
Some researchers may wish to acknowledge the help of their research participants, tutors,
employers, and funding body. A preface is different from introduction. It is a brief account of the
purport or the origin and the utility of the study for which the thesis is presented. It also includes
the acknowledgement to the persons and sources that have been helpful to the investigator. If the
researcher does not want to mention anything about the study on this page except acknowledging
debt to others, it will be desirable to use the title simple and restrained without flattery and
effusive recognition for help by the family members and others. The preface should not be too
long with too many details about the research work or its organization, which can appear in
introduction. The word PREFACE or ACKNOWLEDGEMENT should be typed in capital
letters. It should be written in an impressive way.
E) Acronyms and Abbreviations
Avoid unfamiliar abbreviations. Do not use abbreviations or acronyms like NAEP or STEM
unless you are sure abbreviations will be familiar to the readers. Unfamiliar abbreviations make

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your report hard to read. The more new or unusual abbreviations your report contains, the harder
it will be for the readers to remember what each abbreviation means. If you want your report to
be readable, the ideal number of new abbreviations to use is zero. Do not even think about using
a new or unfamiliar abbreviation unless (a) the phrase it replaces is quite long or very difficult to
read and (b) that phrase appears many times in your report.
F) Abstract or Short Summary
This tends to be a one page summary or very short summary of the research, which contains its
purpose, methods, main findings, and conclusion. Abstract contains 300 words for Master thesis
and you should not come over this limit since it is rejected by database if it exceeds the
maximum limit. Abstract also lists five to seven words as keywords which are used as index.
Importantly, try and keep your abstract to one paragraph and to one page. Some institutions will
also require abstract to be italicized.
4.2.2. Main Text or Body
Chapter One
1. Introduction
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Basic research questions or hypothesis
 Objective of the study
 General objective of the study
 Specific objectives of the study
 Significance of the study
 Delimitation or scope of the study
 Limitation of the study
 Operational definition of terms
Chapter Two
(ii) Review of related literature
Chapter Three
(iii) Methodology of the study

 Description of the study area

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 Research design
 Target population
 Sampling size and sampling techniques
 Sources of data
 Data collection instruments
 Method of data analysis and interpretation
 Ethical consideration
Chapter Four
(iv) Data analysis and interpretation or Discussion and finding
Chapter Five
(v) Summary, conclusion and recommendation

 Summary
 Conclusion
 Recommendation
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
i) Introduction
Chapter one begins with a few short introductory paragraphs or a couple of pages at most. The
primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers and to get
them turned on about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your topic in
perspective. The introduction often contains dramatic and general statements about the need for
the study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When writing the introduction,
put yourself in your reader's position. When you continue reading, this section introduces the
research, setting out the aims and objectives, terms and definitions. It includes a rationale for the
research and a summary of the report structure. The purpose of introduction is to introduce the
research project to the readers.
ii) Statement of the Problem
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. The

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statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence with several
paragraphs of elaboration. You are looking for something wrong, something that needs close
attention or existing methods that no longer seem to be working. Example of a problem
statement: "The frequency of job layoffs is creating fear, anxiety, and a loss of productivity in
middle management workers."
While the problem statement itself is just one sentence, it is always accompanied by several
paragraphs that elaborate on the problem. Present persuasive arguments why the problem is
important enough to study. You should include the opinions of others such as politicians,
futurists, and other professionals. Explain how the problem relates to business, social or political
trends by presenting data that demonstrates the scope and depth of the problem. Try to give
dramatic and concrete illustrations of the problem. After writing this section, make sure you can
easily identify the single sentence that is the problem statement.
iii) Research Questions and Hypotheses or Null Hypotheses
The process of research often begins with an attempt to arrive at a clear statement of the research
questions. The research question is a statement of what you hope to have learned by the time you
complete the program of research. It is good practice to revise and refine the research question
several times to ensure that you are very clear about what it is you really want to know. Chapter
one lists the research questions although it is equally acceptable to present the hypotheses or null
hypotheses. No elaboration is included in this section. After completion of this study, the
researcher will answer the following research questions:
1. What are the attitudes of...?

2. Is there a significant difference between...?
3. Is there a significant relationship between...?
A hypothesis is a statement about the predicted relationships among events or variables. In

developing the hypothesis, you can be influenced by any of a number of sources such as an
existing theory, related research or even personal experience.

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iv) Purpose or Objective of the Study
The purpose is a single statement or paragraph that explains what the study intends to
accomplish. There are a whole host of keywords that are available for student use such as
identify, assess, evaluate, explore, outline, discuss, analyze and so forth. These are verbs used to
indicate the type of study activity linked with each objective. The goal of this study is to:
 Overcome the difficulty with ------

 Discover what-------
 Understand the causes or effects of-------
 Refine our current understanding of ------
 Provide a new interpretation of ------
 Examine what makes successful or unsuccessful------ are a few typical statements on
objective of the study.
v) Significance of the Study
This section creates a perspective for looking at the problem. It points out how your study relates
to the larger issues and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for your study. It makes
the purpose worth pursuing. The significance of the study answers the questions:
o Why is your study important?

o To whom is it important?
o What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
vi) Review of Related Literature
Chapter two is a review of the related literature. It is important because it shows what previous
researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how much
research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If you are planning
to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas of study or studies
that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is so new that no research exists. It
is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when deciding whether or not to approve
a proposal. Review of the literature includes theoretical frame works, empirical literatures and

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conceptual frame works. Chapter two should also contain a definition of terms section when
appropriate. Include it if your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or
that might not be understood by the general reader. Operational definition of terms is definitions
that you have formulated for the study and it should also be included. An example of an
operational definition is: For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined
as post-test score minus pre-test score.
vii) Methodology of the study
The methodology section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few short
introductory paragraphs that restate purpose and research questions. The phraseology should be
identical to that used in chapter one. Keep the wording of your research questions consistent
throughout the document. This section contains the research methodology and research design
such as:
 Description of the study area

 Research design
 Target population
 Sampling size and sampling techniques
 Sources of data
 Data collection instruments
 Method of data analysis and interpretation
 Ethical consideration
viii) Findings and Discussion (Data Analysis and Interpretation)
This sections are included your main findings. The content of this section will depend on your
chosen methodology and methods. If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section
may contain tables, graphs, pie charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a
qualitative piece of research this section may consist of descriptive prose containing lengthy
quotations.
In this section, you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to
other research or literature. Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. Such implications may have three aspects

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as stated below: A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be
expected to apply in similar circumstances. The conditions of the present study may limit the
extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study. The relevant
questions still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions
for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
ix) Summary
It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, resting in
brief: The research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions
drawn from the research results.
x) Conclusion
Begin the final chapter with a few paragraphs summarizing what you did and found. This is the
conclusion from chapter four.
xi) Recommendations
This section could be the most important part of the report. This section is set out a list of clear
recommendations which have been developed from your research. Recommendation is a
potential solution to overcome the identified problems in the study. This part includes the general
remarks of the study.
4.2.3. End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as:
Reference or bibliography and appendix.
A/ References
There are various ways of referencing styles like APA, Chicago or MLA in different disciplines
and institutions. However, usually the American Psychological Association (APA) method is
used as a common referencing style. Find out which referencing system your college or
university uses. A popular APA method which lists: The authors’ surnames alphabetically,
followed by their initials, date of publication and title of book in italics or underlined, and place
of publication and publisher. When you reference you use the standardized style to acknowledge

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the source of information used in your assignment. It is important morally and legally to
acknowledge someone else’s ideas or words you have used. Academic writing encourages
paraphrasing information you have researched and read.
Paraphrasing means re-wording something you have read in to your own words. If you use
someone else’s words or work and fail to acknowledge them, you may be accused of plagiarism
and infringing copyright. Referencing correctly enables the marker or reader of your assignment
to locate the source of the information. They can verify the information or read further on the
topic. Referencing also allows for you to retrace your steps and locate information you have used
for assignments and discover further views or ideas discussed by the author. By referencing
clearly and correctly, it demonstrates you have undertaken research on the assignment topic and
located relevant information.
There are two main parts to referencing: The first indicating within your assignment the sources
of the information you have used to write your assignment. This demonstrates support for your
ideas, arguments and views. Sometimes this is referred to as: citing in text, in text citations or
text citations. The second part to referencing is the construction of a reference list. The reference
list shows the complete details of everything you cited and appears in an alphabetical list on a
separate page, at the end of your assignment. Everything you have cited in text appears in your
reference list and likewise. Everything that appears in your reference list will have been cited in
text! Check this is the case prior to handing in your assignment. The exception is when using a
personal communication. Personal communications are cited in text but do not appear in the
reference list.
A/ In Text Citations
Throughout the text of your paper you need to acknowledge the works used in your writing.
Whenever you present a statement of evidence such as a quote, or when you use someone else's
ideas, opinions or theories in your own words by paraphrasing, you must acknowledge the works
by providing the author’s name and date of publication in text. Even though you have put
someone else’s ideas or information in your own words in paraphrased form, you still need to
show where the original idea or information came from. This is all part of the academic writing
process. When citing in text within an assignment, use the authors or editors last name followed
by the year of publication.

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For example: Water is a necessary part of every person’s diet and of all the nutrients a body
needs to function, it requires more water each day than any other nutrient (Whitney and Rolfes,
2011). Or Whitney and Rolfes (2011) state the body requires many nutrients to function but
highlight that water is of greater importance than any other nutrient. Or Water is an essential
element of anyone’s diet and Whitney and Rolfes (2011) emphasize it is more important than
any other nutrient.
Reference list entry:
Whitney, E., and Rolfes, S. (2011). Understanding nutrition (12th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth
Cengage Learning.
Note: This book did not have a city for place of publication, just a country. Extra note: This book
has an edition. This information is included straight after the title.
Three, Four or Five Authors
If a work has three, four or five authors, cite all authors the first time and from then on include
only the last name of the first author followed by the words et al (‘et al.’ is Latin for ‘and
others’).
For example: Research can be defined as a systematic method of creating new knowledge or a
way to verify existing knowledge (Watson, McKenna, Cowman and Keady, 2008). Deciding on
a research method demands the researcher consider carefully the problem or area of investigation
being researched (Watson et al., 2008).
Watson, R., McKenna, H., Cowman, S., and Keady, K. (Eds.). (2008). Nursing research: Designs
and methods. Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
Note: The people were identified as the editors. Hence, (Eds.) is a shortened version of Editors.
Six or Seven Authors
If a work has six or more authors, cite only the last name of the first author followed by et al.
each time you refer to this work. For example: (Mikosch et al., 2010)
When a source has up to seven authors, include all names in the reference list.
Mikosch, P., Hadrawa, T., Laubreiter, K., Brandl, J., Pilz, J., Stettner, H., & Grimm, G. (2010).

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Effectiveness of respiratory-sinus-arrhythmia biofeedback on state-anxiety in patients

undergoing coronary angiography. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66(5), 1101-1110.
Eight or more Authors

When there are eight (8) or more authors, cite only the last name of the first author followed by
et al. each time you refer to this work. For example: (Vissing et al., 2004)
Note in the reference list: When there are eight or more authors, include the first six authors’
names and then use ellipsis points (...) before concluding with the last author’s name.
Vissing, K., Brink, M., Lonbro, S., Sorensen, H., Overgaard, K., Danborg, K., ... Aagaard, P.
(2008). Muscle adaptations to plyometric vs. resistance training in untrained young men.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(6), 1799-1810.
Groups as Authors
The names of groups that serve as authors like corporations, associations, government agencies
are usually written in full each time they appear in a text citation. The names of some group
authors such as associations, government agencies are spelled out in the first citation and
abbreviated thereafter. In deciding whether to abbreviate the name of a group author, use the
general rule that you need to give enough information in the text citation for the reader to locate
the entry in the reference list without difficulty. Some groups are recognized by an abbreviation
(for example, WHO for World Health Organization). First text citation: (Ministry of Health
[MoH], 2007). Second and subsequent citations: (MoH, 2007).
Ministry of Health. (2007). Looking at long-term residential care in a rest home or hospital:
What you need to know. Wellington, New Zealand: Author.
Note: If the author and publisher are the same, author can be used to indicate the publisher in
place of the full name.
Group as author no abbreviation
New Zealand House of Representatives, Health Committee. (August, 2007). Inquiry into obesity

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and type 2 diabetes in New Zealand: Report presented to the House of Representatives.
Retrieved from http://www.parliament.nz/NR/rdonlyres/47F52D0D-0132-42EF-A297-
6AB08980C0EA/61821/DBSCH_SCR_3868_5335pdf.
In text citation: (New Zealand House of Representatives, Health Committee, 2007).
Similar Information Referred by more than One Author

There may be occasion to refer to more than one source in relation to similar information. In this
case, list the sources in alphabetical order within the brackets, separated by a semi-colon. For
example: Resilience is seen as the ability to overcome adversary, combat stress and bounce back
from hardship (Dawson, 2006; Overton, 2005).
Dawson, L. (2006). Wise up!: How to be fearless and fulfilled in midlife. Auckland, New
Zealand: Random House New Zealand.
Overton, A. (2005). Stress less: Make stress work for you not against you. Auckland, New
Zealand: Random House New Zealand.
Same Author and Same Date
If a work has the same author and same date, differentiate between them by assigning lowercase
letters a, b, c, etc. They are listed in the reference list alphabetically by title (excluding A or
The). Examples: Eyes are susceptible to melanoma even though it is rare (Cancer Society of New
Zealand, 2013a). According to the Cancer Society of New Zealand (2013b) the rate of…
Cancer Society of New Zealand. (2013a). Ocular melanoma: Information sheet. Retrieved from
http://www.cancernz.org.nz/information/cancer-types/
Cancer Society of New Zealand. (2013b). Reducing your cancer risk. Retrieved from
http://www.cancernz.org.nz/reducing-your-cancer-risk/
One Work by One Author, when the author is cited more than once in a paragraph
The rules for this are quite complex, mostly because there is one rule for citations in brackets
(parenthetical) and other rules for citations that are part of the narrative. Part of the narrative
means the reference is part of a sentence, and not in brackets. Examples: If a citation is part of

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the narrative, it looks like According to Jones (2013)…, or Jones (2013) states that…. If a
citation is parenthetical, it looks like (Jones, 2013).
Citing a Secondary Source
Where possible use original material. However, if the information you wish to use is cited by
another author, acknowledge the source you have read, showing it is a secondary source. This
demonstrates you have not read the original source but read about it in a secondary source.
Within the text citation, use the words “as cited in” to indicate this is a secondary source. In the
reference list, include the author and details of the source you actually read.
Example: Fawcett (as cited in Polit and Beck, 2008) outlined the four main concepts…
Polit, D. F. and Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for
nursing practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams
and Wilkins.
Direct Quotes
Quoting directly from a work should be done sparingly in order to emphasis or stress a point in
your essay. When using a quote, it must be copied exactly as written in the original work
including any punctuation or incorrect spelling. When using a quote, include the author’s last
name, year of publication and page numbers where the quote appears.
Short quotes which have less than 40 words
To indicate a short quote having less than 40 words, enclose the quotation within double
quotation marks. For example: “Self-directed learning is also a term with which you will become
familiar as you study in Australia or New Zealand. Students are expected to take responsibility
for their own learning and organize their own study” (Hally, 2009: 7).
Longer Quote with more than 40 words
For a quote that is 40 words or more, include it in your essay as a freestanding piece of text or
block form and do not use the quotation marks. Double-space the entire quote. At the end of the

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quote, include the author’s name, year of publication and page number/s after the full stop. For
example: Principle-based teaching and principle-based learning are important in nursing,
particularly as they relate to clinical skills. Clinical skills are usually taught according to
principles, and this means that the student learns key principles associated with the skill, and
then applies those principles to the actual performance of the skill (Hally, 2009: 6).
Hally, M. B. (2009). A guide for international nursing students in Australia and New Zealand.
Sydney, Australia: Elsevier.
Quotations from online resources that do not provide page numbers
The APA manual (2010: 171-172) states using direct quotes from online material provide the
author, year and page number within brackets. If the page number is not known, use a paragraph
number. If the paragraph number could confuse the reader, consider including a section heading
or discussion section.
For example: “The WTN exists to "encourage serendipity" -- the happy accidents of colliding
ideas and new relationships that cause the biggest breakthroughs for individuals and institutions”
(World Technology Network, 2014, para. 3).
World Technology Network. (2014). About the World Technology Network. Retrieved from
http://www.wtn.net/about
B/ Reference List
All references or information sources cited in any written work like essays, reports and research
papers need to be listed in a reference list on a separate page at the end of your research headed
as ‘References’ or ‘Reference List.’ The reference list provides all the details necessary for the
person reading and marking the research to locate and retrieve any information source cited. An
accurate and properly constructed reference list provides credibility to the written work it
accompanies.

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Tip: Everything you have cited in text appears in your reference list and, likewise, everything
that appears in your reference list will have been cited in text! Check this is the case prior to
handing in your research. The exception is when citing a personal communication. Personal
communications are cited in text but do not appear in the reference list.
Basic rules
1. The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order of the authors’ last names.
2. If there is more than one work by the same author, order them by publication date from
oldest to newest. Therefore, a 2004 publication would appear before a 2008 publication.
3. If there is no author the title moves to that position and the entry are alphabetized by the
first significant word, excluding words such as “A” or “The”. If the title is long, it may be
shortened when citing in text.
4. Use “&” instead of “and” when listing multiple authors of a source.
5. The first line of the reference list entry is left-hand justified, while all subsequent lines
are consistently indented.
6. Capitalize only the first word of the title and of the subtitle, if there is one, plus any
proper names. This implies only those words that would normally be capitalized.
7. Italicize the title of the book, the title of the journal/serial and the title of the web
document.
8. Do not create separate lists for each type of information source. Books, articles, web
documents, brochures, etc. are all arranged alphabetically in one list.
When creating the reference list entry for an information source you need to identify and record
specific details. It might be useful to remember these Ws!
 Who – wrote or edited it---author or editor

 When was it written---date
 What is it ---title of the book, article, serial, journal, and web document
 Where it was books published---place of publication, usually city and country
(publisher’s name)

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 Where the article, serial or journal was located---volume number, issue number and page
numbers of the article
 Where you located internet sources---URL as web address.
Referencing Books
1. Authors or Editors last name (surname) appears first, followed by initials (Bloggs, J.).
2. Year of publication in brackets (2010).
3. Full title of the book. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle (if any), and
proper names. Italicize the title. Use a colon (:) between the title and subtitle.
4. Include the edition number if applicable, in brackets after the title or subtitle (3 rd ed.) or
(Rev. ed.). Note: No full stop, after the title if there is an edition.
5. Place of publication. Always include the city and 2-letter state code when published inside
the USA, and the city and country if published outside the USA (Fort Bragg, CA or
Auckland, New Zealand or Benalla, Australia or Weybridge, England). If there are two or
more places included in the source, then use the first one listed.
6. Publisher’s name. Provide this as briefly as possible. Do not use terms such as Publishers,
Co., or Inc. but include the words Books and Press. When the author and the publisher are
the same, use the word author as the name of the publisher.
Book with One Author
Collier, A. (2008). The world of tourism and travel. Rosedale, New Zealand: Pearson Education
New Zealand.
Book with Place of Publication
Note: Always include the city and 2-letter state code when published inside the USA, and city
and country if published outside the USA.
Airey, D. (2010). Logo design love: A guide to creating iconic brand identities. Berkeley, CA:
New Riders.
Stein, R. (2001). Rick Stein’s seafood. London, England: BBC.
Book with Editor

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Aspinall, V. (Ed.). (2014). Clinical procedures in veterinary nursing (3rd ed.). Edinburgh,
Scotland: Elsevier.
Book with Author and Publisher are the same
MidCentral District Health Board (2008). District annual plan 2008/09. Palmerstone North, New
Zealand: Author.
Chapter in an Edited Book
Palmer, F. (2007). Treaty principles and Maori sport: Contemporary issues. In C. Collins & S.
Jackson (Eds.), Sport in Aotearoa/ New Zealand society (2nd ed., pp. 307-334). South
Melbourne, Australia: Thomson.
McKinney, C., and Smith, N. (2005). Te Tiriti o Waitangi or The Treaty of Waitangi: What is the
difference? In D. Wepa (Ed.), Cultural safety in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 39-57).
Auckland, New Zealand: Pearson Education New Zealand.
Journal Articles
1. Authors last name (surname) first, followed by initials.

2. Year of publication in brackets. (2012)
3. Title of article. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the subtitle (if any), and
proper names. Use a colon (:) between the title and subtitle.
4. Title of the serial/journal in full in italics.
5. Volume number, in italics. Do not use “Vol.” before the number.
6. Issue number. This is bracketed immediately after the volume number but not italicized.
7. Month, season or other designation of publication if there is no volume or issue number.
8. Include all page numbers.
9. Include any Digital Object Identifiers (DOI).
Example: Thompson, C. (2010). Facebook: Cautionary tales for nurses. Kai Tiaki: Nursing New
Zealand, 16(7), 26.
Internet Sources

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Where possible, include similar information, in the same order, as you would for other types of
information and other sources (who, when, what) and then add the electronic retrieval
information required for people to locate the material you cited (where).
1. Authors of the document or information as individual or organization (corporate author).

2. Date of publication. If no date is available use (n.d.).
3. Title of the document or webpage in italics.
4. Complete and correct web address such as URL.
Example: Ministry of Health. (2014). Ebola: Information for the public. Retrieved from
http://www.health.govt.nz/your-health/conditions-and-treatments/diseases-andillnesses/
ebolainformation-public
Brochure or Pamphlet
Tamihana, B. (2007). Gambling health promotion: Mate petipeti whakapiki hauora (Brochure).
Palmerston North, New Zealand: Best Care (Whakapai Hauora) Charitable trust.
Bibliography
Larger dissertations or theses will require both a reference section and a bibliography. The
reference section will include all those publications to which you have referred to in your report.
However, if you have read other work in relation to your research but not actually referred to
them when writing up your report, you might wish to include them in a bibliography.
B/ Appendices
An appendix is the important reference materials category. It includes the material which cannot
be logically included in the main body or textual body of the research report or the relevant
materials too unwieldy to include in the main body. The appendix usually includes: tools of
research, statistical tables and sometime raw-data when data were processed through computer.
Even the material of minor importance like forms, letters, reminders, interview sheets, blank
questionnaires, charts, tables, lengthy questions, report of cases.
The tools and other material should be placed first and tables at the end and page numbers should
be assigned in Roman Numbers (i, ii---xxi). The appendix serves the function of providing

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greater clarity and authenticity for the readers or consumers of the thesis. The items of the
appendix are very essential for a good research report. Appendixes include: Questionnaires,
interview guidelines, focus group discussion guidelines, sample information, mathematical
derivations, letters, formulas and the like ones. Appendix, glossary and index all these are
written on a separate page in the centre with capital letters.
4.3. Ethical Issues Consideration in Research
Ethics is the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value. Ethics are the
rules of conduct in research. The ethics of research is about creating a mutually respectful, win-
win relationship in which participants are pleased to respond candidly, valid results are obtained,
and the community considers the conclusions constructive. Plagiarism means directly copying
someone else’s work into your report, thesis and letting it be assumed that it is your own. Using
the thoughts, ideas and work of others without acknowledging the source is unethical. Equally
serious is claiming sole authorship of work which is in fact the result of collaboration.
4.3.1. Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans

 Honesty: Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. This precludes any type of deception
and use of covert methods.
 Citation and acknowledgement: Obviously, in no field of research can you rely entirely on
your own ideas, concepts and theories. Therefore, standard practices have been developed to
permit the originators of the work and ideas to be acknowledged within your own text. This
is called citation. These methods of reference provide for direct quotations from the work of
others and references from a wide variety of sources such as books, journals, conferences,
talks, interviews, and television programs. You should also acknowledge the assistance of
others and any collaboration with others.
 Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation,
peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research.

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 Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
 Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work.
 Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
 Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Give proper acknowledgement or credit.
 Informed Consent: Potential research participants must be provided with information that
enables them to make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate in the
research study.
 Deception is present when the researcher provides misleading information or when the
researcher withholds information from participants about the nature and/or purpose of the
study. Deception is allowable when the benefits outweigh the costs. Avoid deception in
research as much as possible.
 Freedom to Withdraw: Participants must be informed that they are free to with drawl from
the study at any time without penalty.
 Protection from Mental and Physical Harm: This is the most fundamental ethical issue
confronting the researcher. Fortunately, much educational research poses minimal risk to
participants (for example, as compared to medical research).
 Confidentiality ensures that no one else will have access to the identity of the respondent.
Keeping secret regarding the identity of the participants.
 Anonymity means that the identity of the participant is not known by anyone in the study,
including the researcher.
 Ethics and the Academic Community: Ethics within social research do not solely rest upon
the relationship between the researcher and participant but also consider other academic
issues too. Generally, avoid plagiarism, falsification of data, data fabrication, and personal
feelings and biasness.
4.3.2. Style of Preparing Research Papers
Page layout
Left margin: 1½"

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Right margin: 1"

Top margin: 1"
Bottom margin: 1"
Page numbering
Pages are numbered at the top right. There should be 1" of white space from the top of the page
number to the top of the paper. Numeric page numbering begins with the first page of chapter
one although a page number is not placed on page 1.
Spacing and justification
All pages are single sided. Text is double-spaced, except for long quotations and the
bibliography which are single-spaced. There is one blank line between a section heading and the
text that follows it. Do not right-justify text. Use ragged-right.
Font face and size
Any easily readable font is acceptable. The font should be 12 point type or larger and Times New
Roman type face. Generally, the same font must be used throughout the manuscript, except 1)
tables and graphs may use a different font, and 2) chapter titles and section headings may use a
different font.
The research report should be written in a style that it is creative, clear and concise. Therefore,
the following considerations should be kept in view in writing a research report.
1. The research must be reported in full and its results are subjected to criticism and
verification.
2. A research report is always written in third person i.e. he, she or the investigator. I, we, you,
my, our and us should not be used.
3. It is prepared and written in past tense and present-prefect tense because it is reported usually
after completion of the work.
4. The scientific language is used rather than literary language. The British-English pattern is
followed in writing a research report. The spellings of the words are employed of the British
English.
5. It is typed, printed or cyclostyled on 11" 9" size (thesis size) on sunlit bond papers. There
should be left a margin of 1-1/2" right margin one inch top and bottom margin should be 1-
1/4" in each. The same machine of typing must be used for typing research report.

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6. The presentation of matter should be in floating sequence. There should be consistency in the
form and content organization.
7. An appropriate and proper format of research report should be used.
8. The footnotes, references, tables, figures, heading, sub-heading and bibliography should be
provided in its standard form.
9. It should be typed in double space, quotations or citation should be given in single space. A
word should not be split in two aspects due to the shortage of space in a line. A table, figure
and diagram should always be given on a single pace. If table size is large. a large size paper
should be used. It should not continue on the next page.
10. A typist with great experience and proficiency should be employed for preparing thesis or
dissertation, because it is the responsibility of the researcher that a thesis should be typed in
proper form. The correction of major errors is not the responsibility of the typist.
11. Good research reports are not written hurriedly. Even an expert and experienced researcher
revises many times before he submits a manuscript for typing. Typographical standards for
the thesis or dissertation are more exacting. Therefore, every typist cannot prepare a thesis;
there are the experts for typing thesis, who should be employed for typing thesis.
4.4. Sample of Basic Research
Cover Page
ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVICS AND ETHICAL STUDIES

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECT OF POLYGAMY ON HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS: IN CASE

OF BONKE WOREDA
By: Tsalafo Chaka
` June, 2012
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
Title Page


OF BONKE WOREDA
By: Tsalafo Chaka
Advisor: Mikiyas Tesfaye (MA)
A Senior Essay Submitted to College of Social Science and Humanities, Arba Minch University
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Bachelor of Art Degree in Civics and Ethical
Studies.

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June, 2012


OF BONKE WOREDA
By: Tsalafo Chaka
Advisor: Mikiyas Tesfaye (MA)
Board of Approval Sheet
As a member of examine board of the final essay presentation, we certify that we have heard and
evaluated this paper is prepared by Tsalafo Chaka entitled “Socio-Economic Effect of Polygamy
on Household Members: In Case of Bonke Woreda” and recommended that it be accepted as the
partial fulfillment of requirements for the BA Degree of Civics and Ethical Studies.
Mikiyas Tesfaye --------------20/6/2012
Advisor Date and Signature
-------------------- -------------------------
Examiner Date and Signature

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June, 2012
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I express my deepest praise to almighty (omnipotent), omnipresent and omniscient
God because He is owner of all success and who helped me in all ups and downs of my life.
Secondly, I want to express my respectful gratitude to all my advisors, for instance: Mikiyas
Tesfaye, Girmay Abraha and Solomon Ketema because of their politeness, gentleness and
responsiveness. Furthermore, my heartfelt thank goes to Ato Mikiyas Tesfaye due to fact that this
crucial comments, corrections and initiations lead to accomplishment of this study in proper
manner. Addition to this, he motivated and directed me a lot to how to conduct the study
effectively and accurately.
Lastly, but not least, I would like to thank my parents, namely: Chaka Chame and Zagote Dololo
as well as my wife Nigist Akalu because they all shouldered almost all responsibilities in relation
to my academic performance in terms of budget and advice. Moreover, it is my inspiration to
point out heart and soul thank to some personalities like: Alegnta Ashagire, Tinko Eriya and
Wondiferaw Ketema who helped me more when I collect primary data.

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ABSTRACT
The study is mainly discovered socio-economic effect of polygamy on household members in

Bonke woreda. Bonke is one of fifteen woredas in the Gamo Goffa zone which bordered on the
south by the Dirashe special woreda, on the west by the Weito River which separates it from
Kemba, on the northwest by Daramalo woreda, on the north by Dita woreda, and on the east by
Arba Minch Zuria woreda in SNNPR. The aim of the study is coming up with some important
awareness creation on negative effects of polygamy on household members over its advantages.
The study is conducted using both primary and secondary data sources especially interview,
focus group discussion and books. Descriptive data analysis method under qualitative approach
of research is used while conducting data analysis. The discussion and finding is mainly focused
on factors, effects and remedies of polygamy, and Bonke society’s attitude on the polygamy. The
study is finalized by the conclusion that polygamy has more disadvantages than advantages,
thus, the recommended that Bonke society should avoid using polygamy as cultural practice
because it is harmful traditional practice.

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
 AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

 CD: Compact Disk
 ETB: Ethiopian Birr
 FDRE: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
 HIV: Human Immuno Virus
 Ibid: ibidem (in the same place).
 NB: Note Bene (note well)
 SNNR: South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region

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DECLARATION
I, Tsalafo Chaka, declare that this work titled “Socio-economic Effect of Polygamy on
Household Members: In Case of Bonke Woreda” is my own effort and all the sources of
materials used for the study have been duly acknowledged. I have produced it independently
and it has not been presented for any degree in any organization. It is offered for the partial
fulfillment of the Bachelor of Art Degree in Civics and Ethical Studies.
Name of student: Tsalafo Chaka
Signature: -------------
Date: 20/ 6/ 2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
No Contents Page
Acknowledgement-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
Abstract--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
Acronyms and Abbreviations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
Declaration----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
Table of contents---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
CHAPTER ONE ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1. INTRODUCTION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1. Background of the Study
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.2. Statement of the Problem
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.3. The Basic Research Questions
------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4. The Objective of the Study
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4.1. The General Objective of the Study---------------------------------------------------------------4
1.4.2. The Specific Objectives of the Study--------------------------------------------------------------4
1.5. Significance of the
Study-------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.6. Methodology of the Study
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.6.1. Site Selection -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.6.2. Description of the Study Area ---------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.6.3. Data Sources and Method of Data Collection----------------------------------------------------6

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1.6.4. Approach of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------------------------6

1.6.5. The Sampling Technique and Sampling Size----------------------------------------------------6
1.6.6. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation -----------------------------------------------------7
1.7. The Scope and Limitation of the Study
--------------------------------------------------------------7
1.7.1. The Scope of the Study------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.7.2. The Limitation of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.8. Operational Definition of
Terms------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.9. Organization of the Senior
Essay----------------------------------------------------------------------9
CHAPTER TWO --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ----------------------------------------------------------10

2.1. Introduction
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
2.2. Conceptual Framework of the Study
----------------------------------------------------------------10
2.2.1. Definition of Marriage-----------------------------------------------------------------------------10
2.2.2. Polygamy and Polygyny --------------------------------------------------------------------------11
2.3. Theoretical Framework of the Study
----------------------------------------------------------------12
2.4. Effects of Polygamy on Household
Members-----------------------------------------------------13
2.5. The Relationship between Household and
Polygamy---------------------------------------------14
2.6. Legal Status of
Polygamy-----------------------------------------------------------------------------15
CHAPTER THREE -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
3. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ---------------------------------------------------17

3.1. Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--17
3.2. Factors that Leads to Polygamy in Bonke
Community--------------------------------------------17
3.2.1. Desire for Children---------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
3.2.2. Polygamy as Resource Management System---------------------------------------------------18
3.2.3. Economic Status as Cause for Polygamy-------------------------------------------------------18

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3.2.4. Marriage by Inheritance---------------------------------------------------------------------------19

3.3. Effects of Polygamous Marriage on the Household
Members-----------------------------------19
3.3.1. Social Effects of Polygamy on the Household Members in the Bonke Society-----------19
3.3.2. Economic Effects of Polygamy on the Household in the Bonke Society-------------------20
3.4. Nexus between Economic and Social Effects of Polygamy on the Household Members in
the
Bonke-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
3.5. Attitude of Bonke Community towards Polygamous
Marriage----------------------------------22
CHAPTER FOUR-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION-----------------------------------------------------23

4.1. Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--23
4.2. Recommendation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
APPENDIX----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
According to Zeitzen (2008: 2) explanation, the word polygamy is derived from the Greek word
“polygamos.” ‘Polys’ means many and ‘gamos’ means marriage. Therefore, polygamy is much

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marriage. Commonly, polygamy is defined as a practice where by a person married to more than
one spouses at the same time. Polygamy is an opposite of monogamy. Monogamy is a type of
marriage where a person has only one spouse at a time.
In principle, there are three forms of polygamy: polygyny, polyandry and group marriage.
Polygyny is a form of polygamy where one man is married to several wives. Whereas polyandry
is also form of polygamy where one woman is married to several husbands. Group marriage, on
the other hand, is another form of polygamy by which several husbands are married to several
wives. Group marriage is combination of polygyny and polyandry (ibid). According to Zeitzen
(2008: 3), polygamy is a habit that practiced among all societies, cultures and religions of the
world in traditional, medieval and modern periods. Spread of Christianity and establishment of
European-based state laws ended up polygamy for many societies, for instance polygamy of
Arctic Inuit (Eskimo) and Mormon of USA, and polyandry of Himalayas. In Asia, polygamy is
customary practice to rich men to have more than one wife for a country like China.
Africa is one of the world’s highest prevalence of polygamy. So Africa is termed as synonymous
continent with polygamy. In sense, many African societies and countries practice polygamous
marriage. Hence, various countries of Africa such as Ethiopia, Senegal and other Islamic
societies practice polygamy denoting the multiple wives as wealth, power and fame. Polygamy,
therefore, is much more related with the African custom. Moreover, the marriage system of
Africa is the same to the Ethiopian societies (Elias, Shiferaw and Abebech, 1998: 49 – 51).
Hence, different Ethiopian communities (especially Muslims) practice polygamy in order to

obtain the services that are helpful to the husbands. Some of these purposeful functions are:
 To use woman as labor force on the area of farm land and cultivation;
 To maintain culture of Ethiopia which based on an assumption that having many wives
as symbol of fame, prestige and power;
 To have numerous children who can feed aged and guard external attack for economic
and social security; and
 To maintain socialization by making marriage relationships with different tribes (Panos
Ethiopia, 2004: 107).

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Gamo people are among Nations, Nationalities and Peoples in Southern Ethiopia (SNNPR).
Then, Gamo peoples’ marriage customs have variations from one locality to another. Due to this
reason, there are five ways of marriage among Gamo peoples. These include: Customary
marriage, civil marriage, religious marriage, abduction and female willingness-based marriage,
locally known as “Uteththa” (Elias, Shiferaw and Abebech, 1998: 29 - 30).
As aforementioned, Bonke as part of Gamo society practices marriage mainly through
customary, civil, religious, male forceful and female willingness-based ways of marriage.
Polygamous marriage of Gamo people can be speeded up by customary marriage and abduction
since these two marriage systems may be concluded without having the consent of souses.
Customary marriage is a way of committing matrimony whereby the groom’s father sends elders
to bride’s parents. The elders can visit the bride’s parents from three to four times until they
reach an agreement, locally termed as “yoo-yoo.” Once the wedding day is arranged or fixed, the
groom’s and bride’s parents prepare feast for kaacca. On the wedding day, the bride is
accompanied by elders. At the end, parents and relatives give the newlyweds different gifts
including heifer, gold, “shemma,” sheep and household utensils. The groom’s parents do the
same (Rukingama, 2009: 36).
Furthermore, Bonke society form monogamous systems of marriage during the first time of
marital relationship, but later people in Bonke develop polygamous marital status. The reason
behind this is that when the first wife cannot give birth to the husband, when a man has many
farm lands with resources in different places and if a man wants to have many children from
different wives (ibid: 119 -120). The household administrative system in Bonke and Gamo
people is entirely patriarchic. Patriarchy means rule by male. When occasionally husband dies,
the elder son empowered instead as a ruler of household members. If a husband has no son, the
closest relative inherits, protects and supports the household (ibid). Therefore, this research
would be intended to focus on the discovering social and economic effects of polygamy on
household members among Bonke community.
The purpose of the study is mainly to examine the socio-economic effects of polygamy on
household management system in Bonke woreda. For the sake of this thesis, the researcher
focuses on negative effects of polygamous marriage rather than positive ones. As scholars,

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polygamy is a form of marriage where a person has more than one spouses. And polygamy has
negative consequences on household members. Some of these negative effects are: violation of
the right of women; social and economic problems; population pressure; polygamy is cause for
deadly diseases like HIV/ AIDS; environmental degradation; and male supremacy (Panos
Ethiopia, 2004: 108).
Moreover, ant-polygamists argued that supporting and living with several wives produces more
problems than it solves; such as adds financial strain, domestic strife, and unfavorable living
conditions. Thus, assets of households are subject to greater sub-division across generations.
Often polygamous household invests in extra-married women proportion and in the number of
their children. In the future generation, the increased size of husband’s family means that there is
loss of assets for each child to inherit (Spencer, 1990: 311 – 312).
On the other hand, the proponents of polygamous marriage stated that the desire to have
numerous descendants is often the driving force for the practice of polygamy; and one of the
basic functions of polygamy is having many children. Typically, a man’s wealth is measured by
number of his wives and children, among other things. Thus, the man who affords several wives
become even richer for wealth since the children contribute to household economy (ibid: 314).
Having these assumptions, the researcher proposed to assess socio-economic effects of polygamy
on household management system that has been practicing among Gamo people of Bonke
woreda in Gamo Goffa zone because there is no research that has been conducted on this issue.
The study is prepared to raise some basic research questions regarding the socio-economic
effects of polygamy on household management system in the context of Bonke society. Hence,
the following questions can be answered by the researcher while undertaking the research:
 What are the factors that contributed to polygamous marriage in Bonke society?
 What is the attitude of Bonke society towards polygamy?
 What are the socio-economic effects of polygamy on household members?
 What are the possible remedial measures of effects of polygamy on household members?
1.4. The Objective of the Study

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This thesis is intended to discover the socio-economic effects of polygamy on household

management system in the Bonke societies. In this regard, the study incorporates both general
and specific objectives.
1.4.1. The General Objective of the Study
 To investigate socio-economic effects of polygamy on household management system in
the Bonke.
1.4.2. The Specific Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are:
 To identify the factors that contributed to polygamous marriage in Bonke society;
 To describe the attitude of Bonke society towards polygamy;
 To figure out the socio-economic effects of polygamy on household members; and
 To find out the possible remedial measures of consequences of polygamy on household
members.
1.5. Significance of the Study
Since the socio-economic effects of polygamy on household management system in case of
Bonke woreda is central theme of the study, the researcher believed that the study has the
following crucial purposes:
 To serves as an input for policy makers on the issue of legal status of polygamy;
 To be used as guideline for culture-related departments on polygamous marriage;
 To be used as reference material for other researchers about the issue; and
 To act as source to teachers, readers and students regarding polygamy in Bonke woreda.
1.6.1. Site Selection
The researcher purposely selected the study area as Bonke woreda due to high rate of polygamy
on the society based on researcher’s observational and empirical evidences. The investigator
selected socio-economic effects of polygamy on household management system because there is
no research conducted on this issue by other researchers. Therefore, the study is carried out only
on the Gamo people of Bonke community.
1.6.2. Description of the Study Area

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Bonke is one of fifteen woredas in the Gamo Goffa Zone and of seventy-seven woredas in the
SNNPR of Ethiopia. Bonke is bordered on the south by the Dirashe special woreda, on the west
by the Weito River which separates it from Kemba, on the northwest by Daramalo woreda, on
the north by Dita woreda, and on the east by Arba Minch Zuria woreda. The Bonke woreda
consists of 34 rural kebeles and 1 municipal administration. The major town of Bonke is
Geressie, which found in 56 kilo meters from Arba Minch, zonal town of Gamo Goffa zone
(Central Statistical Agency, 2007).
The total population of Bonke woreda has estimated 158,795 and total land area is 859.4 square
kilometers. The two largest ethnic groups in Bonke are the Gamo (97.99) percent and the
Amhara (1.56) percent, all other ethnic groups make up 0.48 percent of the total population.
Gamogna is spoken as first language by 94.49 percent, Zarguligna by 3.17 percent and all other
dialectical languages by 1.09 percent (ibid).
According to Gizate and Sileshi (2009: 3), Bonke is stretching between 600 – 4,200 meters
above sea level. The district receives average annual rainfall and temperature 1400 millimeters
and 13.05 degree-centigrade respectively. The climatic condition of Bonke woreda is
characterized by tropical zone (‘Kola’) constituted about 24 percent, sub-tropical (‘Woina-dega’)
26 percent and temperate zone (‘Dega’) 50 percent of the total area. In the tropical zone of the
district, crops such as maize, teff, sorghum, coffee, banana, sugar cane and avocado are highly
grown whereas in temperate zone, crops like barley, wheat, pea, bean, potato and false banana
(‘Enset’) as well as market-oriented fruit called apple are grown.
1.6.3. Data Sources and Method of Data Collection
In the study, the researcher is used both primary and secondary data sources. For primary data,
the data collection tools such as interview and focus group discussion whereas for secondary
data, the data collection tools like books, magazines, journals and an electronic media are used
through content analysis tool.
1.6.4. Approach of the Study

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The researcher is used qualitative approach while conducting the study. In this approach, the data
collection instruments that are helpful to discover socio-economic effects of polygamy on
household management system include:
 Interview
In the study, unstructured interview is used because it is flexible in order to arrange contents and
structures of the question in what so ever manner. And in-depth interview is used in order to
conduct face to face encounter with informants during data collection. Both unstructured and in-
depth interview are conducted with the husbands, who have several wives; wives, who married
polygamous husbands; some of elders, who know about the practices of polygamy deeply; and
some of officials, who work in department of culture. The interview is undertaken through the
languages of Gamogna and Amharic and later it is translated in to English.
 Focus Group Discussion
The focus group discussion is conducted three times by inviting four wives and five husbands
with the researcher. These wives and husbands are those who have polygamous marital status.
Besides, it also is conducted with three knowledgeable personalities about the issue.
1.6.5. The Sampling Technique and Sampling Size
Purposive sampling technique is employed to select husbands, wives, elders and office workers
because those individuals have been assumed to have knowledge and experience about socio-
economic effects of polygamy on household management system. The total sizes of participants
in the study are thirty respondents because of time and budget constraints. The researcher
decided to select respondents from each kebele of the Bonke woreda as much as possible.
1.6.6. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation
The data are analyzed and interpreted through descriptive method of data analysis and
interpretation using data collected by interview and focus group discussion. Hence, the issues
that are discussed during data analysis and interpretation are:
 Causes (factors) for polygamous marriage;
 Effects of polygamy on household members;
 Transition between social and economic effects of polygamy on the Bonke society; and
 The attitude of Bonke society on polygamy practice.

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1.7.1. The Scope of the Study
The study is focused on the Bonke woreda in Gamo Goffa Zone, SNNPR. The study is confined
to socio-economic effects of polygamy on household management system that practiced by the
society of Bonke woreda.
1.7.2. The Limitation of the Study
Due to farthest of the researcher’s educational institution from the study area, the researcher may
face several problems while conducting the research. The following are some of the problems
that an investigator is faced during carrying out the study, for instance:
 Lack of enough time to collect primary data;
 Shortage of organized and relevant reference materials;
 Scarcity of access to organized data on the issue of polygamy; and
 Constraint of budget to collect data, transport fee, and to print and copy important data.
However, even if there are shortages and problems; the researcher decided to undertake the
research through allocation of the resources and time wisely.
1.8. Operational Definition of Terms
 Family is small social organization that consists of father, mother and their children.
 Gomme is an evil spirit that takes place due to breaking down of social norms and values.
 Household is collection of individuals who live in a given house including family,
servants and close relatives.
 Kaacca is a food, usually porridge, that can be eaten by new weds during the time of
matrimony.
 Polyandry is a form of polygamy whereby a woman married to several men.
 Polygamy is a type of marriage by which a spouse has many sexual partners.
 Polygyny is a form of polygamy whereby a man married to several women.
 Shemma is a kind of clothes, which can be made by weaver from cotton.
 Uteththa is a type of marriage that can be formed only by the interest of woman.
 Yoo-yoo is a word that indicates an agreement.

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1.9. Organization of the Senior Essay

This study mainly in to four sections, namely: First one which is introduction part includes
background of the study, statement of the problem, basic research questions, objective of the
study, significance of the study, methodology of the study, and scope and limitation of the study.
In this part, methodology of the study consists of site selection, description of the study area,
data sources and method of data collection, approach of the study, sampling technique and size,
and method of data analysis and interpretation.
In the second section, review of related literature is elaborated about conceptual and theoretical
frameworks, definition of marriage and types of polygamy, effects of polygamy on households,
role of family and household on polygamy, legal status of polygamy, and polygamy in Bonke
woreda. The third section of the study deals with data analysis and interpretation. This
incorporated the factors that lead to polygamy, negative effects of polygamy on families,
remedies that can be taken on the effects, and perception of Bonke people on the polygamy. The
last part of the study, but not least, concerns with conclusion and recommendation.

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CHAPTER TWO
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction
This chapter is reviewed the literatures that define marriage, polygamy and polygyny; examine
the effects of polygamy on household throughout different cultures of the world; state functions
of household and family; and elaborate legal status of polygamy in the Bonke culture. There is
no research is conducted on polygamy in the Bonke society. Due to this reason, some of
literatures are going to deal with polygamy in Gamo people of Bonke from published and
unpublished materials as well.

2.2.1. Definition of Marriage
Chamber Encyclopedia defines marriage as a union of a man and a woman accordance with the
customary, civil or religious law of the given society primarily for the production of offspring
and it is normal and acceptable practice and experience of every individual who respected the
code of a given law (as cited in Panos Ethiopia, 2004: 104). According to Alfred Lee, marriage is
defined as the public joining together of a man and a woman under regulation of socially
specified and recognized law to be called as a husband and a wife (as cited in Panos Ethiopia,
2004: 104).
Similarly, Encyclopedia of Social Science defines marriage as culturally approved relationship

between man and woman of opposite sexual partners either in the form of monogamy or
polygyny or polyandry generally with expectation of children that will be born of the relationship
(as cited in Panos Ethiopia, 2004: 104). In the 21 st century, marriage has got new phase of
development, for instance, Toigo (2005) explained that the same-sex marriage is recognized as a
civil and human right in the form of gay and lesbian rights but the practice is still not supported
by societies who recognized heterogeneous marriage system. Those societies which are advocate
of homosexual marital relationship argue that it is free from ongoing offensive actions and
obligation to exercise political humanity (http://blogcritics.org/culture/article/protecting-and-
defending-marriage-in-the/ ).

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However, society that the same-sex marriage as human and civil right seen the culture as positive
and valid while it enables redefinition of marriage as social institution protecting cultural
changes with regard to the significance of gender in recent marriage and society. Thus, same-sex
marriage is acceptable in free and secular society. In historical point of view, Knight (2009)
noted that the word marriage is whether action, formality or ceremony representation by which
union of marital partners is formed. Hence, marriage is legitimate union of husband and wife
who can make mutual sexual intercourse, life in common, and free from the sanction of some
kind of natural, evangelical and civil law (http://newadvent.org/cathen/09693a.htm ).
2.2.2. Polygamy and Polygyny
Merriam Webster (1993: 175) defined that polygamy is a form of marriage in which a spouse
marry to two or more sexual partners at the same time or in subsequent period of time, and the
relationship of mates which expressed in the form of polygyny and polyandry. In addition,
Nyanseor (2006) noted that polygamy is cultural practice of the society having more than one
wife or husband for an individual at one time. Whereas polygyny is also cultural practice in
which one man has more than one wife at a time (http://www.theperspective.org/polygyny.htm ).
For this paper, all references to polygamy and polygyny are used in Bonke cultural context,
meaning that there are usually marriage form is polygamy rather than monogamous marriage.
For the purpose of this study, polygamy and polygyny are used interchangeably. The
interchangeable use of these terms is due to fact that polygamy is more familiar to the larger
population and the research studying polygyny has used the term polygamy more frequently.
Nevertheless, keep in mind that Bonke only practices polygyny polygamous marriage system
rather than polyandry one.
Gwanfogbe et al (1997) argued that when their husbands were unsupportive and uninvolved,
many first wives become more satisfied when there is addition of another wife. On other side,
Al-Krenawi, et al (1997) has shown that first wives interdependent to subsequent wives, which
causes them to suffer adverse effects from the polygamous relationship (as cited in Yang, 2003:
28). In regard to this, Knight (2009) added that the status of women is extremely low in
polygamous regions of all society where women are treated as property of man, not as his
companion, their wife exists in one of great hardship; their spiritual, moral and intellectual

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qualities are neglected. In addition to this, male is naturally represented in the highest position
even in monogamous marriage (http://newadvent.org/cathen/09693a.htm ).
Furthermore, Kilbride (1990: 216) pointed out that the character of jealousy and competition
among co-wives is typically focused on the interest of economic resources when there is
insufficient in economy, thus, economics appears to be a greater source of conflict in modern
polygamous families other than sexual jealousy (as cited in Zeitzen, 2008: 31).
2.3. Theoretical Framework of the Study
Scholars have written extensively on the nature, causes and effects of polygamy. Depending on
the schools of thought to whom they represent, hence, explanations tended to place a lot of
emphasis on one particular theory while diminishing the importance of other competing theories.
In this section, the researcher is attempted to explain some of theories to provide frameworks for
the understanding of polygamy.
According to structural-functionalists, polygamy is necessary to have multiple relative through

affinity (usually termed as alliance formation). Then, such kind of interrelationship promotes the
strengthening of the unity of one group of the society to secure peace having marriage
relationship with different tribes (Fortes and Evans-Pritchard, as cited in Zeitzen, 2008: 41).
According to these writers, women are perceived as those who play reproduction or production
units of community, in which their function is solely bearing children. And polygamy is
considered as cultural practice among societies of patrilineal descent and patrilocal residence in
which emphasis given more on transmission of rights from male family than female (Clignet and
Sween, 1981: 446-8, as cited in Zeitzen: 49).
Marxists theorists suggested that polygamy enables or promotes condition in which men have
power to control over the women, and male possesses power and authority that is based on their
matrimonial system, but it result in dependence of women in the society (Zeitzen, 2008: 50).
Murdok (1949) pointed out that polygamous marriage system is related with gender based
division of labour and women are understood as economic producers to their household
members. According to this writer, division of labour based on sex brings an idea that wives as
used as additional labour force to husbands (as cited in Zeitzen, 2008: 53).

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Reproductive theorists observed that reproduction and fertility are culturally needed issue to
polygamous marriage. For these theorists, desire to have numerous descendants is often driving
force polygamous practice. Thus, many children are seen as prestige and power for practitioners
as well as it is a wealthy man symbol (ibid).
2.4. Effects of Polygamy on Household Members
Polygamous families to have many of their own distinctive problems arise from situational
factors specific to polygamous households such as higher number of siblings, higher number of
parental figures, absence of father or an authoritative factor, jealousy and competition of family
members with the husband (Al-Krenawi and Wightman, 2000, as cited in Yang, 2003). For
instance, a man having two or more wives diverts food and resources to his favored wife while
leaving the other wives and their children. Thus, polygamous marriage affects wives in food
distribution, equal treatment, and goods and land sharing (Panos Ethiopia, 2004: 129). In
addition to this, in polygamous households; there are many families who are not able to feed
their kids and send children to school or have no access to any service (ibid).
Nothermans (2002: 345-6) described that co-wives frequently compete and fight for the money
and sexual favor of their husband instead of helping each other, and economics appears to be
greater source of conflicts in modern polygamous societies than sexual jealousy (as cited in
Zeitzen, 2008: 31). According to Panos Ethiopia (2004: 11), allowing polygamy hinders that
implementation of the equal rights of husband and wife administration of their property, fidelity
and loyalty to one another, and their obligation to live together.
As Darwish (2009: 95) noted that most of the ill and anger within the Muslim family are directly
linked to the institution of polygamy. Furthermore, polygamy causes polarization in the family;
each wife becomes a separate center of power against others which result in competition,
animosity rivalry, and their children grow up in atmosphere of quarrying, hearing raised voices,
indecent words and biting insults. The writer also expressed that mutual distrust and disrespect
become the norm; polygamy has consequences to the health and happiness to the family
members.

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Kant and Hegel argued that a reciprocal joining of right and welfare is unattainable in polygamy
since the spouse who marries a plurality of individuals of opposite sex enjoys the entire sexual
attention and care of his or her counterparts while dividing his or her favors among them
(Winfield, 1998: 99). If such imbalances are inherent in polygamy and touched up on the
matrimony, polygamy could not satisfy the requirements of marital right. In any marriage
whether monogamous or polygamous, lack of affection and imbalance of sex can express a
breakdown of shared intimacy in matrimony. This need spouses to be remain committed to treat
one another’s right and welfare as a common concern (ibid: 100). G.K. Chesterton’s quote
declares: Variability is one the virtues of woman. It avoids the crude requirements of polygamy.
So long as you have one good wife you are sure have a spiritual harem.
Primarily, polygamy creates male dominated marriages where the woman is left voiceless in the
whole setup. Secondly, it forces women into subordinate roles and results in unworkable families
full of strife, abuse and incest. Besides, only a small fraction of women in polygamous marriages
work outside the home. Most of them lack the mandate or ability to seek employment. Children
often become defensive of their own families and display resentment and anger towards the other
sub-family. In times of discord, most of the senior wife’s children side with their mother over the
biological father. The reason for this is obvious; loyalty to their mothers, half-sibling rivalry and
jealousy in equal measure. However, the father and his tribe have expectations that they would
side with. This has caused man of the children significant confusions with their boundaries and
loyalties alike (Ward, 2010).
Children from polygamous families are at heightened risks of developing harmful effects. There
is considerable evidence that points to these children experiencing higher incidence of marital
conflicts, family violence and disruptions than do children of monogamous families. Moreover,
children from polygamous backgrounds are more likely to develop behavioral and socializing
problems. The same problems are also reflected in their performance in school. Polygamous
children display inability to concentrate in class, had low attendance, incompletion of homework,
maladjustment to classroom procedures, peer and teacher relational problems (Jacobson and
Burton, 2011).

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2.5. The Relationship between Household and Polygamy
For the purpose of this research, the researcher to use the words: Household and family
interchangeably because the word family is most frequently used by the majority as a common.
Following this, the investigation expresses their relationships through definition, and the role of
household in polygamous marriage.
Webster’s Dictionary defines household as a group of individuals who dwell under the same roof
and compose a family where as family as a fundamental social group in a society typically
consisting of one or more parents and their children. As Hagerdom (1980: 353) defined, family is
any group of people considered to be related to each other by blood, marriage or in-law. Thus,
family includes at least their primary relatives (like father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter,
husband and wife) and their secondary relatives (such as maternal and paternal grandparents,
aunts and uncles, and the same for spouses or in-law). Nonetheless, household is a residential
group whose members usually share some basic tasks like cooking (Spencer, 1990: 514). There
are four major functions of the family: Socialization, protection, affection and emotion
relatedness, and regulation of sexual behavior and reproduction (ibid: 308).
According to article 9 of Human Rights Commission, women have the right to equality in the
family which guarantees the equality of spouses during the conclusion, duration and dissolution
of marriage, and that it gives priority to the well-being, upbringing and protection of children
(Kassaye, 2007: 381). Article 50 of the Revised Family Code of Ethiopia stipulates that both
men and women to administer their family raise their children and supervise their education, and
the moral instruction of their children (Panos Ethiopia, 2004: 38). Both wife and her husband
have equal rights to administer, according to article 624/ 1 of Revised Family Code of Ethiopia
unless there is an agreement between the spouses to the contrary, the administration of property
can only exercise jointly ( ibid).
Husband and wife jointly make the most major household decisions although differences to
males still evident in practices as the preparation and serving of meals. Women’s household and
farming responsibilities include transporting and overseeing family finances (Oyster, Sloan and
Stange, 2011: 212). Therefore, household and/ or family as a fundamental unit of society carry
out a number of responsibilities and duties in administration of the household members.

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2.6. Legal Status of Polygamy
Bigamy is the crime committed when a person knowingly marries again. However, someone
who remarries after a spouse has been missing for at least five years or believed dead is not
guilty of bigamy of the first spouse turn up (Nolo, 2011: 108). Prosecution of bigamy is rare
unless the bigamist defrauds one of the spouses financially. For example, bigamists spend the
second spouse’s income on the first spouse (ibid). In all status, a second or subsequent union is
referred to as a purported marriage to indicate that the marriage is not legitimate. The penalties
for bigamy aim to deter individuals from entering in to further marital unions without having
dissolved the legally recognized marriage (ibid).
The Draft Family Law of Ethiopia did not even consider the penal law of the country, which
takes bigamy as a criminal act. In general, polygamy is not what the larger society starting from
grass root levels, is interesting in while allowing polygamy if a solution to nothing, it only
contributes to the creation of further complications in the social system (Panos Ethiopia, 2004:
112). The Finalized Family Law of Ethiopia cancelled out polygamy from being one of the
conditions of marriage that should be checked before new marriage gets recognition. It means
the law does not prohibit polygamy and so, it is remains intact (ibid: 110).
The Civil Code of Ethiopia recognizes laws but does not permit bigamy. Thus, a second
marriage is invalid even if it is accepted by customary law (World Bank, 1998: 3). Ethiopia’s
1995 constitution, however, recognizes marriages concluded under system of religion or cultural
laws, but the status of polygamous marriage remains unchanged (ibid).
Polygamy is abolished and backed by sanctions provided on Penal Code of Ethiopia whereas
Civil Code of Ethiopia states that spouses owe each other respect, support and assistance, and
provides that husband is head or leader of family. This determines the place of marital home
where wife must obey (agree) with husband in all lawful things that he orders and he owes his
wife protection and then marriage contact may be written settling financial effects of marriage as
well as other reciprocal rights and duties but cannot change any mandatory legal provisions and
at least effect unless approved by family arbitration or by courts (ibid: 5).

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CHAPTER THREE
3. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

3.1. Introduction
Data analysis and interpretation is based on data collected through an interview and focus group
discussion with informants. In this section, different tables, charts and percentages are not used
because the study mainly focuses on qualitative approach of data analysis. Furthermore, the
researcher categorized the analysis and interpretation in to four broad groups, namely: Causes of
polygamy, effects of polygamy, nexus between social and economic effects of polygamy, and
attitude Bonke towards a polygamy practice. Hence, it is intended to deal with these core areas of
the study.
3.2. Factors that Leads to Polygamy in Bonke Community
It is clear that practice of polygamy is cross-cultural in its scope, and practiced among all
continents and religions of the world. As it suggested by the respondents, there are factors which
are cause for the practice of polygamy in Bonke society. Of these factors are desire for a lot of
children, use of women as labor force, economic status, and marriage by inheritance.
3.2.1. Desire for Children
As it came up the informants in different occasions, the first issue that deals with factor to
polygamy is reproductive role of women. Men want to have more children because children are
considered as social and economic assets in Bonke culture, and Gamo people at large. With this
reason, informants also explained that the interest of having many children is one of the factors
which leading to the practice of polygamy. Additionally, the informants pointed out that child
sex preference is factor polygamy in desire to male or female child in the society. In sense, child
sex preference means that parents searching for sons over daughters or sometimes searching for
daughters over son in rare cases.
This is due to fact that when women could not give birth sons or daughters at the age of
menopause, a period where females cannot release ovulation. This in turn implies old age of
monogamous wife without giving birth sons to first husband opens way to practice polygamous
marriage because sons are vital for Bonke society where ancestral descent is traced through

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patrilineal system of descent. In the society, sons not only inherit property but also sons can be
seen as confer honor and high status to the family. Hence, child sex preference of Bonke is
challenged by the preference for sons as the cultural norm without looking to the negative effects
of polygamy.
3.2.2. Polygamy as Resource Management System
The other factor that deals with the reproductive role of women is resource management. Men
tend to marry more wives in order to have additional labour force. The informants expressed it in
phrase which says: “Daro machcho ekkoy haaro shiishshi oykkanaw maaddees,” which means
that a man having several wives will be of better economic position. Bonke women engage in a
larger scale in the major livelihood activities, cultivation, and income generating activities to the
family. Thus, polygamy enables to maintain the resources of the husband using numerous wives
and their children since the man is rich enough in terms of wealthy.
Besides, informants noted that the man who marred many wives is termed as famous person.
Therefore, polygamy is sign and symbol of prestige and fame in the culture of Bonke society
since many children and wives manage, protect and preserve land and cattle that exist in various
places. As a result, the communities of Bonke welcome the practice of polygamy.
3.2.3. Economic Status as Cause for Polygamy
Some informants expressed that the richness of a man can be indicated by having a lot of wives
and children. This is because these wives and children contribute for economic growth and
accumulation of wealth to the husband who is top decision maker in the roof of household. On
the opposite side, some respondents suggested or argued that poor living standard of the man
who invites the practice of polygamy in the society. Accordingly, the choice of mate is not
random but based on status. Status for males may be culturally defined in terms of resources,
good looks, and social connections. For instance, since the man lacks the daily salary and income
then he migrates to another area away from the first wife. Then the husband forms other spouse
to marry the next wife without introducing to the first wife informants termed this as: “Addeti
haakki ooththos biikko hara laggo ekkettees.” In this course of action, the man experiences bad
habits like addiction of drugs, chewing of chat, and gambling.

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These practices further accommodate adultery and rape of virgin of girl or spinster then the
situation can be changed in to polygamy due to fear of legal punishment for the violation of
girl’s right. But this is also true for divorced or widowed women because those women are free
to marry whether married or unmarried man. Hence, low economic status leads husband to
practice polygamy meantime polygamous marriage can be used as response of accusation of
second wife.
3.2.4. Inheritance Marriage
According to informants’ point of view, marriage by inheritance means that cultural practice
where a brother or closest relative of the deceased man marries to his wife. In this situation, the
one who inherits the wife shoulders all responsibilities to protect and maintain all household
activities, and look after the man’s wife and children. According to respondents’ explanation,
descent and inheritance rule of Bonke society’s culture is transferred down on the basis of male
children starting from elder to the younger sons.
In sense, if the deceased man has numerous brothers then the elder brother unless closest relative
heirs his marital status. Hence, such cultures bring unwillingness polygamous marriage
unknowingly. Therefore, polygamous households result in socio-economic impacts in contrary to
its protection and support man’s wealth, his wife and children. In this regard, informants
concluded that these changes are also accommodate socio-cultural impacts, for instance: Living
together in overcrowded condition, creating an environment that accelerates stress and conflict
among co-wives, and loose of alliance of families.
3.3. Effects of Polygamous Marriage on the Household Members
In this section, the researcher intended to clearly discuss about the negative effects that are
resulted due to polygamous marriage on each household member. In this regard, the researcher
explained the effects of polygamy dividing in to two broad groups: Social and economic
condition of household members. Furthermore, the household condition can be seen in terms of
wife, children, family member in-law, and husband.

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3.3.1. Social Effects of Polygamy on the Household Members in the Bonke Society
According to respondents, the most prominent effects of polygamy in Bonke society in terms of
social dimension are conflict and jealousy among co-wives. Informants indicated that divergent
interest of wives leads to disagreement, anxiety and threat to one another, and with their
husband. Moreover, the most common social effects of polygamy which emerge among those
household are lack of collaboration, loss of love or affection, lack of honest to one another,
disrespect, misbehavior, and envy or jealousy.
In addition to this, one of the informants clearly stated that due to increased number of wives; the
husband does not pay attention to look after the living condition of each wife equally as possible.
Thus, polygamous husbands of Bonke propose to divorce some of wives since the wife become
ugly and unattractive after giving birth children that range from two to three in number. This
expressed by respondents in the form of: “Maccati yelidi mala dhayikkonne gilqqikko addeti
dosettenna. Qassikka attumati hara machcho ekkanaas qopposoonanne ekkosoona.” This implies
that husbands try to divorce their first wives when wives become thinnest because of frequent
reproduction.
These circumstances promote grievance between husband’s and wife’s family members.
Consequently, this is also another cause for conflict, murder, separation, disagreement and
remoteness relationship among the household members, those families lead to complicated life
style. Moreover, some of informants added that addiction of drugs, chewing chats and gambling
habits encourage and speed up polygamy among Bonke community of Gamo people.
Accordingly, individuals who depended on these bad habits practice prostitution, rape, abduction
and adultery in the society. In such sudden circumstances, the woman with whom a man made
sexual intercourse can bear illegitimate child, and then the woman accuse the man. Then, the
man marries her in fear of imprisonment but without consent with first wife. Therefore, in due
course of action the first wife’s children have chance for education and other services. To sum
up, polygamy is social-evil that promotes absence of justice, assistance, cooperation and
responsiveness among household members.

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3.3.2. Economic Effects of Polygamy on the Household in the Bonke Society
According to view point of interviewed informants, having many wives to man in marital
relationship devastates the accumulation of income, and basic needs not be attained successfully.
Then, inability to fulfill those basic needs means danger on health condition of families because
it brings mal-nutrition and vulnerability to deadly diseases. Informants pointed out that in many
polygamous household of Bonke society have a problem of population pressure. In case, the
household members lack chance to develop the habit of saving due to population growth and this
also enables to lead the living standard in the form of hand to mouth from generation to
generation.
The respondents pointed out that the most common problem that polygamous households face is
land fragmentation. In sense, in the rural part of Bonke communities; the land is the most
important resource in which the life of society depends on. Thus, the men who have many
children from different wives could not share their piece of land for numerous children. Due to
this reason, the land is cultivated without rest (fallowing) and it also losses the mineral content as
well as vulnerable to erosion easily. Furthermore, in this regard polygamy affects the society
through narrowing the chance of getting material wants for further production; for instance:
Capital, land and labour force.
In relation to this, informants also noted that since the husband has as many children as possible
from each wife then husband’s resource (especially land and livestock) are divided and
distributed for those children in line with their number. Whenever the situation is unfavorable to
the children to have enough land which is precious resource in the rural society and livestock due
to over sub-division then in such kind of actions the children stand against their father and co-
wives, and murder among the household member takes place. On the contrary, according to
respondents’ point of view; having more wives and children has economic implication in
increasing the size of one’s more or further production on the farmland.
Consequently, in order to strength the above explanation; the researcher pointed out that Bonke
society is characterized by the agricultural society (both farming and livestock rearing); but

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unwise and over-use of land leads to land degradation and frequent erosion. As a result of this,
the society search for further land then deforestation takes place in reference for fertile land.
Hence, it is obvious that deforestation is highly related climate change and global warming.
Therefore, this all circumstances result in economic unrest that is more linked with social crisis
in which people migrates from place to place.
3.4. Nexus of Economic and Social Effects of Polygamy on Household Members in the
Bonke
Transitional effects of polygamy occur in between both economic and social impacts. This
means one is cause for the occurrence of the other. Generally, the researcher observed that the
existence of negative socio-economic dimension effects of polygamy means that social crisis and
economic unrest. This means that when there is an increment of household members, there is
also increased material want to fulfill the basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and protection.
This all promote the budget constraint, mal-nutrition and health problem as well as illiteracy of
their children. According to informants, an imbalance between interest of basic needs and the
existing economy brings problem of handling families in peace and agreement.
3.5. Attitude of Bonke Community towards Polygamous Marriage

Based on the respondents’ point of view, polygamy is neither bad nor good. In sense, fear of evil
(locally known as ‘Gomme’), patriarchic administration of the household members, searching of
many children, and consideration of many children as prestige and important for land holding
system are appreciated portions of polygamous marriage and it practice in Bonke societal
culture. Whereas consequences of polygamy such as economic under-development, frequently
occurring conflict among household members, and increase of population through high rate in
the family are rejected effects of polygamy.
Therefore, respondents concluded that when talking about perception of Bonke society towards
polygamy; the practice of polygamy is not entirely good or not entirely bad. Hence, respondents
come up with idea of compromising the activity of polygamy as harmful cultural practice and
useful cultural practice based on societal attitude towards polygamous marriage in the Bonke.
This means polygamy has simultaneously positive and negative consequences. Thus, it is hard to

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simply categorize and express polygamy as either harmful or useful traditional practice in the
context of Bonke society.
CHAPTER FOUR
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1. Conclusion
The purpose of this research is in order to discover the effects of polygamy on household
members. After conducting data analysis and interpretation, the researcher has developed concise
summary on positive and negative effects of polygamy on the Bonke society. Polygamy is a
marital relationship involving multiple spouses and occurs in several forms. The most common
form of polygamy occurs when a man has more than one wife at the same time, known as
polygyny that has adverse effects on household members. Thus, it is clear that for many,
specifically men, there are positive aspects of living in a polygamous family, for instance:
Avoidance of the childlessness, wise use of property to use many wives and children as man
power, and getting of support and assistance from numerous family members. For others like
women and children, it is also clear that living in polygamous families results in conflict,
sadness, jealousy, loss of love and affection, confusion, resentment and anxiety to each other
among family members.
Moreover, informants pointed out that those wives in monogamous marriage have to display love
and affection to their husbands in order to reduce the conflict and disagreement that happening
among family members. Thus, safety in handling of the wives may overcome outside looking of
the husbands, and it could not invite to the remarriage and divorce or separation between
spouses. As indicated in the data analysis and interpretation, negative effects of polygamy and its
treatment need social work due to sensitivity of the practice among Bonke communities in each
and every kebele administration.
Finally, children or adolescents from polygamous families had a variety of problems such as
mental health disorders, scholastic difficulties and social problems. However, there were several
similarities found, including self-esteem, anxiety, depression, hostility, and learning disorders.

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Besides, socioeconomic status in polygamous families tended to be lower than in monogamous

families as indicated by parental education, parental income and parental employment. Lower
levels of parental education, employment and income can be seen as indicators of financial stress
which in itself can have detrimental effects on children’s well-being in polygamous families.
4.2. Recommendation
Based on the data analysis and conclusion of this study, the researcher tried to forward the
following recommendations that must be considered by other researchers in order to fill the gap:
 The Bonke society should avoid using polygamy as a useful cultural (especially for
kinship increment and resource management) in order to make better living environment.
This is because polygamy is highly antagonist with the current family planning habit due
to reason that polygamy is resulted in over population in the Bonke society.
 The awareness creation should be given to the society in order to decrease the high
prevalence of effects of polygamy including conflicts and chaos that frequently occur
among family members.
 The society should recognize polygamy in terms of polyandry unless polygamy should be
backed by the practitioners being criminal act that result in penalties. This because Bonke
society practices polygyny form of polygamy that violates principle of gender equality
which is stated under FDRE constitution.
 Polygamous marriage system in the society should consider qualities and rules of
marriage where marriages have to celebrate with a full consent of intending spouses. In
relation to this, polygamy has probability to violate the right of marriage between women
and men.
 Further researches must be undertaken on the cultural polygamous marriage of Bonke in
particular and surrounding Gamo societies in general, because its negative effects are
growing up in alarming rate there.
 The research should also be conducted on the legal status of polygamy in the Bonke
society.

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 Household members should develop the spirit of hard working in cooperation and
collaboration in order to tackle low economic status which is one of causes of
polygamous marriage in Bonke.
To sum up, these recommendations should be implemented by each and every stakeholder
individuals of the community who are responsible for the negative effects of polygamy in order
to achieve expected goals by the researcher.
REFERENCES
Central Statistical Authority (2007). National Statistics, Table B2 and B4. SNNPR.
Darwish, N. (2008). Cruel and usual punishment: The terrifying global implications. New York:
Thomas Nelson, Inc.
Elias A., Shiferaw B. and Abebech A. (11998). Ceremony of birth, marriage and funeral
system in the North Omo. Adds Ababa: Berhanena Selam Publishing Enterprise.
Hagerdom, R. (1980). Sociology. Halt Rinehart and Winston of Canada: Limited Toronto.
Kassaye A. (2007). The new fundamental concept of Civic and Ethical Education: For
preparatory program. Addis Ababa: Aster Nega Publishing Enterprise.
Knight, K. (2009). History of marriage: The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
Company. Retrieved on May 12, 2012 from: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09693a.htm.
Nolo, S. (2011). Nolo’s Guide to California law: A concise guide to the law of Golden state.
California: Janet Portman Berg printing.
Nyanseor, S. (2006). The perspective: Polygyny (polygamy) is already a practice. Atlanta:
Georgia. Retrieved on May 12, 2012 from: http://www.theperspective.org/polygyny.htm
Oyster, K., Sloan, F. and Stange, Z. (2010). Encyclopedia of women in today’s world.
California: Sage Publications.
Panos Ethiopia (2004). Gender and law: Reflection. Addis Ababa: Master Publishing Press.
Rukingama, L. (2009). An inventory of intangible cultural heritage of twenty nations and

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nationalities of North Omo, SNNPR, Ethiopia. The UNESCO Addis Ababa: Cluster of
Office.
Spencer, M. (1990). Foundation of modern Sociology. University of Toronto: Prentice Hall
Canada, Inc.
Gizate G. and Sileshi K. (2009). Bonke dicha tango. (Unpublished magazine)
Toigo, R. M. (2005). Protecting and Defending Marriage in 21st century. Singapore: Blog Critics.
Retrieved on May 12, 2012 from: http://blogcritics.org/culture/article/protecting-and-
defending-marriage-in-the-/
Webster, M. (1993). Webster’s third new international Dictionary of English language:
UABRIDGED. Massachusetts: Merriam Webster Inc, Publishers.
Winfield, D. (1998). The just family. New York: State University of New York Press.
World Bank (1998). Implementing to Ethiopia National Policy for Women: International and
Regulatory Issue. Washington DC: Clearance Center Inc.
Yang, M. (2003). A qualitative study examining the effects of polygamy on Hmong individuals
who had been raised in polygamous. The graduate school University of Wisconsin Stout
(Unpublished). Retrieved on January 15, 2011 from
www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2003/2003yangm.pdf
Zeitzen, M. K. (2008). Polygamy: Cross-cultural analysis. London: Berg Editorial Offices.

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APPENDIX
QUESTIONS OF SAMPLE INTERVIEW
1. General Information
I am the student of Civics and Ethical Studies at Arba Minch University. Currently, the
researcher is conducting a research on the “Socio-economic Effect of Polygamy on Household
Members: In Case of Bonke Woreda.” Generally, the researcher is thanking you in advance and
highly appreciates you for your honest response on all the questions given in this questioner.
Finally, you responses are kept confidential and used only for this educational research.
2. Questions:
2.1. What are the negative outcomes of polygamous household?
2.2. Is there positive outcome for having polygamous household?
2.3. Why conflict and chaos are frequently occur in polygamous household?
2.4. What are the consequences of these conflicts on the household members?
2.5. What are the causes that motivate the society of Bonke to have many wives?
2.6. What conditions lead to widespread of polygamy in the society?
2.7. Why communities of Bonke advocate polygamous marriage?
2.8. What kind of household relationship can be practiced in polygamous household?
2.9. Could you summarize the disadvantages of having polygamous household?
2.10. Could you summarize the advantages of having polygamous household?
2.11. What is your recommendation on having polygamous household?

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Thank You in advance!

Tsalafo Chaka
CHATER FIVE
5. RESEARCH PROCESS AND RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
5.1. Research Process
Research is a systematic process based on the scientific methods that facilitates the identification
of relationships and determination of differences in order to answer questions. Scientific method
is a process that uses an organized structure to formulate questions and to determine answers in a
research project. Scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method. It is a
method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a
phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a
method that implies internal consistency. Regardless of the area of research or choice of
methodology, the research process involves similar activities.
Research process consists of series of actions or steps that are necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. Research flow chart may include:
1. Formulating the research problem
The first step in research is pinpointing or finding the accuracy of the topic of interest.
Researchers usually start out with a vague idea of some problem and then slowly try to refine
this idea in to a concise statement. Researchers review studies relevant to this topic to further

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illuminate or clarify the problem and refine the research question. A strong problem statement is
one supported by a thorough review of relevant study results and strong rationale or justification
for the performing the study. In general, a research problem refers to some difficulty which a
researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for it.
2. Developing the hypothesis or formulating research questions
Hypothesis and research question are precise statements or research questions of the research
problems. A hypothesis is a prediction of what is expected to occur or a relationship expected
between concepts of interest. The hypothesis is typically tested with some form of experiment.
Not all studies test hypothesis. Some ask more general questions about the problem of interest.
The focus can be descriptive.
3. Extensive literature survey
The objective of the initial review of the literature is to discover relevant material published in
the chosen field of study and to search for a suitable problem area. A literature review essentially
consists of critically reading, evaluating and organizing existing literature on the topic to assess
the state of knowledge in the area. During this stage, you should aim to become an expert in your
field of research. Reading widely may also alert you to other helpful factors, such as whether
similar research has already been carried out, and show the types of findings that researcher
could expect or provide descriptions of the theoretical frameworks and previous methodologies
adopted by others doing similar research. The literature review is generally done alongside the
development of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks.
The literature review is written to place of the study within the context of existing knowledge
and other studies in the discipline. It gives recognition to other scholars and it also allows
researchers to point out what is new about their research. A thorough search of literature is an
important component of research process. The review involves the collection and summary of
prior studies are relevant to the hypothesis or research question. This process assesses what is
already known about the problem and refines research questions for extending knowledge in this
field. The important focus should be determination of what this study will add to what is already

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known. The review can also provide ideas of what methods and instruments can be used to
collect the data.
4. Preparing the research design
Research design provides a full description of general research methodology as well as the
specific methods and procedures used in the research. The methodology should be sufficiently
detailed so that it can be replicated. In one study, research design may reflect the entire research
process from conceptualizing a problem to the literature review, research questions, methods,
and conclusions. Sometimes, research design refers only to the methodology of a study that
comprises data collection and analysis in another study. The purpose of this is to describe your
research plans and approach by:
 Indicating the rationale and theoretical source for your choice of research approach;
 Describing your rationale for the selection of participants, methods of data collection and
analysis, and the steps you will take to ensure that ethical practices are followed;
 Suggesting the limits, restrictions or boundaries of your research; and
 Providing a timetable or research action plan which explains each of the tasks to be
carried out and the anticipated times for completion. The format of this should be clear
and concise.
5. Determining sample design
If the study involves human subjects, the sample means a group of people from which will be
collected or subject of the study. If the study is analyzing secondary data collected by another
investigator, then the sample refers to the data sets. Usually the sample is a group of people
representing the target population, and the population is the larger group to whom the results are
generalized. Types of research bias and systematic errors can be avoided with precise definitions
of the target population and rigorous sampling strategies.
6. Collecting the data
There are different instruments or tools that are used to collect and measure data. The selection
of the tools depends on the focus and type of research study being conducted. Each tool that will

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be used to collect data should be precise or reliable as possible and measure the intended concept
as validity. The types of data and methods to collect data are determined by the research
question. Methods to collect data include surveys, questionnaire, interview, observation and
focus group discussion based on the nature of the research.
7. Analysis, interpretation and generalizations of data or Hypothesis testing (if any)
This step in the research process involves the use statistical techniques to summarize and
interpret relevant research results. Basic descriptive statistics as measure of incidence and
prevalence, central tendency or dispersion are part of every quantitative research study.
Inferential statistics are used in the studies that test hypotheses. The main objective of data
analysis is to answer the research questions or test the hypothesis. Based on analysis results,
conclusions are drawn and interpreted in the context of previous studies.
8. Preparation of the research report
The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him step by step. The writing
of report must be done with great care. The layout of the report should be as follows:
 The preliminary pages,

 The main text and
 The end matter.
The rule of bibliography is system of providing information about the reference lists.
5.2. Research Proposal
A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed description of

the proposed research activities. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a
reader a summary of the information discussed in a research. Research proposals are written in
future tense and have various points of emphasis. The research proposal elements are:
o Title of the research

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The title is usually formulated after the research problem and sub-problems have been stated in a
more or less final format. The research project title should demarcate the following: Who and
what is researched; where, when and how something is happened. A title should be clear,
descriptive of the study and should not be too long or too short.
o Introduction or background of the study
The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information
for the research stated in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so
that readers can understand how it is related to other research. Make sure the proposal starts on
a general level with some type of introductory remarks before going into the details of the
specific research question you are proposing. This can be accomplished by providing a frame
of reference, a definition, or a discussion of the significance of the topic in the field.
o Statement of the problem
Statement of the problem is assumed that research forms a circle. It starts with a problem and
ends with a solution to the problem. The problem statement is therefore the axis which the
whole research revolves around, because it explains in short the aim of the research.
o Objectives, including general and specific of the study
The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of
the study. If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the reader. Researchers
can set general objective and specific objectives of the study.
 General objective
There are a whole host of keywords that are available for student use while writing objective of
the study such as identify, assess, investigate, examine, evaluate, explore, outline, discuss,
analyze, describe, figure out and so forth. These are verbs used to indicate the type of study
activity linked with each objective. The general objective of this study is to assess the classroom
misbehavior of students in ‘X’ secondary school.

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 Specific objectives of the study

Specific objectives are statement form of basic research questions. The researcher conducts this
investigation in order to achieve the following specific objectives; therefore, the study will be
conducted:
 To identify causes of classroom misbehavior of students in ‘X’ secondary school
 To assess negative consequences of misbehavior of students on achievement and
effective teaching-learning process
 To figure out remedial measures to disturbing behaviors of students in the school.
o Basic research questions
Research question is question form of specific objective of the study. After the completion of this
study, the researcher will answer the following basic research questions:
 What are the causes that contributed to the classroom misbehavior of students in ‘X’
secondary school?
 What are the negative consequences of misbehavior of students on achievement and
effective teaching-learning process?
 What are remedial measures to disturbing behaviors of students in the school?
o Significance of the study
Significance of the study is the purpose of the research to stakeholders such as readers, other
researchers, policy makers, teachers, and other concerning bodies depend up on the type of the
study to be conducted and objective to be achieved.
o Review of related literature
Review is an interpretation and synthesis of published work. The term synthesis refers to the
bringing together of material from different sources, and the creation of an integrated whole. The
literature review is where you seek out literature from a number of sources from journals, books
or conference proceedings pertinent to research interests with a view to showing that you are
well read in the area. Researchers can evaluate critically the worth and relevance of sources
relevant to their research. You need to be actively involved in interpreting the literature that you
are reviewing rather than just listing what others have written. If there is no previous published

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research look for empirical work from related areas, clarify conceptual issues and empirical
context for your study accordingly. Use literature review to learn about research design for your
study to build on work of previous scholars. Consider how your study will contribute to the
literature in your chosen subject area. It gives opportunity to persuade your reader and examiner
that your work is relevant and that it was worth doing.
The whole process of reviewing includes: Theoretical and conceptual frame works. Theoretical
framework is having an understanding of a theory, and of the particular theories to be used in
your research is an important element of the research process. A theoretical framework is like the
frame of the house which gives the base for the whole structure of a study. Just as the foundation
supports a house, a theoretical framework provides a rationale for predictions about the
relationships among variables of a research study. Theory-----concepts or constructs----
Variables. Theoretical framework provides a context for examining a problem and it helps for:
Developing hypotheses, a frame of reference or base for observations that serves as a guide to
systematically identify logical and precisely defined relationships among variables. The
theoretical framework plays an important role in guiding the entire process of the research study.
The outcomes of the study are viewed in terms of the chosen theoretical rationale or lens.
Conceptual framework is a written or visual presentation that: explains either graphically, or in

narrative form, the main things to be studied as the key factors, concepts or variables and the
presumed relationship among them. The conceptual framework describes and explains the
concepts to be used in the study, their relationships with each other, and how they are to be
measured. Conceptual framework is produced from theories, literatures and practical experiences
in an organized way of the whole picture of the study. Undertaking the conceptual framework
will allow you to clarify the important concepts within your study, their relationships to each
other, and their measurement.
Conceptual framework might take flow charts, tree diagrams, shape based diagrams, triangles,
concentric circles, overlapping circles, mind maps, and conceptual framework can be also
expressed in descriptions too apart from diagrams. Developing a conceptual framework might go
in to experiential knowledge (like technical knowledge, research background. and personal
experience), data particularly for qualitative as it is dealing on concepts, and literature review as

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prior related theory concepts and relationships that are used to represent the world. Review deals
with what is happening and why prior related research about how people have tackled similar
problems and what they have learned or other theory and research about approaches. In general,
review of the Literature involves paraphrasing, proper citation of sources and avoidance of
plagiarism.
o Operational definition of terms
An indication is given of how the researcher interpreted and is going to use terminology or
concepts in the research report. This is very important, because some concepts or terms are often
used in different meanings by different authors. Operational definitions of technical
terminologies are important to make mature understanding for other readers. When you define
concepts used by you either in your research problem or in the study population in a measurable
form, they are called working or operational definitions. It is important for you to understand that
the working definitions that you develop are only for the purpose of your study.
o Methodology of the study
Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan includes everything the investigator will do from
formulating the research problem or the hypothesis to the final analysis of the data and
presenting his inferences. Research design is closely linked to the investigator’s objectives.
Research design tells the researcher what observations to make, how to make them and how to
analyze the quantitative representation of the observations. It constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data. Research design possesses three important
characteristics: Methodology is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information
relevant to the research problem. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for
gathering and analyzing the data.
Research methodology comprises the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints. The methodology of the study part includes: defining target population,
primary and secondary data sources, sampling techniques and sample size determination, data
collection tools, method of data collection, and methods of data analysis. The methods or

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procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities should be described
with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent.
o Limitations of the study (Optional)
Limitations are beyond the control of the researcher and may place restrictions on the study.
Limitations are the conditions or influences that either cannot be controlled or are the results of
the delimitations imposed. Limitation of the study identifies potential weaknesses of the study.
Think about your analysis, the nature of self-report, your instruments, and the sample. Think
about threats to internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid or minimize and then
briefly explain. Limitation of the study is not part of research proposal but it is included in final
draft of the study.
o Scope of the study
Delimitation of the study is scope of the study that indicates the focus study issue and the
specific selected study area. It addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is
bounded. This is the place to explain the things that you are doing and not doing.
 The population you are studying and not studying,

 The area of study covered,
 The study issue considered under your study,
 The methodological procedures you will use are included in scope of the study.
o Time schedule
A detailed proposed time schedule is supplied corresponding with the activities that will be
carried out. A detailed timetable scheduling all aspects of the research should be produced.
This will include time taken to conduct background research, questionnaire or interview
schedule development, data collection, data analysis and report writing. Research almost
always takes longer than you anticipate. Allow for this and add a few extra weeks on to each
section of your time table. If you finish earlier than you anticipated, that is fine as you have

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more time to spend on your report. However, finishing late can create problems especially if
you have to meet deadlines.
o Budget breakdown
Budget is a detailed indication of the funds needed to undertake the research. This is very
necessary where the researcher intends to apply for funding agents. If you are applying to a
funding body, you need to think about resources needed for the research and how much this is
likely to cost. You need to apply for the right amount of money and are not left out of pocket if
you have under-budgeted. Funding bodies also need to know that you have not over-budgeted
and expect more money than you are going to use. If you are a student, you may not have to
include this section in your proposal. Some tutors will want to know that you have thought
carefully about what resources are needed and from where you expect to obtain the resources.
Some types of research are more expensive than others. If you are on a limited budget, you will
have to think about this when deciding up on your research method.
o References
There are various ways of referencing styles (APA, Chicago, MLA or Harvard system) in
different disciplines and institutions. However, American Psychological Association (APA)
method is usually used as a common referencing style. Only references cited in the text are
included in the reference list. However, exceptions can be found to this rule. For example,
some disciplines or institutions may require evidence that you are familiar with a broader
spectrum of literature than that immediately relevant to your research can be included. In such
instances, the reference list may be called a bibliography.
o Appendixes (if any)
The need for complete documentation generally dictates the inclusion of appropriate
appendixes in research proposals. Although this is generally not the case as regards conference
proposals. The following materials are appropriate to be included in the appendix:
Questionnaires
Interview protocols

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Sample of informed consent forms.

Cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders
Official letters of permission to conduct research.
5.3. Qualities of Good Research Proposal
o The research is unique, or offers new insight or development.

o The title, aims and objectives are all clear and succinct.
o Comprehensive and thorough background research and literature review has been
undertaken.
o There is a good match between the issues to be addressed and the approach being adopted.
o The researcher demonstrates relevant background knowledge and experience.
o Timetable, resources and budget have all been worked out thoroughly, with most
eventualities covered.
o Useful policy and practice implications. Relevance either to the work of the funding body or
to the student’s course.
5.4. Sample of Research Proposal
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
Etymologically, the word polygamy is combination of two terms in Late Greek: “Polys,” which
means ‘Many’ and “Gamos,” which means ‘Marriage.’ Hence, polygamy literally means ‘Often
married.’ Moreover, polygamy is the practice whereby a person is married to more than one
spouse at the same time, as opposed to monogamy, where a man has only one spouse at a time.
In principle, there are three forms of polygamy: polygyny, in which one man is married to several
wives; polyandry, where one woman is married to several husbands; and group marriage, in
which several husbands are married to several wives (combination of polygyny and polyandry)
(Zeitzen, 2008:1).

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Furthermore, polygamy is also a marriage involving more than two partners at the same time.
Whereas Polygyny is one form of polygamy in which a man has more than one wife at the same
time. Polyandry, on the other hand, is much less form of the polygamy in which a woman has
more than one husband at the same time (Calhoun, Light and Keller, 1994:295).
According to Garner, polygamy is also defined as the state or practice of having more than one
spouse simultaneously. As a result, polygamy is also termed as simultaneous polygamy or plural
marriage. Besides, Polygamy means the fact or practice of having more than one spouse during
one’s life time through never simultaneously. Polygamy is much marriage that employed at the
times as a synonym of bigamy and at other times to indicate the simultaneous marriage of two or
more spouses (2004:1197). Bigamy is the act of marrying one person while legally married to
another. The bigamy is distinct from adultery. Bigamy is criminal offence if it is committed
knowingly (ibid: 172).
Historically, polygamy is worldwide and cross-cultural in its scope which is found on all
continents and among adherents of all world religions. The practitioners of polygamy range from
modern feminists to traditional patriarchs, illustrating the polygamy as a kinship system. The
spread of Christianity and European-based legal codes through colonialism, and the imposition
of state laws on aboriginal peoples living within the border of modern nation state have spelt the
end of polygamy for many people (Zeitzen, 2008:2).
For instance, Arctic Inuits (Eskimo) practiced polygamy in the recent past. The polygamy also
practiced in the global community, mostly polyandry in the Himalayas and Mormon polygyny in
the USA. In addition, Africa is the world region with the highest prevalence of polygamy such as
Polygamous marriage in Senegal and Ethiopia (ibid). In relation to the condition of marriage in
Ethiopia, the civil code of FDRE ignores and even prohibits polygamy which is common form of
marriage among many of the ethnicity groups of Ethiopia. Similarly, civil code favors only one
religion that is Islam, in which polygamous marriage is appreciated. With such fundamental
limitations in it, the code recognizes three types of marriage. These are: Civil marriage, religious
marriage and customary marriage (Dagne, 1995:33).

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This research will present detailed analysis on polygamy and its effects on women and children
showing different factors including social, cultural, and economic forces. Since the main theme
of this study is to describe socio-economic effect of polygamy on household members in the
Bonke Woreda. As indicated by Hamadi, et al, Polygamy is widespread in places where farming
is main craft and needs to big labor force. Polygamy is used as a tool to ensure social and
economic stability of family. In addition, children themselves are also used in farming works and
then they will be backbone of their parents when they will be old age. Accordingly, some culture
is proud of polygamy and increasing number of children to ensure their social and economic
positions. In addition, some societies and culture considered polygamy as reproductive strategy
by men to increase their offspring (2009: 755).
Due to this reason, polygyny of polygamous marriage is not eliminated and even not reduced in
some societies and in the Bonke area as well. This, on the other hand, may lead to different
socio-economic negative impacts on the livelihood of family members. However, polygamy has
negative impacts on women and children. Polygamous women have low self-esteem, inequality
among co-wives, have mental and psychological problems. They are suffering from physical
pains and problems; while children are vulnerable to serious consequences in their education. It
is concluded that children who live in polygamous families are low education attainment and
achievement, drink alcohol, school absence, have obstacles in social adjustment (ibid).
Furthermore, polygamy has negative effects and influences on mental health of adolescents and
teenagers. It is confirmed that family structure has main effects on mental health for the children;
so the biggest problem in polygamous families is families will be more aggressive, have disorder
sin conducts and behavior, difficulties in communication and adjustment problems. Children are
also suffering from poor in their well-being due to bad nutrition and low interest and care with
children. Thus, family conflict is usual problem in polygamous families (ibid: 756).
Hence, the investigator tries to undertake research on socio-economic effect of polygamy on

household member based on having empirical experiences. In fact that until now Bonke society
understands polygamy as useful cultural practice rather than harmful traditional practice.
Basically, the researcher intends to assess the rate of negative effects of polygamous marriage
system on the life of household members in order to fill the gap between the two.

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1.3. Basic Research Questions
After the end of this study, the researcher will answer the following basic research questions:
 How polygamous marriage can be carried out in the Bonke society?

 What is the status of polygamous marriage, especially polygyny in study area?
 What are socio-economic effects of polygamy on household members?
 What are possible remedial measures to tackle negative impacts of polygamy?
1.4. Objective of the study
This study comprises the two types of objectives: general and specific objectives.
1.4.1. General Objective of the Study
 To analyze socio-economic effects of polygamy on household members in Bonke woreda.
1.4.2. Specific Objectives of the Study
After The completion of this investigation, researcher will achieve the following specific
objectives, for instance:
 To figure out the system of polygamous marriage according to Bonke culture

 To assess the status of polygamous marriage, especially polygyny among the Bonke people
 To identify social and economic consequences of polygamy on the livelihood of families
 To come up with an important solutions in order to eliminate negative effects of polygamy.
The theme research is socio-economic effect of polygamy on household members in the Bonke
Woreda, and then researcher believes that the study will provide the following purposes:
 To be acted as further reference material for other researchers who conduct research on the
issue,
 To be served as additional reading material for teachers, students and readers,
 To be used as input for policy makers in relation to polygamous marriage in Bonke, and
 To became source for culture related organizations regarding effects of polygamy.

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1.6. Delimitation of the Study
This study is limited to Bonke woreda in Gamo Gofa zone. The conclusion to be reached will
reflect the issue of socio-economic effect of polygamy on household members in the last decade
rather than the nature, cause and practice of polygamy. At the same time, the study also will
focus on polygyny rather than polyandry and group marriage from the types of polygamy. This is
because polyandry and group marriage are not practiced among Bonke society as part of Gamo
people. Therefore, an especial attention will be given to a form of polygamy which is polygyny,
in which a man is married to several wives.
1.7. Organization of the Paper
In this study, the researcher classified the contents into five broad areas. The first part
introduction incorporates some basic components of research proposal, namely: background of
the study, statement of the problem, basic research questions, objective of the study (both general
and specific objectives), significance of the study, and scope of the study. Secondly, the research
contains some review of related literature having different sub-sections.
In addition to this, the proposal of the research also comprises methodology of the study such as
description of the study area, target population, approach of the study, sources of data, data
collection instruments, method of data analysis and interpretation, operational definition of
terms, time schedule and budget plan. The analysis and interpretation of data in relation to socio-
economic effect of polygamy on household members is also another part of the study. Lastly, but
not least, the research is finalized by dealing with conclusion and recommendation.

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CHAPTER TWO
2.1.1. The Meaning of Marriage
According to (Calhoun, et al, 1994:296), marriage may be defined as a socially recognized union
between two or more people that involves sexual and economic rights and duties. The principal
reason for getting marriage today is to satisfy one’s personal and psychological needs through
love. Thus, marriage has become more couple-oriented and less child-oriented.
There two types of marriage, namely: monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy is a marriage
between one man and one woman. Polygamy, on the other hand, is also marriage involving more
than two parents at the same time (ibid). Monogamy is the custom prevalent in most modern
cultures restricting a person to one spouse at a time. The fact of being married to only one

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spouse is known as monogamy. Polygamy is, however, defined as the state or practice of having
more than one spouse simultaneously (Garner, 2004).
2.1.2. Polygamy: Polygyny and Polyandry
The term polygamy, polygyny and polyandry are defined in different ways by different scholars.
Typically, there are almost three forms of polygamy such as polygyny, polyandry and group
marriage. According to Seymour-smith (1986:228), polygyny is a form of plural marriage in
which a man is permitted to marry more than one wife, where co-wives are customarily sisters.
This is called sororal polygyny. The other main form is non-sororal polygyny, where co-wives
are not related. Polygamous marriage is generally correlated with these economic and political
systems where the most important resources are human resources. Polygamy allows a man to
have more children, providing a man broader productive base, as he controls the labor of his
wives and children to a large extent (as cited by Zeitzen, 2008:2).
As Levine (1988) explained, polyandry is a form of plural marriage where a woman has more
than one husband. Polyandrous marriage is relatively rare and is concentrated in the Himalayan
area of southern Asia. Polyandry is sporadically found in Africa, Oceania, America and Arctic.
There are two main forms of polyandry: Fraternal or adelphic polyandry, in which a group of
brother’s share a wife, and non-fraternal polyandry, in which a woman’s husbands are not
related. The commonest form of polyandry is fraternal where joint husbands are brothers (like
ethnic Tibetans now living in Nepal) living together in large households, sharing a common wife
which each maintains a sexual relationship, sharing a common estate and domestic
responsibilities (ibid). Hence, for the sake of this study; polygamy and polygyny can be used
interchangeably.
2.1.3. Household and Family
The terms household and family are defined by different scholars in different ways. As defined
by Henslin (1996:441), Household is consisting of all people who occupy the same housing unit
such as a house, apartment or other living quarters. Whereas family is collection of two or more
people who consider themselves related by the blood, marriage or adoption. Family can be
regarded as consisting of a husband, wife and children or other groups in which men have more

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than one wife (polygyny) or women have more than one husband (polyandry). Household
consists either of people living alone or of groups of people in a given dwelling place at any
particular point of time. Family, on the other hand, is the most basic social life and social group
characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. Family includes
adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and
one or more their own children or adopted of the sexually cohabiting adults (Marcus and
Ducklin, 2000:111-112).
According to sociologists, there two types of family: nuclear and extended family. Nuclear
families form the smallest unit of family, consisting of two generations and parents with their
children sharing the same home. While extended families are extensions of nuclear families with
at least one additional relative living in the same home. Extended families may be vertical
extension by the addition of 3rd generation, for example, grandparents; or horizontal extension by
the addition of members of the same generation as parents, for example, their brothers or sisters
(ibid:115). Furthermore, family is any group of people who are united by ties of marriage,
ancestry or adoption having the responsibility for rearing children (Calhoun, et al, 1994:293).
Baker (1984: 2) defined, family is a group of persons consisting of a husband and wife with or
without children who have never been married regardless of age or a parent with one or more
children never married having in the same dwelling. A family may also consists of a man or
woman having with a guardianship child of ward less than 21 years of age for whom no pay was
received. Family refers to relatively durable unit of two or more members considered to be
related to each other by blood or marriage. Household refers to people living within the same
dwelling place and include unrelated roommates as a single person or a family with a broader or
a domestic servant (as cited by Rosenberg et al, 1987: 148). Commonly, for the sake this
research family and household can be used interchangeably.
2.2. The Theoretical Framework of the Study
According structural-functionalists, a man’s deep polygamous tendency turns women in to

objects whose exchange creates relation of alliance equally or hierarchy among men. For
example, frequency of polygamous marriage varies according to whether men marry additional

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wives in order to enhance their resources or as symbol of wealth (Zeitzen, 2008: 50). As Marxist
approach stated that elder’s domination over the matrimonial system allows them not only to
control young people but also to reproduce structure of dependence in the society by
manipulating the exchange of women. Polygamy also linked with a system of social stratification
in which the old men dominate the young through the control of the means of production and
reproduction, by controlling access to wives and sexual partners or hindering from establishing
independent household. The rate of polygamy is related to the age of first marriage for men and
women: high levels of polygamy in a society results from a large difference in ages of marriage
between men and women (ibid).
Within polygamous societies, multiple wives are typically status symbols denoting wealth and
power for husband. It signals that husband has resources to build up a large household and
maintain it. In agricultural societies, the large size of polygamist families and households; labour
force demonstrates their social status and providing a large productive basis through which to
generate more wealth. The economic foundation of polygamy can be human labour is essential:
the larger the family the larger area it can cultivate. The desire to have numerous descendants is
often the driving force of polygamy, and one of the subtle functions of polygamy is the
symbolism of having many children (ibid: 55).
In traditional Africa, a man’s wealth was typically measured in the number of his wives and
children among other things. Furthermore, a man ensures an adequate supply of descendants to
preserve the life force of the lineage and to produce offspring his own. Childlessness is seen as a
great misfortune for which women are usually held responsible. In polygamous societies, not
having children opens up the possibility that a woman’s husband will divorce her or marry a
second wife to have children. This is true in most societies where biological facts of reproduction
are ignored or not well known. Thus, childlessness in monogamous marriage is one of the prime
reasons for subsequent polygamy. The other solutions to sub-fertility are divorce and remarriage.
Co-wives compete with each other to have many children as possible in order to secure a large
share of the common husband’s resources. Co-wives typically attempt to have the largest number
of male children because this strengthens their position through each other and their husband
(ibid: 60).

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2.3. The Consequences of Polygamous Marriage
Polygamy is likely to present harmful effects especially towards the women and children.
Women in polygamous marriages are at higher risk of having low esteem issues, depression and
constant worry compared to women in monogamous relationships. Studies have also revealed
these women enjoy less marital satisfaction and more problematic mother-child relationships.
Additionally, women in polygamous marriages are prone to depression when they become
pregnant since their husbands divert their sexual attention to the other wives. These women are
typically subservient to their husbands who only value them for the childbearing role.
Consequently, polygamous women are left devoid of any powers to exercise any control of the
marriage. This buds into feelings of powerlessness and emotional turmoil (Bennion, 2012).
On the other hand, situational problems are likely to arise such as higher number of siblings,
higher number of parental figures, absence of the father figure, competition and jealousy of
family members over resources and emotional relationships with the father. In addition, living
areas were often crowded and economic resources taxed to the limit due to the high number of
dependents. These children do not grow up to experience the parental love that is overflowing in
monogamous systems (ibid).
Primarily, Polygamy creates male dominated marriages where the woman is left voiceless in the
whole setup. Secondly, it forces women into subordinate roles and results in unworkable families
full of strife, abuse and incest. Besides, only a small fraction of women in polygamous marriages
work outside the home. Most of them lack the mandate or ability to seek employment. Children
often become defensive of their own families and display resentment and anger towards the other
sub-family. In times of discord, most of the senior wife’s children side with their mother over the
biological father. The reason for this is obvious; loyalty to their mothers, half-sibling rivalry and
jealousy in equal measure. However, the father and his tribe have expectations that they would
side with. This has caused man of the children significant confusions with their boundaries and
loyalties alike (Ward, 2010).
Children from polygamous families are at heightened risks of developing harmful effects. There
is considerable evidence that points to these children experiencing higher incidence of marital

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conflicts, family violence and disruptions than do children of monogamous families. Moreover,
children from polygamous backgrounds are more likely to develop behavioral and socializing
problems. The same problems are also reflected in their performance in school. Polygamous
children display inability to concentrate in class, had low attendance, incompletion of homework,
maladjustment to classroom procedures, peer and teacher relational problems (Jacobson and
Burton, 2011).
CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
3.1. Description of the study Area
Bonke is one of 17 woredas in the Gamo Gofa Zone, which bordered on the south by the Dirashe
special woreda, on the west by the Weito River which separates it from Kemba, on the northwest
by Deramalo, on the north by Dita, and on the east by Arba Minch Zuria. The Bonke woreda
consists of 33 rural kebeles and 3 municipal administrations. The major town of Bonke is
Geressie, which found in 56 kilo meters from Arba Minch, zonal town of Gamo Gofa; 331 kilo
meters from Hawassa, regional town of SNNPR; and 561 kilo meters from Addis Ababa, capital
city of Ethiopia. Bonke woreda is characterized by three climate zones: temperate zone (‘Dega’),
sub-tropical (‘Woina-dega’) and tropical (‘Kola’). As a result, crops like barley, wheat, pea,

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bean, potato, false banana (locally known as ‘enset’), maize, teff, sorghum, as well as fruits such
as: banana, mango, tomato and apple (market-oriented fruit) are highly grown in the area (Gizate
and Sileshi, 2009:1).
Bonke is source of and enriched by natural resources and tourist attraction sites including forests,
namely: Lasho in Bonke Chosha kebele, Zhilo in Dimale Fuse kebele and Bine in Kacha Senga
kebele; Adowe Shebaye fertile land in Koshale kebele; caves and waterfalls like Pisa in Kalbo
Laka and Chosha kebeles as well as Susul’e in Kacha Senga kebele; and mountains such as
Tampi Zuma in Algude kebele, Adigore in Zala Dola Kebele and Bara, head of mount Gughe,
which is the highest mountain in SNNPR (ibid:6).
Bonke is one of the woredas in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region of
Ethiopia. This woreda has a total population of 159,089, of whom 79,113 are men and 79,976
women; 6,347 or 3.99% of its population are urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants
were Protestants, with 55.32% of the population reporting that belief, 27.18% practiced
traditional beliefs, and 15.55% practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity. The two largest ethnic
groups in Bonke were the Gamo (97.99%), and the Amhara (1.53%); all other ethnic groups
made up 0.48% of the population. Gamo is spoken as a first language by 94.49%, 3.17% spoke
Zarguligna, and 1.09% spoke Amharic; the remaining 1.25% spoke all other primary language
(CSA, 2007).
3.2. Research Design
Based on the objective of the study, the investigator will employ the quantitative approach of the
research design since the study is focus on the existing reality of polygamy in the Bonke society.
In fact, it is possible to know the magnitude, rate and extent of polygamous marriage among the
people in Bonke woreda statistically. As a result, the researcher will focus on the different
quantitative methods of data collection instruments and method of data analysis and
interpretation as well as sampling techniques while conducing about socio-economic effects of
polygamy on family members.
3.3. Sources of Data

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In this study, the researcher will use both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data
will be collected from informants using various data collection methods. While secondary data
can be gathered from both published and unpublished materials such as books, newspapers,
magazines and journals.
3.4. Target Population
The variables who participate in this study will be those who are polygamous married
individuals, experts from culture related offices and elders from the society in Bonke. The reason
why the investigator will select the persons; because it is assumed the participants may have
enough knowledge regarding the issue. Then, the researcher can collect right and genuine
information in order to undertake good research.
3.5. Sampling Size and Sampling Technique
The nature of the population which is made up of different categories of people in different
residence necessitated the use of stratified sampling. The population will be divided into two
major groups: highland and lowland residences. For each stratum simple random sampling will
be used In order to select 40 respondents from the total of 159,089 populations. The target group
of the study such as persons who engaged in polygamous marriage, experts who work in tourism
and culture related offices and knowledgeable elders in the Bonke society can be selected by the
interest of investigator and participants. The intention here is to select at least 15 respondents
from each two groups in Bonke woreda and the rest 10 from governmental office employers and
local elders.
3.6. Data Collection Instruments
The relevant data collection tool will be questionnaire since the researcher is intending to employ
quantitative approach in order to conduct the study. In this regard, both close-ended and open-
ended questionnaires are helpful to gather original information from respondents.
3.7. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation
In this study, data analysis and interpretation method the researcher will employ is descriptive
statistics method that is used to describe, summarize or explain a given set of data. In due course

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of action, the primary data collected through questionnaire and observation will be used. The
data analysis and interpretation basically will focus on the following areas:
 Forms and ways of practicing polygamous marriage

 Social and economic effects of polygamy on the life of families
 The ways eradicate the culture of polygamous marriage in among Bonke society
 Policy direction in relation to polygamy and household management system.
3.8. Budget Plan
No Resources needed Budget allocated (in Birr)

1 To buy stationeries like paper, pen and exercise book 200
2 To buy electronic materials such as flash and CD R- 170

writable
3 To print and copy relevant and important reference 150
materials
4 Allowance payment 1000
5 Transportation fee 1500
6 To print and copy the paper 300
7 To bind the research paper 20
Total 3340 ETB

3.9. Time Schedule
No Activities Time allotted
1 Selection of research title July 27/ 2016
2 Approval of research topic July 29/2016
3 Reviewing related literature August 1-4/2016
4 Collecting relevant information August 6-8/2016
5 Organization of data for proposal preparation August 9-12/ 2016

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6 Preparation of the proposal of the study August 114- 18/2016
7 Preparation of the review of related literature August 20-21/ 2016
8 Organization methodology of the study August 22-23/2016
9 Gathering primary data for analysis August 24/2015
10 Analysis and interpretation of data August 25/2016
11 Conclusion and recommendation preparation August 26/2016
12 Writing the report and submission of the paper August 27-28/2016
13 Presentation of the paper August 29/2016
REFERENCES
Bennion, J. (2012). Polygamy in primetime: Media, gender, and politics in Mormon
fundamentalism. Massachusetts: Brandeis University Press.
Calhoun, C., et al. (1994). Sociology (6th edition). New York: Mc Graw-Hill, Inc.
CSA (2007). Profile of Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/bonke
Dagne Shibru (1995). Marriage and family system among the Gedeo of southern Ethiopia.
Addis Ababa University (Unpublished Senior Essay for Partial Fulfillment of BA Degree
in Sociology and Social Administration).

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Garner, A. B. (2004). Black’s law dictionary. Dallas: West, a Thomson Business.

Gizate, G. and Sileshi, K. (2009). Bonke dicha tango (Amharic Version) (Unpublished
magazine).
Hamadi, A. (2009). Negative consequences of polygamy. Retrieved from
https://www.linkedin.com/...negative-consequence-polygamy-zainabal-hammadi.
Available on 12 Oct 2015
Henslin, M. J. (1996). Sociology: A down-to-earth approach (Canadian edition).Ontario:
Allyn& Bacon Canada.
Jacobson, C. K., & Burton, L. (2011). Modern polygamy in the United States: Historical,
cultural, and legal issues. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Marcus, M. and Ducklin, A. (2000). Success in sociology. London: John Murray Publishers Ltd.
Rosenberg, M. M. et al (1997). An introduction to sociology (2nd edition). Toronto: Methuen
publications.
Ward, P. (2010). Family law in Ireland: Alphen aan den Rijn. The Netherlands: Kluwer Law
International.
Zeitzen, K. M. (2008). Polygamy: A cross-cultural analysis. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.
CHAPTER SIX
6. ACTION RESEARCH
6.1. The Meaning of Action Research
Action research is pre-testing ideas in practice as means of increasing knowledge about
improving curriculum, teaching and learning. Action research is also defined as only systematic
inquiry conducted by teacher researchers, principals, school counselors, or other stakeholders in
the teaching-learning environment to gather information how their particular schools operate,
and how well their student learn. Accordingly, school based or teacher research as a research that
practicing teacher conducts in his or her immediate professional practice. Action research in
educational area is the study conducted at actual level that is at school and classroom level by

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teachers, administrators including school principals and others on site educators to solve
practical problems at local level.
Action research is an ongoing research process by which a particular real problem is identified,
information/ data are gathered, practical solutions are tested, conclusions and recommendations
are reached and finally improvements are made. Action research is a research initiated to solve
an immediate problem that led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a
community of practice to improve the way they wants to solve problems. Action research is
study that undertaken in a school setting. It is a reflective process that allows for inquiry and
discussion as components of the research. Action research is a type of research that creates and
measures change in a cyclical manner with the intention of overall positive growth throughout
the process. This is type of research is generally conducted in a collaborative manner by an
individual person or team of people who are interested not only in studying a particular problem
but also in creating solutions.
Action research, also called teacher research and teacher as researcher, is an approach designed
to develop and improve teaching and learning. The essence of action research is teachers’
everyday problems in schools to improve both student learning and teacher effectiveness. Action
research is often a collaborative activity among colleagues searching for solutions to everyday,
real problems experienced in schools or looking for ways to improve instruction and increase
student achievement. Rather than dealing with the theoretical, action research allows
practitioners to address those concerns that are closest to them, ones over which they can exhibit
some influence and make change. Action research is a process in which participants examine
their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research. It is
based on the following assumptions:
 Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves;
 Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess
their own work and then consider ways of working differently;
 Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively; and
 Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development.

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The purpose of applied research is to solve an immediate and practical problem. Basic research is
pure study that adds to the existing body of knowledge; doesn't necessarily provide results of
immediate or practical use.
6.2. What is Not Action Research?
Action research is not what usually comes to mind when we hear the word research. Action
research is not a library project where we learn more about a topic that interests us. It is not
problem-solving in the sense of trying to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest for
knowledge about how to improve. Action research is not about doing research on or about
people, or finding all available information on a topic looking for the correct answers. It involves
people working to improve their skills, techniques, and strategies. Action research is not about
learning why educational professionals do certain things, but rather how educational
professionals can do things better. It is about how teachers can change their instruction to impact
students.
6.3. Types of Action Research
There are different types of action research depending upon the participants involved. A plan of
research can involve a single teacher investigating an issue in his or her classroom, a group of
teachers working on a common problem, or a team of teachers and others focusing on a school-
or district-wide issue.
A/ Individual Teacher Research
Individual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom. The teacher may
be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management, instructional strategies, use of
materials, or student learning. Teachers may have support of their supervisor or principal, an
instructor for a course they are taking, or parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes is
evident in his or her classroom and one that can be addressed on an individual basis. The
research may then be such that the teacher collects data or may involve looking at student
participation. One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it may not be shared with
others unless the teacher chooses to present findings at a faculty meeting, make a formal
presentation at a conference or submit written material to a listeners, journals or newsletter. It is
possible for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no knowledge
of the work of others.

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B/ Collaborative Action Research

Collaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or a group of several teachers
and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This issue may involve one
classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. These teachers may be supported
by individuals outside of the school such as a university or community partner.
C/ School-Wide Research
School-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example: A school may have a
concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a way to reach
more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. On the other hand, the school may be looking
to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of staff from the school
work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action.
An example of action research for a school could be to examine their state test scores to identify
areas that need improvement, and then determine a plan of action to improve student
performance.
Team work and individual contributions to the whole are very important, and it may be that
problem points arise as the team strives to develop a process and make commitments to each
other. When these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and
accomplishment in the results that come from this school-wide effort.
D/ District-Wide Research
District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the rewards can be
great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or processes for
decision-making. A district may choose to address a problem common to several schools or one
of organizational management. Downsides are the documentation requirements like
communication to keep everyone in the loop, and the ability to keep the process in motion.
Collecting data from all participants needs a commitment from staff to do their fair share and to
meet agreed-upon deadlines for assignments. On the positive side, real school reform and change
can take hold based on a common understanding through inquiry. The involvement of multiple
constituent groups can lend energy to the process and create an environment of genuine
stakeholders.
6.4. A Brief History of Action Research

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The idea of using research in a natural setting to change the way that the researcher interacts with
that setting can be traced back to Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist and educator whose work on
action research was developed throughout the 1940s in the United States of America. Kurt Lewin
was one of the founding fathers of this research methodology. Lewin is credited with coining the
term action research to describe work that did not separate the investigation from the action
needed to solve the problem. Topics chosen for his study related directly to the context of the
issue. His process was cyclical, involving a non-linear pattern of planning, acting, observing, and
reflecting on the changes in the social situations.
Stephen Corey at Teachers College at Columbia University was among the first to use action
research in the field of education. Corey believed that the scientific method in education would
bring about change because educators would be involved in both the research and the application
of information. Corey summed up much of the thought behind this fledgling branch of inquiry.
investigators are convinced that the disposition to study. The consequences of their own teaching
are more likely to change and improve their practices is reading about what someone else has
discovered of his teaching.
Stephen Corey believed that the value of action research is in the change that occurs in everyday
practice rather than the generalization to a broader audience. Corey saw the need for teachers and
researchers to work together. However, action research was attacked as unscientific and the work
of amateurs but little more than common sense in the mid-1950s. Interest in action research
waned over the next few years as experiments with research designs and quantitative data
collection became the norm. By the 1970s, researchers saw again the emergence of action
research. Education practitioners questioned the applicability of scientific research designs and
methodologies as a means to solve education issues. The results of many of these federally
funded projects were seen as theoretical, not grounded in practice.
The practice of action research is again visible and seen to hold great value. Over time, the
definition has taken on many meanings. It is now often seen as a tool for professional
development, bringing a greater focus on the teacher than before. It is increasingly becoming a
tool for school reform, as its very individual focus allows for a new engagement in educational
change. Action research emphasizes the involvement of teachers in problems in their own

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classrooms and has as its primary goal for the in-service training and development of the teacher
rather than the acquisition of general knowledge in the field of education.
6.5. Characteristics of Action Research
There are some of special characteristics of action research that identifies it from other
researches. Seven unique characteristics that identify action research from other researches such
as situational, collaborative, participatory, self-evaluation, empirical, cyclic, and relaxed
approach to research methods.
(1) Situational (On the spot procedure) refers to the methods concern of diagnosing a problem
encountered in specific on the spot situation and attempting to solve it. So, action research is
conducted to solve immediate problems encountered in the process of action in the specific
situation.
(2) Collaborative: Teams of researchers and practitioners need to work together with their
diverse experience that is put to gather to bring a refined effect.
(3) Cyclic: Similar steps to recur in similar sequences each cycle demands a critical reflection of
understanding or knowledge which in turn helps the researcher plan for the next steps.
(4) Planning actions, observation and reflection are the main steps that action research follows
while solving immediate school based problems and conducting action research.
(5) Participatory refers to all the people, like teachers, pupils, administrators, parents and the
whole community, are affected by the problem are made to involve in the research.
(6) Self-evaluative (Flexible and adaptable): All what are carried out in the action research
process are continuously and actively evaluated within ongoing situation enabled the action
research flexible and adaptable. Changes can be made if necessary both in the
implementation and on the spot process.
(7) Qualitative nature is the quality that makes action research more responsive and
participatory. It mostly uses qualitative data gathered through observation, interview,
questionnaire, field notes and document analysis.
6.6. Steps in Action Research
Within all the definitions of action research, there are four basic themes: Empowerment of
participants, collaboration through participation, acquisition of knowledge, and social change. In
conducting action research, Researchers structure routines for continuous confrontation with data

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on the health of a school community. These routines are loosely guided by movement through
six to seven phases of inquiry as follows:
Action Research Cycle

I. Identification of problem area
Identifying the problem gives opportunities to select problems since a problem must come out
from the researcher's mind. The following points may be thoroughly considered in selecting a
research problem:
 The problem selected should not be overdone
 It should not be a debatable issue
 It must be simple and clear so that it does not discourage the participants or the students
involved in research-work. For example: Assume that the selected problem from the three
proposed problems is ‘Low grade achievement of students in Civics and Ethical
Education examinations.’
II. Objectives of the Study
The objective of the action research is to discover the reasons why students are low achievers
and finally find a solution to minimize the problem. This step or process is a very pertinent part
that will lead to decide on the type and nature of data to be collected.

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III. Making Review of Literature

This process actually gives the teachers and other professionals more ideas, clues and attempted
solutions from previous work about how to minimize achievement of low grades in a given
subject. Review literatures should be related to the selected problem that should be dealt with.
The availability of a good library or previously done papers is very essential for this.
Experienced teachers or education professionals should guide the teachers from where to get the
required materials. If documents are not available in the school library, the teacher should visit
affiliated offices and agencies to get information.
IV. Collection and organization of data
The collection of data is an important step in deciding what action needs to be taken. Multiple
sources of data are used to better understand the scope of happenings in the classroom or school.
There are many vehicles for collection of data: Interviews, portfolios, diaries, field notes, audio
tapes, photos, memos, questionnaires, focus groups, anecdotal, records, checklists, journals,
individual files, logs of meetings, videotapes, case studies, surveys, records, tests, report cards,
attendance, self-assessment, samples of student work, projects, and performances. Select the data
that are most appropriate for the issue being researched. Use at least three sources (triangulation)
of data for the basis of actions. Organize the data in a way that makes it useful to identify trends
and themes.
V. Interpretation of data
Analyze and identify major themes. Depending upon the question, teachers may wish to use
classroom data, individual data or subgroup data. Some of the data are quantifiable and can be
analyzed without the use of statistics or technical assistance. Other data such as opinions,
attitudes, or checklists may be summarized in table form. Data that are not quantifiable can be
reviewed holistically and important elements or themes can be noted.
VI. Action based on data
Using the information from the data collection and review of current literature, design a plan of
action that will allow researchers to make a change and to study that change. It is important that
only one variable be altered. As with any experiment, if several changes are made at once, it will
be difficult to determine which action is responsible for the outcome. While the new technique is
being implemented, continue to document and collect data on performance.

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VII. Reflection
Assess the effects of the intervention to determine if improvement has occurred. If there is
improvement, do the data clearly provide the supporting evidence? If no, what changes can be
made to the actions to elicit better results? As a result of the action research results, identify
additional questions raised by the data and plan for additional improvements, revisions, and next
steps.
6.7. Benefits of Action Research
Action research can be a worthwhile pursuit for educators for a number of reasons. Foremost
among these is simply the desire to know more. After all, good teachers are themselves students,
and often look for ways to expand upon their existing knowledge.
 Action research focuses on school problem or area of collective interest
Research done with the teacher’s students helps to confer relevance and validity to a disciplined
study. Academic research is often seen as disconnected from the daily lives of educators. While
this might not always be true, it can be very helpful for teachers to pick up threads suggested in
academic circles, and weave them in to their own classroom. It is also comforting for parents or
education administrators outside of the school to know that a teacher is not just blindly following
what the latest study seems to suggest, but it is transforming the knowledge into something
meaningful.
 Action research is a form of teacher professional development
Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work. Action
research projects influence thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness to share and
communicate, and attitudes toward the process of change. Through action research, teachers
learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually
improve.
 Action research as collegial interactions
Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of
children, and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others. Action
research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and
teaching strategies. By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching styles
and strategies and share their thoughts with others. As a team they examine various instructional

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strategies, learning activities, and curricular materials used in the classroom. Through these
discussions with colleagues they develop stronger relationships. As the practice of action
research becomes part of the school culture, teachers see increased sharing and collaboration
across departments, disciplines, grade levels, and schools.
 Action research is potential to bring school change
As teachers get into action research, they are more apt to look at questions that address school
and district concerns rather than questions that affect the individual teacher. This process creates
new patterns of collegiality, communication, and sharing. Contributions to the body of
knowledge about teaching and learning may also result. Development of priorities for school-
wide planning and assessment efforts arise from inquiry with potential to motivate change for
improvement’s sake.
 Action research reflects on own practice
Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen
only in an informal manner. Action research can serve as a chance to really take a look at one’s
own teaching in a structured manner. While the focus of action research is usually the students,
educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students, how they
could work better with other teachers or ways of changing the whole school for the better.
Conversations can take on a different focus from attempting to fix to arrive at understanding.
 Action research improves communications
Team work within the school or district brings individuals together for a shared purpose.
Educators involved in action research become more flexible in their thinking and more open to
new ideas. Positive changes in patterns of collegiality, communication, and networking are
importance of conducting action research.
6.8. Stages of an Action Research
Action research is learning by doing whereby a group of people identify a problem, do
something to resolve it, see how successful their efforts were, and try again if not satisfied.
Action research is known by many other names, including participatory research, collaborative
inquiry, emancipatory research, action learning, and contextual action research, but all are
variations on a theme. Basically, the process of an action research project consists of a number of
phases: Initial reflection, planning, action, observation and reflection.

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Most action researches go through several cycles or spirals of the basic phases. Like all
descriptions of research endeavors, the action research spiral and the stages it describes are much
more clear-cut than occurs in reality. Planning is seldom perfect, action reveals the need for
further planning, backtracking occurs, and so on. Nevertheless, it is useful to given an account of
each phase separately in order to describe the action research process.
 Initial Reflection
Action research arises from a problem, dilemma or ambiguity in the situation in which
practitioners find themselves. It may be at the level of a general concern, a perceived need or a
course-related problem. For example:
1. The students seem to have great difficulty with the section of the course on financial
management.
2. The students make little use of the theory that teachers teach when they go on their clinical
placements.
3. The assignments are mostly reproductions of lecture notes when there is little sign of any
additional reading.
For a concern to be translated into an action research project, it needs to be made more concrete
so that it becomes susceptible to change or improvement. You need to devise a specific course of
action, which you can try out to see if it affects your original concern. More specific questions
for the above concerns might be something like:
1. What changes could be made to the curriculum to clarify the relationship between
financial management and the prerequisite skills which are needed?
2. Would different teaching techniques better prepare students for the clinical situation?
3. How can the assessment questions be changed so that additional reading is encouraged?
Preliminary observation and critical reflection is usually needed to convert a broad concern to an
action theme. A concern does not often directly suggest the remedy: educational problems are
not that simple. The changes you might make will often fall into one of three categories:
Changes to the curriculum or syllabus, modifications to teaching techniques or adoption of a new
method, and changes to the nature of the assessment.

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In some ways this stage is the most difficult as the problem needs to be sufficiently refined to be
tractable and to ensure that the focus is on the most important issues. At the same time, you must
avoid re-defining the problem in such a way that the original concerns are not addressed
adequately. It is also important to recognize which problems or issues it is feasible to focus on in
a project: in some cases a commonsense solution to a current difficulty can readily be found,
while in others there may be institutional constraints which render attempts at solution beyond
the scope of teaching staff. For example: It is not uncommon for problems related to teaching
and learning to arise from course planning documents which may not be able to be changed for a
given period of time, say until a course evaluation and revision is due.
Lastly, attention needs to be given to the timing of the project. For instance, given semester
schedules and availability of students and staff, it will be possible to complete a cycle in the
foreseeable future or would it be better to delay the project until a later date.
 Recording the Existing Situation
In action research you are aiming to promote change. To report the effects of the change you
need a record of the situation before and after the change. What were the observations which
promoted your concern? What are the current practices and the current situation? Some of the
observation techniques described in the section techniques for observation can be used before
and after a change takes place in order to examine the effect of the action taken.
 Finding Relevant Literature
As part of your initial reflection, you should find out whether there is any relevant literature to
aid your particular project. The educational literature is now so extensive that it is unlikely that
there isn't. You could save time reading numerous journal articles if you can locate a book or
review relevant to your problem. The next short-cut is the educational database. Educational
terminology is probably not as precise or tightly defined as in some other disciplines and you
therefore need to experiment with key-words or combinations of key-words to locate the articles
that you need. In addition, don not forget the educational literature in your own subject area.

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Most disciplines have an educational journal such as the journal of chemical education or devote
sections of general journals to educational topics.
 Planning
The most important outcome of the planning phase is a detailed plan of the action you intend to
take or the change you intend to make. Who is going to do what, and by when? What are the
proposed alterations to the curriculum? How do you intend to implement your revised teaching
strategies? It is important to try to work out whether your plans are practicable and to consider
how others might react to their implementation.
You also need to make plans for observation or monitoring your proposed changes. Look
through the section on evaluation techniques and decide which you will use and then prepare any
questionnaires, interview schedules or other observation devices as appropriate. Seek any advice
you need early! It is better to get help before you start gathering data, than to try to get help at the
end in order to interpret information from poorly designed instruments.
 Action
Reality can be messy and unpredictable! In carrying out your plan, things will rarely go precisely
as expected. Do not be afraid to make minor deviations from your plan in the light of experience
and feedback. Make sure that you record any deviations from your plan, and the reasons you
made them. Furthermore, it is in this phase that new insights are likely to arise. These can either
be incorporated into your current project or recorded for future research.
 Observation
Detailed observation, monitoring and recording enables you to assess the effect of your action or
intervention and hence the effectiveness of the proposed change. The observation techniques you
can use are discussed in the next section. In addition to the planned observations, all those
involved in the action research project should keep a diary or journal where additional
observations and insights are recorded on a regular basis.
 Reflection

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Regular reflection within the project team is an integral feature of an action research project.
Innovations can be fine-tuned as the activity proceeds if participants meet on a regular basis. At
the end of an action cycle it is particularly important to reflect critically on what has happened
using the observations and notes made in diaries. How effective were your changes? What have
you learnt? What were the barriers to change? How can you improve the changes you are trying
to make in future?
Critical reflection can take place in isolation but it is usually more fruitful if takes place within
small group discussions where ideas and impressions can be shared and where hopefully changes
in attitude and practice in those concerned with the innovation can be brought about. Many
practices within higher education are strongly influenced by tacit conventions. Through
participative critical reflection it is possible to expose these conventions and examine whether
their observation is truly beneficial to the practices they influence. Often improvements to
teaching and learning can only be brought about once any unhelpful conventions are exposed and
participants move away from unconscious behaviour based upon these deep seated conventions.
As a result of this period of reflection, ideas will usually arise for a further cycle of action
research: most people find that a second cycle is needed. However, such a cycle should arise
naturally from the situation and the desire of participants to continue with the project. It would
be pointless to continue with a further cycle when there appears to be no need to do so, or the
researchers are unable to commit themselves to carrying it out.
6.9. Sample of Action

Research
HOW TO IMPROVE PARTICIPATION OF FEMALE STUDENTS ON TEACHING
LEARNING PROCESS IN ZARGULA SECONDARY SCHOOL: IN CASE OF

GRADE NINE

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By: Tsalafo Chaka (BA)
Advisor: Abebe Pezha (Principal)
An Action Research Submitted to:
Zargula Secondary School
May 2013
Zargula, Bonke, Ethiopia
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
Feminism is the advocacy of equality between men and women in all spheres of life in terms of
political, social and economic dimensions. In addition to this, feminism is a form of movement

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and an area of study with the aim of identifying the causes of gender problems and to materialize
or promote fairness, equality and justice. Feminism has contributed the women’s increased rate
of participation in education ( Belete and Dereje, 2000: 88).
Furthermore, feminism has helped in raising awareness about some of negative effect of
traditional practices on the life of women and/ or girls. In recent years, issues such as early
marriage, female genital mutilation, abduction, property rights, right to education, and legal
rights are receiving public and government attention in our country (ibid: 89). In fact, this does
not mean that equality of access and rate of participation of women in teaching-learning process
and job opportunity have been achieved perfectly.
According to Getaneh, Mesfin, Lakew and Tewodros (2000 E.C: 51) definition, gender equality
refers to equality of men and women, males and females or boys and girls regarding rights to
enjoy equal rights, benefits, burdens and opportunities such as the right to education, vote and to
be elected, hold public offices and job opportunities. However, women and girls in Ethiopia were
not treated equally with men and boys in the past. In many cultures of Ethiopia, women’s role
has been limited to activities such as child care, cooking and home management. Women had
little access to education and not encouraged to take part in political activities and decision
making as well as had less income and less access to resources such as land. Women and girls
also suffer from harmful cultural practices such as early marriage, abduction and polygamy.
However, Changes in gender equality are growing in Ethiopia. Article 35 of FDRE constitution
states: (1) Women shall have equal right with men. (2) Women have equal right with men in
marriage. (3) The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by women in
Ethiopia taken in to account in order to remedy this legacy are entitled to affirmative action. (4)
The state shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the harmful customs laws, and practices
that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women are prohibited. (7) Women have the right
to acquire, administer, control, transfer and benefit from property. In particular they have equal
rights with men with respect to access, use, administration and transfer of land. They shall also
enjoy equal treatment in the inheritance of property.

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Women’s contribution increase when women have equal access to education, job opportunities
and political and social participation. Education and training women is important in producing
development and reducing poverty. Women account half of the Ethiopian population (ibid).
Likewise, women in Bonke Woreda have acquired chance to become owner of property
especially land and can make decision in different administrative positions such as kebele,
woreda, zonal, regional and federal levels. As a result, female populations are able to participate
in social, political and economic affairs of the society (Gizate and Sileshi, 2001 E.C: 35).

The purpose of this study is to discover factors that affect active participation of female students
on teaching-learning process in grade 9th of Zargula secondary school. For the sake of this study,
researcher focused on causes of lack of an active participation of female students on subject area
rather than the consequences of absence of active participation. Active participation means
involvement of both male and female in all affairs of the society in equal ratio. However, the
female students in grade 9th of Zargula secondary school are not competitive with that of male
students. Hence, researcher proposed to narrow the female and male students in terms of class
activity in the area of education.
In fact, increased rate of girls’ participation on teaching-learning process has contributed to

change the roles are: If women assume offices, it leads to betterment of their life style; educating
women can enhance the living standard of not only females but also the society as a whole;
educating women as equally as men can contribute for societal advancement and progress since
women are half of the total population; and educated women can also handle in a better way
about the issues of nutrition, family health and double man power (Belete and Dereje, 2000: 87).
Based on these assumptions, the researcher intended to investigate factors that affect active
participation of female students on teaching-learning process in Zargula secondary school that
has been shown by grade 9th, which resulted in low score of females.

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While conducting this action research, the researcher will answer the following basic research
questions regarding factors that affect active participation of female students on teaching-
learning process at Zargula secondary school in case of grade 9th:
 What are the causes of less participation of female students in all subjects at Zargula
secondary school in grade 9?
 What is the attitude and outlook of female students and Zargula society on education?
 What will be possible remedy for the factors that affect active participation of female
students on teaching-learning process in Zargula secondary school?
1.4. Objective of the Study
This action research would be intended to discover factors that affect active participation of
female students on teaching-learning process at Zargula secondary school in grade nine. In this
regard, the study incorporates both general and specific objectives.
1.4.1. General Objective of the Study

To investigate discover factors that affect active participation of female students on teaching-
learning process at Zargula secondary school in grade nine.
1.4.2. Specific Objectives of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are proposed:
 To determine the factors that lead female students of Zargula secondary school to less
sore in all subjects
 To identify some important measures to the problems in relation participation of female
students on teaching-learning process in grade nine at Zargula secondary school
 To describe the attitude of female students and society of Zargula area on education.
Since discover factors that affect active participation of female students on teaching-learning
process in grade nine of Zargula secondary school is central theme of the research, it would play
the following crucial significances: To be acted as further reference material for other
researchers who conduct research on the issue of active participation of female students on
teaching-learning process; to be served as additional reading material for teachers, students and

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readers; to be used as input for policy makers in relation to role of females on development, and
to became source for culture related organizations regarding factors that affect active
participation of female students on teaching-learning process.

1.6.1. Data Sources and Method of Data Collection
In the study, the researcher would be used both primary and secondary data sources. Primary
data sources such as observation, interview and focus group discussion whereas secondary data
tools like books, magazine and electronic media would be used to collect information.
1.6.2. Approach of the Study

The researcher intended to use qualitative approach while conducting the study. In this approach,
the data collection instrument those are important to discover the factors that affect active
participation of female students on teaching-learning process in grade nine of Zargula secondary
school are:
A. Interview
In the study, in-depth interview is available to face-to-face encounter during data collection with
interviewee in order to acquire the original information. In-depth interview would be carried out
with female students, teachers and parents. The interview would be undertaken through the
languages of Amharic, Zarguligna and pure Gamogna then later translated in to English.
B. Focus Group Discussion

The focus group discussion would be conducted 3-4 times by inviting four parents, four female
students and three teachers and three male students. These parents, female students, teachers and
male students are those who expected to know the causes of less participation of female students
on teaching-learning process in grade nine of Zargula secondary school.
1.6.3. The Sampling Technique and Sampling Size

Purposive sampling technique would be employed to select parents, female students, teachers
and male students because those participants have assumed to enough knowledge about the
factors that affect active participation of female students on teaching-learning process in grade
nine of Zargula secondary school. The total number of participants in the study would be 40

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respondents, because of the time constraint. The researcher decided to select female students and
their parents’ respondents from each kebeles of Zargula, each section of grade 9 and some of
teachers.
1.6.4. Method of Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data should be interpreted and analyzed through descriptive method of data analysis using
data collected through interview, focus group discussion and secondary sources. Thus, the issues
that can be raised during the data analysis include: Factors that lead to less participation of
female students on teaching-learning process; attitude of Zargula community on the females
education; and the remedies on the factors that lead to less participation of female students on
schooling.

1.7.1. The Scope of the Study
The study focused on the Zargula secondary school in Bonke Woreda, Gamo Goffa Zone. The
study confined to address the factors that affect active participation of female students on
teaching-learning process in grade nine of Zargula secondary school of 2013/ 2005 E.C,
academic year.
1.7.2. Limitation of the Study

While conducting the study, researcher may face the following problems: An unavailability of
relevant published reference materials like books, shortage of enough time to gather primary
data, scarcity of for allowance payment and for transportation, financial constraint to print and
copy some important materials and sources, and lack of access to get capable respondents in
collecting information. However, even if there are different challenges that tackle the activities;
the researcher decided to allocate time, energy and budget in order to use effectively and wisely.
1.8. Time Breakdown

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No Activities Time allotted
1 Selection of research title October 2012

2 Approval of research topic October 2012
3 Reviewing related literature November 2012
4 Collecting relevant information December 2012
5 Organization of data for proposal preparation January 2013
6 Preparation of the proposal of the study January 2013
7 Preparation of the review of related literature February 2013
8 Organization methodology of the study February 2013
9 Gathering primary data for analysis March 2013
10 Analysis and interpretation of data March 2013
11 Conclusion and recommendation preparation April 2013
12 Writing the report and submission of the paper April 2013
13 Implementation of action research and reflection May 2013
1.9. Organization of the Paper

In this study, the researcher classified the contents into five broad areas. The first part
introduction incorporates some basic components of research proposal, namely: background of
the study, statement of the problem, basic research questions, objective of the study (both general
and specific objectives), significance of the study, scope and limitation of the study. In addition
to this, the proposal of the research also comprises methodology of the study such as site
selection, approach of the study, sources of data, data collection instruments, method of data
analysis and interpretation, and time schedule.
Secondly, the research contains some review related literature having different sub-sections.
There is also analysis and interpretation of data in relation to participation of female students on
teaching-learning process is also another part of the study. Lastly, but not least, the research is
finalized by dealing with conclusion and recommendation.
CHAPTER TWO

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2.1. Introduction
This chapter reviewed the literatures that define feminism and gender, gender equality, active
participation, and teaching-learning process or education. There is no research that conducted on
the active participation of female students on teaching-learning process at Zargula secondary
school. Due to this reason, some of literature going to deal with this issue from published and
unpublished materials.
2.2. The Meaning of Feminism and Gender

Feminism is a form of discipline or field of study which is
 Relationship, similarities and differences between sex and gender

 Roles and relationships of sex and gender
 Gender biases and stereotypes, and
 Gender awareness strategies (Belete and Dereje, 2000: 88).
On the other hand, gender is social and cultural construction and relationship between sexes such
as male and female or men and women. It is obvious that women account the largest portion of
world’s total population. Nonetheless, everywhere in the world females’ economic, social and
political status is lower than men. This is true to the Ethiopian women (Kassaye, 1999 E.C: 98).
In rural Ethiopia, cultures and traditions do not give equal value to men and women. As a result,
women face unequal treatment and burden of work. Traditionally, people think that the proper
place of women said to be home while rearing and raising children, shouldering the burden of
home tasks namely cooking for the family, collecting fuel woods, fetching water, grinding grain,
cleaning house, milking cows, and caring for domestic animals. But men deal with works that
generate income and enjoy much more leisure time at home (ibid: 99).
There are also practices that show women’s low-status in the society. For instance, most women
and unmarried girls are illiterate. In most cases, girls stay at home while their brothers attend
school. When girls attend classes, they have high records of drop out due to abduction, early
marriage and rape (ibid: 100).
2.3. The Meaning of Gender Equality

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Gender equality refers to equality of men and women, males and females or boys and girls
regarding rights to enjoy equal rights, benefits, burdens and opportunities such as the right to
education, vote and to be elected, hold public offices and job opportunities (Getaneh, Mesfin,
Lakew and Tewodros, 2000 E.C: 51).
As Kassaye defined (1999 E.C) gender equality as the rights of men and women to be treated
equally. Historically, discriminatory practices between men and women manifested include
inheritance, education, marriage and abuse of rights. In the case of access of education, there are
situations where women and men do not have equal access to education.
2.4. Definition of Active Participation

Active participation refers to the role that each responsible and competent citizen should play in
the political, social and economic affairs in one’s own community (Eshetu, 2006: 202). As
Getaneh, Mesfin, Lakew and Tewodros (2000 E.C: 143) explained that active participation
means citizens actively taking part in activities that will benefit all the members of the society
one’s country, participants as well. Additionally, active participation refers to involvement of a
group of people who try to make life better through cooperative engagement and participate
actively in school, kebele, clubs and community in which someone belongs to.
2.5. Education and its Role

Education is the process by which people pass on their experiences, new findings and values that
accumulated over the years in the struggle for survival and development. Education is the
process or art of imparting knowledge, skill and judgment. Education is collection of facts, ideas
and skills that have been learned either formally or informally (Eshetu, 2006: 208). The role of
education is reducing poverty and enhancing the development of society as a whole.
Furthermore, education enables an individual and society to participate in the development
process by acquiring knowledge and improving ability, skill or attitude (ibid: 106).
In general, students usually study subjects not only for pleasure but also purpose. In sense,
students study in order to acquire knowledge and perform well in examinations. Besides,
students may compete with classmates to get good scores in school unless students may not even
pass from one grade to the next grade (Getaneh, Mesfin, Lakew and Tewodros, 2000 E.C: 155).

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The main actors in the teaching-learning process are students while the role of teachers is
facilitating the way to learning process. A day in school must be a day where students learn new
things such as information, understanding or skills that can be gained through education and
experience (ibid).
2.6. The Meaning of Teaching-Learning Process and Active Learning

Teaching-learning process refers to the situation by which students gain new knowledge and
have new experiences in the classroom by making links to what they already know continually. It
also means students’ ability to understand and learn new concepts and information from their
previous classroom and daily life experiences over long years of schooling (USAID, 2010: 2).
On the other hand, active learning is defined as instructional activities involving students in
doing things and thinking about what they are doing. In student-centered learning, the students
are centers of the teaching-learning process. This means lessons should be designed to allow the
students to be active (ibid: 5).
Learning is a life time process in which knowledge is accumulated, stored and carried out
through generations. Learning is as old as man himself. Learning is a purposeful and conscious
activity that man practices. There are two ways of learning: Formal learning and informal
learning. Formal learning is acquired in institutions that involve teachers and students in school.
Schools ranging from kindergartens to universities form the formal learning establishments.
Informal learning means learning throughout one’s life time without having to go to school. But
it is process of learning simply interaction with others, for instances in family, parents and other
members who are teachers in home. The Parents and other family members instruct you what to
do and not to do ((Getaneh, Mesfin, Lakew and Tewodros, 2000 E.C).
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience or

practice. Learning is a change in behavior. This change in behavior is relatively permanent. It
does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of intoxicant. This permanent
change in behavior is not because of biological factors like hormonal changes that bring
permanent changes in behavior; but because of experience or practice. The learning is not
directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual (Aemero, 2019).

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CHAPTER THREE
3. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

3.1. Introduction
Data analysis and interpretation is mainly focused on the relevant information that collected from
respondents using in-depth interview and focus group discussion. In due course of action, the
researcher selected some of sample of female students, their parents and teachers while
identifying factors that affect participation of female students on teaching-learning process in
grade nine of Zargula secondary school. Moreover, the discussion and finding is concerned with
factors that affect participation of female students, remedial measures of negative impacts on
teaching-learning process and attitude of Zargula people on female education.
3.2. The Causes of Less Participation of Female Students on the Teaching-Learning

Process
As suggested by the informants, there are so many factors which have become cause for less
participation of female students on the teaching-learning process. To mention some of the
factors: Time constraint, challenge of parents, discouragement of teachers and lack of initiative
on the side of female students.
3.2.1. Time Constraint

Almost all participants in the interview pointed out that female students lack enough time in
order to study hard learn properly in the class. This is due to the existence of numerous activities
that are performed by the female. In fact, the household activities such as cooking, collecting fuel
woods, fetching water, grinding grain, cleaning house, milking cows, looking after children and
caring for domestic animals are carried out by females while male students engaging on studying
subject areas, doing assignment or homework and enjoying leisure time.
Furthermore, most of female student respondents suggested that lack of time is one of the major
problems which female students face. Then lack of time resulted in passive participation of
female students on the teaching-learning process in terms of doing assignments, class and home
works independently, and scoring low mark in examinations and assessments. This in turn is due
to absence of studying hard and lack of paying enough attention for schooling.

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It is clear that without hard working, it is impossible to expect good results from different
assessments. Hence, as researcher observed from the evidence of the informants; time constraint
and scarcity is highly linked household activities that affect active participation of female
students on teaching-learning process in grade nine of Zargula secondary school. As a result,
female students could not study their subject area in a proper manner as that of male students.
Generally, it is common in most schools of country side that female students are not actively
participate on teaching-learning process because of the matter of the misperception of the society
on females’ schooling.
3.2.2. Challenge of Parents on Female Students

Another factor that affected active participation of female students on teaching-learning process
is challenge of parents. According to interviewees’ point of view, parents of female students are
not become voluntary to fulfill all educational materials such as exercise book, pen, pencil and
reference books. This is due to fat that parents perceive that after completion of schooling at
expense of parents; female students benefit their husband through quickly entering in to
marriage. In sense, husbands of female students become owner and advantageous of their salary
and income as soon as marriage ceremony is celebrated. Therefore, female student in most cases
discontinue schooling, and want to marry in order to lead their life in a situation where there is
better condition than that parents’ oppression.
Moreover, the parents also do not allow female students to study their text books and exercise
books rather than engaging on activities that help parents. As respondents expressed, female
students work without leisure time and face burden of doing long hours compared with male
students. In general, parents of female students are careless for females’ schooling and learning
process, do not want to buy stationery materials, not become voluntary to studying, and not even
know grade level of female students.
3.2.3. Teachers’ Discouragement of Female Students

According to female student respondents, some of teachers are not encourage girl students by
giving tutorial classes instead teachers blame for weaknesses of female students in classroom
teaching process. This is expressed in a sentence, “Bagga asttamaareti macca tamaareta
cayyoosona attin maado timirtte immokkona.” This implies some teachers simply insult female

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students rather than paying attention for their encouragement. Hence, such kinds of situations
demoralize female students from the active participation of female students on teaching-learning
process. As informants, those teachers who teach calculation related subjects are especially
known by such action and behavior. This is pointed out by the phrase “Kalkuleeshinne
tamarseessii asttamaaredhey nu gan77attusenne.”
The informants added that female students become hopeless and understand that we cannot
achieve the goal related with education. Female pupils are not self-motivated because they lack
ambitions and goals. These persons do not have plan to their activities and have weak
relationship with others and limited opportunities to join in different activities. Additions to this,
there are also teachers who do not replace the score of girl students when they score low results
in examinations. These teachers could not motivate female students to do better in teaching-
learning process by providing chance for the next time.
3.2.4. Lack of Initiative on the Side of Female Students

According to respondents, female students have characteristics of indifference, irresponsible and
carelessness on the issue of teaching-learning process. In the area of being leader of group
assignments, and doing class and home works on time or independently; female students
discharge their responsibility properly due to lack of initiative taking. This is because they
contribute nothing to school and not act even to promote their own interest. Example: dependent
students do not read their books or do their home works unless told to do so. This implies that
most female students have no positive attitude towards their ability to accomplish tasks without
external help. Unless it is impossible to bring success, enhance participation and motivate to
achieve better goal. Therefore, these are indicator of lack of initiative on the side of female
students.
Furthermore, some students forwarded that the contribution of each student for learning process
enables teaching-learning process smooth and interesting. One of good quality of work ethics,
initiative means being prepared to do the work always without told to do it by other is important
to actively participate on teaching-learning process. However, female students lack initiative to
work actively to get high marks and to pass from grade to grade with good scores. So, it is
important to develop the habit of studying long period of time without boring. In order to acquire

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new knowledge students have to develop the spirit of asking unclear questions and team work
while working with others. Therefore, female students should be effective in cooperation towards
group activities in order to be successful on education. This is because ‘practice makes perfect’
then students should practice reading and writing skills again and again.
3.3. Remedial Measures to Tackle Passive Participation of Female Students

As informants pointed out that the simplest form of remedy in order to combat the factors which
lead to female students’ passive participation is providing counseling service to parents. This is
in order to fulfill all necessary materials like food, clothe and stationeries for female students.
Furthermore, it is important to change the attitude of parents of female students and the society
as a whole towards the female education and the role played them. Thus, awareness creation
should be provided to those individuals.
Accordingly, the interviewees added that teachers also should encourage female students rather
than demotion. In sense, all the necessary supports and assistance should be provided to the
female pupils. This is because prejudice leads to the degradation of instance. Therefore, it is
impossible to develop the sense of “we can.” Moreover, female student respondents suggested
that we females should involve attentively in any teaching-learning activities whenever we are in
school. This may enable women to compete in an equal manner with that of male students in a
classroom.
Generally, the researcher observed from information provided by all respondents that there is a
combined negative effects, which affects the life of female students in relation to teaching-
learning process. For instance, the challenges are aroused from parents, teachers, female students
and attitude of the society. Hence, let us stand against the problems of the female students since
“teaching women is teaching of the community.”

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. ACTION STRATEGIES
4.1. Action Plan
Implementation
No Main Activities Procedures Target Groups period
Discussion with Selected students,
Providing awareness creation selected students, principals and
1 program on the major factors principals and teachers of
that affect participation of teachers on the Zargula secondary May 1-5/ 2013
female students on teaching- basic points of school
learning process the study
Gaining new Selected students,
Identifying the causes of less ideas and principals and
2 engagement of female students experiences with teachers of May 10-15/ 2013
on teaching-learning process participants as a Zargula secondary
sources for the school
next step
Discussion with Selected students,
Forwarding rules and participants and principals and
3 regulation to support for principals teachers of May 20-25/ 2013
female students in order to Making selected Zargula secondary
enhance participation of rules practical school
female students on classroom
activities

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Making panel discussion with Sharing common Selected students,

school communities such as understanding on parents, principals
4 teachers, principals and parents the process of and teachers of May 26-30/ 2013
Zargula secondary
of female students to create teaching-learning
school
conducive environment mechanism
4.2. Implementation of Action Plan
The researcher implemented the action proposal using the following steps:
First, awareness creation on the major factors that affect participation of female student on
teaching-learning process is conducted. The main aim of this is to make better understanding
about factors that affect participation of female student on teaching-learning process. Thereafter,
almost all participants become self-motivated to reduce those negative impacts on participation
of female student on teaching-learning process.
Second, identification of effects of less participation of female student on their examination

results has taken place. Based on this issue, the group discussion is held on the causes of less
participation of female student on teaching-learning process. In this regard, the discussion is
helpful to enhance motivation of female students towards schooling and performing classroom
activities. This minimized the difficulties and problems of teaching-learning process from the
side of female students.
Third, selecting and setting the rules and regulations in order to provide tutorial support at school
level. The primary purpose of this step is to improve the scores of female students in various
assessment techniques. In addition, the rules and regulations are also helpful to aware female in
order to make those who discharge their expected responsibilities in classroom.
Fourth, the researcher has proposed the following mechanisms in order to reduce the factors that
affect participation of female student on teaching-learning process:
 Teachers have to provide assistance for female students to increase the grade results
 Parents must reduce the burden of household activities on female students
 Female students need to take initiative to perform classroom task without told to do
so by others

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 Parents also have to fulfill the necessary stationery materials including references
books and exercise books as well
 Female students need to use time efficiently and wisely.
4.3. Evaluation of Changes and Reflection

Following implementation of action plan, several ways of evaluations were taken in order to
reduce the factors affecting participation of female student on teaching-learning process.
According to the evaluation of action changes were seen in different directions by integrated
efforts of teachers, parents of female students, school communities and female students
themselves in Zargula secondary school.
The following table shows the situation before and after action implementation about female
students’ participation on classroom activities:
Before action After action

No Activities to be carried out by stakeholders implementation implementation
1 Teachers support to female students 20% 90%
2 Parents fulfillment of stationery materials 15% 75%
3 Female students initiative on classroom activities 50% 80%

4 The school communities provision of technical
assistance towards female pupils 34% 70%

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REFERENCES
Aemero Asmamaw (2019). General Psychology: Chapter Three. Addis Ababa: Ministry of
Science and Higher Education.
Belete K. and Dereje G. (2000). Civic Education: Students Textbook, Grade 10. Addis Ababa:
Mega Publishing Enterprise.
Eshetu Biru (2006). Plasma Civics and Ethical Education: For Grade 9-10. Addis Ababa: Aster
Nega Publishing Enterprise.
Getaneh M, Mesfin B, Lakew R and Tewodros M. (2002 E.C (a)). Civics and Ethical Education:
Students Textbook, Grade 9. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications.
Getaneh M, Mesfin B, Lakew R and Tewodros M. (2002 E.C (b)). Civics and Ethical Education:
Students Textbook, Grade 10. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications.
Gizate Gije and Sileshi Kassa (2001 E.C). Bonke Dicha Tango (Unpublished Magazine,
Amharic Version).
Kassaye Amare (1999 E.C). The New Fundamental Concepts of Civics and Ethical Education:
For Secondary School Grade 9 and 10. Addis Ababa: Aster Nega Publishing Enterprise.
USAID (2010). Active Learning: A Practical Guide, Grade 5 to 8. Addis Ababa: HY
International Printers.

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APPENDIX
QUESTIONS OF UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW:
1. General Information
i. Date of interview: 2/ 9/ 2005 E.C
ii. Name of interviewee: -------------------- (Use symbol or code)
iii. Venue: Zargula secondary school
2. Research title: IMPROVING PARTICIPATION OF FEMALE STUDENTS ON
TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS IN ZARGULA SECONDARY SCHOOL: IN CASE
OF GRADE NINE.
3. Questions:
3.1. What are the causes of less participation of female students on classroom
activities in Zargula secondary school of grade 9?
3.2. Can you categorize the factors that affected active participation of female
students on teaching-learning process?
3.3. What will be the possible measure in order to tackle the problems that lead to low
participation of female students on teaching-learning process?
3.4. What is your suggestion on involvement of female pupils on teaching-learning
process?
Note: The researcher is thanking you in advance and highly appreciates you for your honest
response on all the questions given in this interview. Finally, you responses are kept confidential
and used only for this action research.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
7. PROJECT WORK AND ITS WRITING SYSTEM

7.1. Introduction
Project is a unique set of co-ordinated activities with definite starting and finishing points that
undertaken by an individual or organization to meet specific objectives within defined schedule,
cost and performance parameters. A project is an activity that is temporary having a start and end
date to bring change. Introductory part is a general section to the topical area in the project work.
It is a general and broad statement that provides an overview of the area involving your project.
Guiding questions for introduction area are:
 Why is this important area?

 What has been the historical development of the topic?
 Are there different points of view about the topic?
 Have there been significant investigations, studies, or reports concerning the topical area?
 What is the current status of the area of your interest?
 What are the major outstanding concerns in the general area?
7.2. Background of the Project
Please describe the need for the project and how the proposal was developed. Explain why the
project is being proposed, how it relates to indicator achievement and how it is innovative. If the
project is proposed by more than one organization, it will involve more than one organization in
the implementation process. Please explain the nature of the partnership required. In addition,
please describe your organization and address each of the points below:
 Mission, goals and mandate for your organization;
 Structure of organization;

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 Ownership of the organization;

 Partners for this project and their role in the project if applicable;
 Institutions impacted;
 Impact on the non-university tertiary education sector; and
 Impact on national development.

The problem statement provides a description of the specific problems the project is trying to
solve in order to make a case for the project. Furthermore, the project proposal should point out
why a certain issue is a problem for the community or society as a whole. This implies what
negative implications affect the target group. There should also be an explanation of the needs of
the target group that appear as a direct consequence of the described problem. Since the
introduction has given a broad, general background to the project, this should be very specific in
nature. The statement of the problem might begin with the words: This project will address the
problem of... Guiding questions for statement of the problem area are:
 Does the problem pose significance for education?

 Will the problem present data that explains previously unexplained facts?
 Will the problem serve as a point of departure for the project?
7.4. Purpose or Objective of the Project
The objectives should address the core problem in terms of the benefits to be received by the
project beneficiaries or target group as a direct result of the project. This section provides you
with an opportunity to tell the reader the overall purpose of your project. For a project, include
either question to be answered or specific objectives to be reached. Guiding questions of
objective of the project are:
 Is the question directly related to the review of the literature?

 Does the question help clarify the problem statement?
 Does the question project a bias?
 Is it possible to misinterpret the question?
 Is the objective specific and clearly stated?

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 Is the objective directly related to the review of the literature?

 Is each hypothesis clearly stated?
 Are the hypotheses testable?
It enables the user to improve participants’ skills in developing quality project proposals; show
how to manage projects within an organization; and help to understand a project’s value as a tool
to achieve and further the organization’s mission.
7.5. Delimitations of the Project

Delimitations are deliberately self-imposed constraints on the project. Investigator defines the
boundaries in the problem area within which the project will be done, and the population or
situation which the project addresses.
7.6. Limitations of the Project

Limitations are constraints to the project that are beyond your control but that may influence the
data. Limitations may emerge at any time during your project.
7.7. Definition of Terms

You have to be sure that important terms and concepts used in the project are adequately
analyzed and defined. You have to assign a precise meaning to common place words of
importance.
7.8. Significance of the Project

This section provides answers as to what the project will contribute. It should specifically state
the value of the project. Why is this project important?
7.9. Review of the Literature

Methodology indicates the way the research will be carried out and literature review is a diligent,
honest effort to highlight and acknowledge the efforts made by earlier researchers in a particular
area of research. A good literature review enables the researcher to see where there are gaps in
the progression and growth of knowledge in that area of research. It is through such gaps that the
researcher can hope to make his own little contribution to knowledge.

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This is a vital part of the proposal that you present to your committee. It is evidence that you are
thoroughly knowledgeable about the research that has been conducted in the area of your
proposed investigation or project. It becomes the basis for your project. The review is a careful
examination of a body of literature pointing toward the answer to the need for your project. It is
essential to discover what is already known about your topic/area. Guiding questions of review
of the related literature are:
 What is known about my subject?

 Are there any gaps of knowledge of my subject?
 Have these gaps been identified by other researchers or professionals in the field?
 Is there a consensus on relevant issues or is there significant debate?
 What are the various positions?
 What direction should my project take based on my review of the literature?
Give the reader a description of the procedure you used in conducting your review of the
literature. What databases were used in the review? Tell how the chapter will be organized, for
example: Topically, chronologically and historically what sections will be included in the
chapter?
7.10. Project Design

Project design describes each and every step to be taken to do your project. It is a type of road
map that others must follow if they choose to replicate your project. Include all the steps you
took in setting up your project. You must describe what the final product of your project will
look like. You can make this for the committee the better. Copies of all pertinent documents,
instruction sheets, etc. should be placed in the appendices.
7.11. Description of Target Population

Target population describes the population who will benefit by your project. Be specific about
the benefits as well as how the project will benefit the target population. Prototype provides a
model of your project. Define the target group and show how it will benefit from the project. The
project should provide a detailed description of the size and characteristics of the target groups,
and especially of direct project beneficiaries. The criteria for target group analysis may be ethnic

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composition, gender, age, and so on. When these analyses are more elaborate, they may be
attached as an appendix.
7.12. Discussion and Finding

You should present your results in a logical sequence, highlighting what is important and how
the data you obtained have been analyzed to provide the results you discuss. You should discuss
what you infer from the data. You need to adopt a critical approach. For example, discuss the
relative confidence you have in different aspects of the measurements. A poor example “the
straight line fit between dog type and owner size gave a slope of 0.3” Better would be” the data
show a linear dependence between dog type and size of dog owner, with a slope of 0.3+/- 0.03.
However, there is a noticeable divergence from this linear dependence for small dog types.
Make sure that all diagrams, graphs etc. are properly labeled and have a caption. A neat hand
drawn diagram is preferable to a poorly made computer diagram, or a poor resolution image
copied from the web.
7.13. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

7.13.1. Summary
Summary is an overview of the project and a short summary of the procedures you followed in
conducting your project.
7.13.2. Conclusion
Conclusions are your summarizations about your project based on the project evaluation. Discuss
the project evaluation and describe the evaluation results. This is the section in which you need
to put it all together. It differs from the abstract in that it should be more informative, something
that can easily be accomplished because you may devote more words to it. You should include a
concise version of your discussion, highlighting what you found out, what problems you had,
and what might be done in the future to remedy them. You should also indicate how the
investigation could usefully be continued.
7.13.3. Recommendation
Recommendations should be based on the conclusions. How should your project be modified?
What recommendations would you give regarding your project?

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REFERENCES
You must use the APA Publication Manual in listing your references. You can include only the
sources that were used in the project. For further information, refer citation and referencing rules
that described in chapter four under the topic of ‘end matter.’
APPENDICES
Appendices vary with each project. Appendices are sometimes known as annexes. The annexes
should include all the information that is important, but is too large to be included in the text of
the proposal. This information can be created in the identification or planning phase of the
project, but often it is produced separately.
7.14. Project Proposal Writing

Project proposal is a detailed description of a series of activities aimed at solving a certain
problem. Proposal writing is only one of the phases of project management. It is one of the
numerous actions that form a logical sequence of events usually referred to as the project cycle.
A quality project proposal is the final product of a participatory process that involves
considerable study, discussion and learning from past experiences. The proposal should contain a
detailed explanation of the:
 Justification of the project;

 Activities and implementation timeline;
 Methodology; and
 Human, material and financial resources required.
The project proposal should be a detailed and directed manifestation of the project design. It is a
means of presenting the project to the outside world in a format that is immediately recognized
and accepted. The training sessions on project proposal writing aim to create an understanding
of:
 The role of the project proposal and the activities related to each stage;
 How to deal with projects and project proposals from an organizational perspective;
 How project proposals fit into project management; and
 How to structure a good project proposal.

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Main proposal writing process may include the following terms:
 Indicators are those elements of the project plan that translate the project’s purpose and
results into measurable units in terms of quantity or quality. Thus, indicators provide the
basis for measuring the impact.
 Inputs are the investment of human, material or financial resources invested in the project.
 Outputs are the results achieved during under study.
 Activity plan is a description of the flow, timeline and responsibilities for the project’s
activities.
 Resource plan is a description of how the resources will be used in relation to the activities.
 Gantt chart is a specific model for activity plans that illustrates how the activities
interconnected.
 Incomes are the funds secured for the project’s implementation.
The project cycle consists of project phases. An organization should already have a well-defined
organizational strategy from which it can begin to assess relevant needs and opportunities in its
field. Several ideas will then come to light, from which an organization may choose. The project
phases then follow logically through design, financing, implementation and evaluation stages.
An organization and Non-governmental organizations often perform activities that do not fall
into the category of projects. It is also important to recognize that a project is not:
o Past activities that are repeated in exactly the same way on a periodic basis;
o Activities with no clearly defined goals;
o activities which can be repeated or transplanted anywhere at any moment; or
o Ongoing or regular organizational activities, for example: Board meetings.
Considerations for Each Planning Step
Step Element Considerations

1 Identifying the goals, objectives,  Background of the project
results expected and target group  Defined goal and objectives
 The societal vision of the organization
 Expected short-term and long-term results
 Beneficiaries of the project
 Problems solved by the project
2 Content of the project  Theme and main issues to be covered

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 Methods chosen to realize the goal and

objectives
 Activities to be implemented
 Further needs to continue the project
3 Project locations and time schedule o Location of different activities
of activities o Duration of the project
o Starting and ending dates of the project
o Schedule for individual activities
o Summarized timeline of the project
4 Resources Human resources
Financial resources
Infrastructure
5 Cost or income sources  Total budget of the project
 Detailed budget by activities and cost types
 Rate and form of own contribution
 Potential funders and sources of income
6 Description of the implementing  Description of the implementing organization
organization and partners  Analysis of capacity and capability
 Description of cooperative partners
 Analysis of partners’ capacity and capability
7 Project team and management  The project coordinator
 Communication method of the project team
 Communication strategy and practice with
 the external environment
8 Monitoring, evaluation and follow- o Success criteria of the project
up o Methods and timing of monitoring and
evaluation
o Further plans and follow up
The project design is one phase of the project cycle. It consists of two elements: Project planning
which is formulation of project elements; and project proposal writing that is converting the plan
into a project document. Project design is a result of both project planning and the project
proposal. Both steps are essential to forming a solid project design. Project Planning is
formulation of project elements. Before the project is written, its individual elements need to be
developed. Addressing the planning considerations helps develop the project elements.
Another way to break down planning questions is to take into consideration the project design
stage at which these questions are asked. On the basis of these criteria the project planning
questions could be classified as to whether they are made during project planning or proposal

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writing. Regardless of the project planning model presented here, quality proposal writing is not
possible without proper planning. Issues to be considered at the beginning of project planning:
Beneficiaries of the project, project team and cooperative partners, success criteria, goal and
objectives, methods chosen to achieve project goal, costs and expenditures, own contribution,
and potential funders. Elements of the project proposal:
 Project title
 Goals and objectives of the project
 Description of project activities
 Description of expected project results
 Project implementation plan
 Beginning of operations
 Resource allocation
 Project personnel
 Detailed project budget regarding fixed costs or equipment needed
 Other technical means such as vehicles
 Divisions of financial sources about one’s own contribution and other resources.
7.14.1. How to Write a Project Proposal
Once the groundwork has been completed, proposal writing can commence. The key decision to
be made at this stage is the structure of the project proposal including the content and length. The
structure is determined by the nature of the project as well as by the funding agency’s
requirements. In the variety of formats, application forms, project design outlines, and grant
application guidelines, it is possible to detect some common elements.
Proposed Format
There are important elements of project proposal as follows:
 Title Page
A title page should appear on proposals longer than three to four pages. The title page should
indicate the project title, the name of the lead organization and potential partners, the place and
date of project preparation and the name of the donor agency to which the proposal is addressed.

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 Project Title
The project title should be short, concise, and preferably refer to a certain key project result or
the leading project activity. Project titles that are too long or too general fail to give the reader an
effective snapshot of what is inside.
 Table of Contents
If the total project proposal is longer than 10 pages it is helpful to include a table of contents at
the start or end of the document. The contents page enables readers to quickly find relevant parts
of the document. It should contain the title and beginning page number of each section of the
proposal. Please include a table of contents listing the contents of your submission as well as the
attachments that you wish to be considered.
 Abstract
Many readers lack the time needed to read the whole project proposal. Therefore, it is useful to
insert a short project summary is an abstract. The executive summary is a short, precise summary
of your project proposal. Please ensure to include a brief outline of your project description and
how your project contributes to the achievement of national development. The abstract should
include: The problem statement, the project’s objectives, implementing organizations, key
project activities, and the total project budget. Theoretically, the abstract should be compiled
after the relevant items already exist in their long form. For a small project the abstract may not
be longer than 10 lines. Bigger projects often provide abstracts as long as two pages.
 Context
This part of the project describes the social, economic, political and cultural background from
which the project is initiated. It should contain relevant data from research carried out in the
project planning phase or collected from other sources. The writer should take into consideration
the need for a balance between the length of this item and the size of the overall project proposal.
Large amounts of relevant data should be placed in an annex.
 Project Justification

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Rationale should be provided for the project. Due to its importance usually this section is divided
into four or more sub-sections.
 Problem Statement
The problem statement provides a description of the specific problems the project is trying to
solve in order to make a case for the project. Furthermore, the project proposal should point out
why a certain issue is a problem for the community or society as a whole. That means what
negative implications affect the target group. There should also be an explanation of the needs of
the target group that appear as a direct consequence of the described problem.
 Priority Needs
The needs of the target group that have arisen as a direct negative impact of the problem should
be prioritized. An explanation as to how this decision was reached (like what criteria were used)
must also be included. For example, if the problem is stated as… poor infrastructure in the
community, the list of needs associated with this problem may be improved water supply in
quality and quantity; better roads; and improved solid waste collection.
These three needs would then be given higher or lower priority according to the level of
importance for the community, and a description would be given of how that decision was
reached such as a poll taken from the local population, and costs associated with project
intervention. This procedure provides credibility to the selected intervention.
 The Proposed Approach or Type of Intervention
The project proposal should describe the strategy chosen for solving the problem and precisely
how it will lead to improvement. One way to describe the approach related to the need
previously stated as improved water supply could be: Intervention to provide basic water supply
facilities in the community with some description of the specific features of the solution
proposed.
 The Implementing Organization
This section should describe the capabilities of your organization by referring to its capacity and
previous project record. Describe why exactly your organization is the most appropriate to run

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the project, its connection to the local community, the constituency behind the organization and
what kind of expertise the organization can provide. If other partners are involved in
implementation provide some information on their capacity as well.
 Project Aims
The first issue to deal with is naming the objectives. Several other English terms may be used
including project goal/aim or project purpose. Often one major goal is declared and then broken
down into various objectives. Once this issue has been dealt with, the hierarchy between
objectives needs to be established as well as how many levels the hierarchy should present. In
reality, an organization should have already resolved this issue in the project planning phase.
 Project Goal or Overall Objective
This is a general aim that should explain what the core problem is and why the project is
important is about what the long-term benefits to the target group are. Some examples of a
project goal might be:
1. Raising environmental awareness;

2. Improving the quality of life in the community; and
3. Fostering social empowerment among women from deprived rural areas.
Some rules for setting a project goal are shown in the sidebar. If it is difficult to follow these
rules then the project itself may have to be redefined or reconsidered. The objectives should
address the core problem in terms of the benefits to be received by the project beneficiaries or
target group as a direct result of the project. The objectives may be defined as:
 Improving the water supply in quantity X and quality Y for the population of village Z; and
 Reducing by X the rate of acute infections.
Project objectives provide a more detailed breakdown of the project goal. A project will likely
have multiple objectives.
 Project Results
Results describe the services or products to be delivered to the intended beneficiaries. This is
what the project management is promising to deliver. The results are more detailed than the

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objectives and the goal, and should be possible to measure through the use of objective
indicators. Special consideration should therefore be paid to this area. The results should address
the main causes of the problem that the target group faces. To ensure relevant results, project
management should have correctly identified the group’s needs. Indicators provide the project
team with a quantifiable basis on which to judge the project’s success in reaching its objectives.
The specification of indicators acts as a check on the viability of the results and project
objectives. It forms the basis for a project monitoring system. Once the indicators are defined
they should be developed to provide details of quantity, quality and time.
 Target Group
Define the target group and show how it will benefit from the project. The project should provide
a detailed description of the size and characteristics of the target groups, especially of direct
project beneficiaries. The criteria for target group analysis may be ethnic composition, gender,
age, and so on. When these analyses are more elaborate, they may be attached as an appendix.
 Project Implementation
The implementation plan should describe activities and resource allocation in as much detail as
possible. It is exceptionally important to provide a good overview of who is going to implement
the project’s activities, as well as when and where. The implementation plan may be divided into
two key elements: the activity plan and the resource plan.
 Activity Plan or Schedule
The activity plan should include specific information and explanations of each of the planned
project activities. The duration of the project should be clearly stated, with considerable detail on
the beginning and the end of the project. In general, two main formats are used to express the
activity plan: a simple table and the Gantt chart. A simple table with columns for activities, sub-
activities, tasks, timing and responsibility, is a clear, readily understandable format for the
activity plan. The Gantt chart is a universal format for presenting activities in certain times
frames that shows the dependence and sequence for each activity.
 Resource Plan

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The resource plan should provide information on the means necessary to undertake the project.
Costs categories are established at this stage in order to aggregate and summaries the cost
information for budgeting. In the above example, the activity of establishing a staff training
program could require equipment and allowances. These are the cost categories related to the
activity. The next step is to identify units, quantity per period and estimated unit cost. On the
basis of these figures, it will be easy to calculate costs per period and total project costs. This
form of planning enables us to plan and calculate all the costs related to project activities.
 Budget
In simple terms, a budget is an itemized summary of an organization’s expected income and

expenses over a specified period of time. Budgeting forms and financial planning procedures
vary widely, especially in the non-profit sector. It is nevertheless essential that financial officers
comply clearly and punctually with a funding organization’s budgeting and reporting
requirements. The two main elements of any budget are income and expenditures. Income,
sometimes referred to as revenue, is the amount of financial assets and in kind contribution used
as sources of support for the project. If the funding source is unique, the income side of the
budget may not be shown.
However, many projects have more than one source of support. The income side should show the
share of contribution of each of these sources. Expenditures, also called expenses or costs, are all
the costs that are anticipated to occur during the project’s implementation. Regardless of the
calculation and classification criteria used, the project costs should present a reasonable
reflection of the activities presented in the project proposal.
The categories presented would then be broken down into greater detail where required. A
projection of the specific amounts of time needed at different phases of project implementation
represents a basis for calculating the spending dynamics at different periods of the project.
Budget categories classify expenditures into smaller groups according to a certain criteria. This is
to monitor spending and ensure compliance with the plan. The two main costs are direct costs
and operational costs. Direct costs are associated with a certain activity such as organizing a
workshop. Operational costs are related to internal activities of an organization and are
considered fixed costs in the short term like staff salaries, rent, and utilities. Units, quantity per

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period and estimated unit costs are the three elements that are needed to calculate costs
associated with any of these categories.
 Monitoring and Evaluation
The basis for monitoring is set when the indicators for results are set. The project proposal
should indicate:
 How and when the project management team will conduct activities to monitor the
project’s progress;
 Which methods will be used to monitor and evaluate; and
 Who will do the evaluation process.
 Reporting
The schedule of project progress and financial report could be set in the project proposal. Often
these obligations are determined by the standard requirements of the donor agency. The project
report may be compiled in different versions, with regard to the audience they are targeting.
 Management and Personnel
A brief description should be given of the project personnel, the individual roles each one has
assumed, and the communication mechanisms that exist between them. All the additional
information such as curriculum vitae should be attached to the annexes.
 Annexes
The annexes should include all the information that is important, but is too large to be included
in the text of the proposal. This information can be created in the identification or planning phase
of the project, but often it is produced separately. The usual documentation to be annexed to the
project proposal is:
 Analysis related to the general context such as a civil society sector assessment;
 Policy documents and strategic papers like a local environmental action plan;
 Information on the implementing organizations like annual reports, success stories,
brochures and other publications

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 Additional information on the project management structure and personnel including

curriculum vitae for the members of the project team;
 Maps of the location of the target area; and
 Project management procedures and forms such as organizational charts or forms.
Well-written project proposal can be:
 Clear is one and only one meaning to what is written and can be easily understood by the
reader.
 Accurate means facts written exactly as they are.
 Objective implies facts presented fully and fairly.
 Accessible means easy to find needed information.
 Concise is brief and direct to the point.
 Correct means free from mistakes in grammar, punctuation and usage.
In proposal writing, write to express or readers’ need to understand, not to impress. You should
choose the right words write good sentences and paragraphs or use headings and lists in writing
project work. While choosing words and phrases; be specific. In sense, you should use precise,
exact words and provide enough detail, avoid unnecessary jargon. You should use words and
terms that the average intended reader can understand easily rather than technical terms,
abbreviations or slang which are words understood only by a specific group. You should avoid
wordiness if you can say it with one word, say it with one word. You should avoid high sounding
words or simpler words are easier to understand. You should avoid sexist or gender-biased
language. You should use non-gender terms like chairperson, not chairman; spokesperson, not
spokesman; firefighter, no fireman, and eliminate “his, him, and he” if possible, for instance: An
officer should submit his report…” instead “Officers should submit reports…”
You should use short sentences with 15 to 20 words and mostly simple sentences combined with
compound sentences and complex sentences. It is important to avoid using compound-complex
sentences as much as possible. Simple, compound and complex sentences can express ideas
clearly and briefly. A combination of simple sentences with compound and complex sentences
avoids choppiness, makes relationships between ideas clearer, and makes thought flow smoother.
It is possible to write mostly in the active voice rather than passive voice.

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Group of sentences discuss a central point or clarify a main idea in a paragraph. A paragraph
groups several sentences although sometimes it may have only one sentence into a single unit
that discusses a central point or clarifies a main idea. Aside from putting together sentences that
clearly support one main idea, a paragraph should also relate clearly to and logically follow the
paragraph that comes before it. While putting the point clearly, the topic sentence alone is
usually not enough. The reader still needs to be convinced of the point. Thus, the topic sentence
must be supported by additional sentences to complete the paragraph.
GLOSSARY
Accidental sampling is based upon your convenience in accessing the sampling population.
Any person that you come across can be contacted for participation in your study. You stop
collecting data when you reach the required number of respondents you decided to have in your
sample.
Action research is based upon a philosophy of community development that seeks the
involvement of community members in planning, undertaking, developing and implementing
research and program agendas. It follows a cyclical process that is used to identify the issues,
develop strategies and implement the programs and then again assessing strategies in light of the
issues.
Active variable are variables that can be changed, controlled and manipulated either by a
researcher or by someone else in studies that seek to establish causality or association.
Alternate hypothesis is a convention in scientific circles to specify explicitly the relationship
that will be considered as true in case the research hypothesis proves to be wrong. In a way, an
alternate hypothesis is the opposite of the research hypothesis.
Ambiguous question: An ambiguous question is one that contains more than one meaning and
that can be interpreted differently by different respondents.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is used to test hypotheses about differences between two or
more means as in the t-test. Analysis of variance is used to test differences for significance
without increasing the error rate (Type I).
Applied research is one where research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body
of research methodology are applied to collect information about various aspects of a situation,

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issue, problem or phenomenon so that the information gathered can be utilized for other purposes
such as policy formulation, program development, program modification and evaluation,
enhancement of the understanding about a phenomenon, establishing causality and outcomes,
identifying needs and developing strategies.
Attitudinal scales are scales designed to measure attitudes towards an issue. In the social
sciences, there are three types of scale: The summated rating scale (Likert scale), the equal
appearing interval scale (Thurstone scale) and the cumulative scale (Guttman scale).
Attribute variables are variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or controlled that reflect
the characteristics of the study population. For example: Age, gender, education and income
distribution.
Bar chart or diagram is one of the ways of graphically displaying categorical data. A bar chart is
identical to a histogram, except that in a bar chart the rectangles representing the various
frequencies are spaced to indicate categorical data. The bar diagram is used for variables
measured on nominal or ordinal scales.
Before-and-after studies are two sets of cross-sectional data collection points on the same
population to find out the change in a phenomenon or variables between two points in time. The
change is measured by comparing the difference in the phenomenon or variables between before
and after observations.
Bias is a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can creep into research
via sampling while interviewing in the design of questions or in the way data are analyzed and
presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of a wider population.
Bibliography is a list of key information about publications. These can be compiled on
particular subjects or in relation to a particular piece of academic work. There are standard
systems for compiling bibliographies like APA or Harvard system.
Bivariate analysis is a type of analysis that considers the properties of two variables in relation
to each other.
Blind studies is study in which the study population does not know whether it is getting real or
fake treatment or which treatment modality in the case of comparative studies. The main
objective of designing a blind study is to isolate the placebo effect.

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Case study design is an approach in which a particular instance or a few carefully selected cases
are studied intensively. To be called a case study it is important to treat the total study population
as one entity in qualitative research.
Categorical variables are those where the unit of measurement is in the form of categories. On
the basis of presence or absence of a characteristic, a variable is placed in a category that
variables are measured on nominal or ordinal scales. Rich or poor, high or low, and hot or cold
are examples of categorical variables.
Chance variable are chance or random variables in studying causality or association in which
there are times when the mood of a respondent or the wording of a question can affect the reply
given by the respondent when asked again in the post-test.
Citation is a reference to a source of information or quotation given in a text. This is usually in
abbreviated form to enable the full details to be found in the list of references.
Closed question: In a closed question, the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire or
interview schedule and the respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describe a
respondent’s answer.
Cluster sampling is area sampling in which researcher divide a sampling population into groups
based upon visible or easily identifiable characteristic, called clusters, and then selects elements
from each cluster using the simple random sampling technique. Clusters can be formed on the
basis of geographical proximity or a common characteristic that has a correlation with the main
variable of the study as in stratified sampling.
Code is the numerical value that assigned to a response at the time of analyzing the data.
Code book is a listing of a set of numerical values or set of rules that you decided to assign to
answers obtained from respondents in response to each question.
Coding is the process of assigning numerical values to different categories of responses to a
question for the purpose of analyzing them.
Correlation coefficient is the measure of a statistical correlation between two or more variables.
The Pearsonian coefficient (r) is the most common correlation coefficient.
Cohort studies are based upon the existence of a common characteristic such as year of birth,
graduation or marriage within a subgroup of a population that you want to study. Studies could
cover fertility behaviour of women born in 1986 or career paths of 1990 graduates from a

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medical school, for instance. Cohort studies look at the trends over a long period of time and
collect data from the same group of people.
Collaborative enquiry is participatory research that advocates a close collaboration between the
researcher and the research participants.
Column percentages are calculated from the total of all the subcategories of one variable that
are displayed along a column in different rows.
Community discussion forum is a qualitative strategy designed to find opinions, attitudes, ideas
of a community with regard to community issues and problems. It is one of the very common
ways of seeking a community participation in deciding about issues of concern to it.
Comparative study design: In the comparative experimental design, the study population is
divided into the same number of groups as the number of treatments to be tested. For each group
the baseline with respect to the dependent variable is established. The different treatment
modalities are then introduced to the different groups.
Concept is using certain words that as such are difficult to measure and the understanding of
which may vary from person to person in defining a research problem or the study population.
Words like satisfaction, impact; young, old, and happy are concepts as their understanding would
vary from person to person.
Conceptual framework is one section of that theoretical framework describes the aspects you
selected from the theoretical framework to become the basis of your research enquiry. The
conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem.
Concurrent validity is investigation about how good a research instrument is in relation with
some observable criterion or credible findings. Concurrent validity is judged by how well an
instrument compares with a second assessment done concurrently.
Conditioning effect is a situation where if the same respondents are contacted frequently, they
begin to know what is expected of them and may respond to questions without thought, or they
may lose interest in the enquiry, with the same result.
Conformability refers to the degree to which the results obtained through qualitative research
could be confirmed or corroborated by others. Conformability in qualitative research is similar to
reliability in quantitative research.

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Constant variable: When a variable can have only one category or value, for example: Taxi,
tree and water, it is known as a constant variable.
Construct validity is a more sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of an
instrument. Construct validity is based upon statistical procedures that determined by
ascertaining the contribution of each construct to the total variance observed in a phenomenon.
Consumer-oriented evaluation is client-centered evaluation or assumption that assessment of
the value or merit of an intervention including its effectiveness, outcomes, impact and relevance
should be judged from the perspective of the consumer. According to this philosophy, consumers
are the best people to make a judgement on these aspects.
Content analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It is the process of analyzing the
contents of interviews or observational field notes in order to identify the main themes that
emerge from the responses given by your respondents or the observation notes made by you as a
researcher.
Content validity is examining questions of a research instrument to establish the extent of
coverage of areas under study.
Continuous variables have continuity in their unit of measurement, for example: Age, income
and attitude score that can take on any value of the scale on which they are measured. Age is
measured in years, months and days. Income is measured in dollars and cents.
Control design is a procedure that aims to measure the impact of an intervention in experimental
studies and to measure the change in the dependent variable that is attributed to the extraneous
and chance variables. Study designs where you have a control group to isolate the impact of
extraneous and change variables are called control design studies.
Control group is the group in an experimental study which is not exposed to the experimental
intervention. The sole purpose of the control group is to measure the impact of extraneous and
chance variables on the dependent variable.
Correlational studies are studies which primarily designed to investigate whether or not there is
a relationship between two or more variables.
Cost-benefit evaluation is a method that aims to put a price tag on an intervention in relation to
its benefits.

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Cost-effectiveness evaluation is a method that aims to put a price tag on an intervention in

relation to its effectiveness.
Credibility refers to a situation where the results obtained through qualitative research are
agreeable to the participants of the research. It is judged by the extent of respondent concordance
whereby you take your findings to those who participated in your research for confirmation,
congruence, validation and approval.
Cross-sectional studies are one-shot or status studies that are the most commonly used design in
the social sciences and are best suited to studies aimed at finding out the prevalence of a
phenomenon, problem, attitude or issue by taking a cross-section of the population. They are
useful in obtaining an overall picture as it stands at the time of the study.
Cross-tabulation is a statistical procedure that analyzes independent and dependent variables to
determine if there is a relationship between them. The sub-categories of both the variables are
cross-tabulated to ascertain if a relationship exists between them.
Cumulative frequency polygon is cumulative frequency curve that drawn on the basis of
cumulative frequencies. Frequency polygon is drawn by joining the midpoints of the intervals.
Cumulative frequency polygon is drawn by joining the end points of the intervals because
cumulative frequencies interpret data in relation to the upper limit of an interval.
Data saturation is the point at which data collection can cease when data becomes repetitive
and contains no new ideas, the researcher can be reasonably confident that the inclusion of
additional participants is unlikely to generate any new ideas.
Dependability in qualitative research is very similar to the concept of reliability in quantitative
research. It is concerned with whether we would obtain the same results if we could observe the
same thing twice: the greater the similarity in two results, the greater the dependability.
Dependent variable: When establishing causality through a study, the variable assumed to be
the cause is called an independent variable and the variables in which it produces changes are
called the dependent variables.
Descriptive study is a study in which the main focus is on description rather than examining
relationships or associations. A descriptive study attempts systematically to describe a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service or program that provides information about the living conditions
of a community, and describes attitudes towards an issue.

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Dichotomous variable: When a variable can have only two categories as in male or female, yes
or no, good or bad, head or tail, up or down and rich or poor is a dichotomous variable.
Disproportionate stratified sampling: When selecting a stratified sample if you select an equal
number of elements from each stratum without giving any consideration to its size in the study
population, the process is called disproportionate stratified sampling.
Double-barreled question is a question within a question.
Double-blind studies are blind study in which neither the researcher nor the study participants
know which study participants are receiving real, placebo or other forms of interventions. This
prevents the possibility of introducing bias by the researcher.
Double-control studies: In a double-control study, you have two control groups instead of one.
To quantify the reactive effect of an instrument, you exclude one of the control groups from the
before observation.
Editing consists of scrutinizing the completed research instruments to identify and minimize
errors, incompleteness, misclassification and gaps in information obtained from respondents.
Elevation effect: When observers have a tendency to use particular parts of a scale in recording
an interaction, this phenomenon is known as the elevation effect.
Error of central tendency: When using scales in assessments or observations unless an
observer is extremely confident of his or her ability to assess an interaction, she or he may tend
to avoid the extreme positions on the scale, using mostly the central part.
Ethical practice is professional practice undertaken in accordance with the principles of
accepted codes of conduct for a given profession or group.
Evaluation is a process that is guided by research principles for reviewing an intervention or
program in order to make informed decisions about its desirability and identifying changes to
enhance its efficiency and effectiveness.
Evaluation for planning is an issue of establishing need for a program or intervention.
Evidence-based practice is service delivery system that is based upon research evidence as to
its effectiveness; a service provider’s clinical judgement as to its suitability and appropriateness
for a client; and a client’s preference as to its acceptance.
Experimental group is one that exposed to the intervention being tested to study its effects.

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Experimental studies: When a researcher or someone else introduces the intervention that is
assumed to be the cause of change and waits until it has produced or has given sufficient time to
produce the change, then in studies like this a researcher starts with the cause and waits to
observe its effects in studying causality are called experimental studies.
Expert sampling is the selection of people with demonstrated or known expertise in the area of
interest to you to become the basis of data collection. Your sample is a group of experts from
whom you seek the required information. It is like purposive sampling where the sample
comprises experts only.
Explanatory research: The main emphasis in an explanatory study is to clarify why and how
there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Exploratory research is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an area
where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.
A study that carried out to determine its feasibility is feasibility or pilot study.
Extraneous variables are the consequence of the change brought about by the independent
variable in studying causality. In everyday life, there are many other variables that can affect the
relationship between independent and dependent variables are extraneous variables.
Face validity: When you justify the inclusion of a question or item in a research instrument by
linking it with the objectives of the study, the process of providing a justification for its inclusion
in the instrument is called face validity.
Feasibility study: When the purpose of a study is to investigate the possibility of undertaking it
on a larger scale and streamlining methods and procedures for the main study, the study is called
a feasibility study.
Feminist research is more a philosophy than design that acts as the guiding framework to
reduce power imbalance between researcher and respondents. The main characteristics of
feminist research attempts to change social inequality between men and women.
Fishbowl draw is method of selecting a random sample and is useful particularly when
population size is not very large. It entails writing each element number on a small slip of paper
and put into a bowl, and then taking one out till the required sample size is obtained.

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Focus group is a form of strategy in qualitative research in which attitudes, opinions or

perceptions towards an issue, product, service or program are explored through a free and open
discussion between members of a group and the researcher.
Frame of analysis: The proposed plan of the way you want to analyze your data, how you are
going to analyze the data to operationalize your major concepts and what statistical procedures
you are planning to use, all form parts of the frame of analysis.
Frequency distribution is a statistical procedure in quantitative research that can be applied to
any variable that is measured on any one of the four measurement scales. It groups respondents
into the subcategories in which a variable has been measured or coded.
Group interview is both a method of data collection and a qualitative study design. The
interaction is between the researcher and the group with the aim of collecting information from
the group collectively rather than individually from members.
Guttman scale is one of the three attitudinal scales and is devised in such a way that the
statements or items reflecting attitude are arranged in perfect cumulative order. Arranging
statements or items to have a cumulative relation between them is the most difficult aspect of
constructing this scale.
Halo effect: When making an observation, some observers may be influenced to rate an
individual on one aspect of the interaction by the way she or he was rated on another. This is
similar to something that can happen in teaching when a teacher’s assessment of the performance
of a student in one subject may influence his or her rating of that students’ performance in
another. This is known as the halo effect.
Hawthorne effect: When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed, they
may change their behaviour. Depending upon the situation, this change could be positive or
negative. When a change in the behaviour of persons or groups is attributed to their being
observed, it is known as the Hawthorne effect.
Histogram is a graphic presentation of analyzed data presented in the form of a series of
rectangles drawn next to each other without any space between them, each representing the
frequency of a category or sub-category.
Holistic research is more a philosophy than a study design that based upon the philosophy that
as a multiplicity of factors interacts in our lives. To understand a situation or phenomenon, we

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need to look at it in its totality, entirety or holistically from every perspective. A research study
with this philosophical perspective in mind is holistic research.
Hypothesis is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon,
relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know and you set up your study
to find this truth. A researcher refers to these assumptions, assertions, statements or hunches as
hypotheses.
Hypothesis of association is a sufficient knowledge that researchers have about a situation or
phenomenon and are in a position to stipulate the extent of the relationship between two
variables and formulate a hunch that reflects the magnitude of the relationship.
Hypothetico-deductive method is synonymous with scientific method.
Hypothesis of point-prevalence is hypothesis when a researcher has enough knowledge about a
phenomenon that he/she is studying and is confident about speculating almost the exact
prevalence of the situation or the outcome in quantitative units.
Illuminative evaluation is description and interpretation rather than measurement and prediction
of the totality of a phenomenon within socio-anthropological paradigm. The aim is to study a
program in all its aspects: How it is influenced by various contexts, how it is applied, how those
involved view its strengths and weaknesses, and what experiences are of those who are affected
by it.
Impact assessment evaluation is used to assess what changes can be attributed to the
introduction of a particular intervention, program or policy. It establishes causality between an
intervention and its impact, and estimates the magnitude of these changes.
Independent variable is the cause of the changes in a phenomenon. In the study of causality, the
independent variable is the cause variable which is responsible for bringing about change in a
phenomenon.
In-depth interview is a method of data collection that provides complete freedom in terms of
content and structure. As a researcher, you are free to order these in whatever sequences you
wish, keeping in mind the context.
Indicators are images, perceptions or concepts that sometimes incapable of direct measurement.
In such situations, a concept is measured through other means which are logically reflective of
the concept. These logical reflectors are called indicators.

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Informed consent implies that respondents are made adequately and accurately aware of the
type of information you want from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it
will be put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or
indirectly affect them.
Interrupted time-series design is like the before-and-after design, except that you have multiple
data collections at different time intervals to constitute an aggregated before-and-after picture.
The design is based upon the assumption that one set of data is not sufficient to establish, with a
reasonable degree of certainty and accuracy, the before-and-after situations.
Interval scale is a measurement scales in the social sciences where the scale is divided into a
number of intervals or units. An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. This
scale has a starting and a terminating point and is divided into equally spaced units or intervals.
Intervening variables: In certain situations, the relationship between an independent and a
dependent variable does not eventuate till the intervention of another variable is the intervening
variable. The cause variable will have the assumed effect only in the presence of an intervening
variable.
Intervention development evaluation process is a cyclical process of continuous assessment of
needs, intervention and evaluation. You make an assessment of the needs of a group or
community, develop intervention strategies to meet these needs, implement the interventions and
then evaluate them for making informed decisions to incorporate changes to enhance their
relevance, efficiency and effectiveness.
Interview guide is a list of issues, topics of discussion points that you want to cover in an in-
depth interview is called an interview guide. It is basically a list to remind an interviewer of the
areas to be covered in an interview.
Interview schedule is a written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an
interviewer in a person-to-person interaction. This may be face to face, by telephone or by other
electronic media.
Interview is a method of data collection in the social sciences. Any person-to-person interaction,
either face to face or otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind
is called an interview. It involves asking questions of respondents and recording their answers.
Interviewing spans a wide spectrum in terms of its structure.

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Judgmental sampling: The primary consideration in this sampling design is your judgement as
to who can provide the best information to achieve the objectives of your study. Researcher only
go to those people who in your opinion are likely to have the required information and are
willing to share it with you. This design is called purposive sampling.
Leading question is one which, by its contents, structure or wording, leads a respondent to
answer in a certain direction.
Likert scale is summated rating scale under attitudinal scales that designed to measure attitudes
and is based on the assumption that each statement on the scale has equal attitudinal value,
importance or weight in terms of reflecting attitude towards the issue in question.
Literature review is the process of searching the existing literature relating to your research
problem to develop theoretical and conceptual frameworks for your study and to integrate your
research findings with what the literature says about them. It places your study in perspective to
what others have investigated about the issues.
Longitudinal study: In longitudinal studies, the study population is visited a number of times at
regular intervals, usually over a long period, to collect the required information. These intervals
are not fixed so their length may vary from study to study.
Matching is a technique that is used to form two groups of patients to set up an experiment-
control study to test the effectiveness of a drug. From a pool of patients, two patients with
identical predetermined attributes, characteristics or conditions are matched and then randomly
placed in either the experimental or control group.
Maturation effect: If the study population is very young and if there is a significant time lapse
between the before-and-after sets of data collection, the study population may change simply
because it is growing older. This is particularly true when you are studying young children are
known as the maturation effect.
Maxmincon principle of variance: When studying causality between two variables, there are
three sets of variable that impact upon the dependent variable. Since researcher aims is to
determine the change that can be attributed to the independent variable, you need to design your
study to ensure that the independent variable has the maximum opportunity to have its full
impact on the dependent variable is known as Maxmincon principle of variance.

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Measurement is records of amounts or numbers such as population statistics, instrumental

measurements of distance, temperature, mass and so forth.
Memos are short analytical descriptions based on the developing ideas of the researcher reacting
to the data and development of codes and pattern codes. Compiling memos is a good way to
explore links between data and to record and develop intuitions and ideas.
Multivariate analysis is one type of analysis which looks at the relationships between more than
two variables.
Narratives are techniques of gathering information that have almost no predetermined contents
except that the researcher seeks to hear the personal experience of a person with an incident or
happening in his/her life. The person tells his or her story about an incident or situation and as
the researcher listen passively, occasionally encouraging the respondent.
Nominal scale is one of the ways of measuring a variable in the social sciences. It enables the
classification of individuals, objects or responses based on a common shared characteristic.
These people, objects or responses are divided into a number of subgroups in a way that each
member of the subgroup has the common characteristic.
Non-participant observation: When you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the activities of
the group but remain a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and interactions
and drawing conclusions from them, this is called non-participant observation.
Non-probability sampling designs are used when the number of elements in a population is
either unknown or cannot be individually identified. In such situations the selection of elements
is dependent upon other considerations. Non-probability sampling designs are commonly used in
both quantitative and qualitative research.
Null hypothesis: When you construct a hypothesis stipulating that there is no difference between
two situations, groups, outcomes or the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon, this is called a
null hypothesis and is usually written as H0.
Objective-oriented evaluation is when an evaluation is designed to ascertain whether or not a
program or a service is achieving its objectives or goals.
Observation is one of the methods for collecting primary data. It is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
Though dominantly used in qualitative research, it is also used in quantitative research.

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Open-ended questions: In an open-ended question, the possible responses are not given. In the
case of a questionnaire, a respondent writes down the answers in his or her words, whereas in the
case of an interview schedule the investigator records the answers either verbatim or in a
summary describing a respondent’s answer.
Operational definition: When you define concepts used by you either in your research problem
or in the study population in a measurable form are called working or operational definitions. It
is important for you to understand that the working definitions that you develop are only for the
purpose of your study.
Oral history is a method of data collection in qualitative research. It has become an approach to
study a historical event or episode that took place in the past or for gaining information about a
culture, custom or story that has been passed on from generation to generation. It is a picture of
something in someone’s own words. Oral histories, like narratives, involve the use of both
passive and active listening.
Ordinal scale is categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into subgroups on the
basis of a common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a certain order. They are arranged in
either ascending or descending order according to the extent that a subcategory reflects the
magnitude of variation in the variable.
Outcome evaluation: The focus of an outcome evaluation is to find out the effects, impacts,
changes or outcomes that the program has produced in the target population.
Panel studies are prospective in nature and are designed to collect information from the same
respondents over a period of time. The selected group of individuals becomes a panel that
provides the required information. In a panel study, the period of data collection can range from
once only to repeated data collections over a long period.
Participant observation is when researcher participates in the activities of the group being
observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being
observed. Participant observation is principally used in qualitative research and is usually done
by developing a close interaction with members of a group or ‘living’ in with the situation which
is being studied.
Participatory research: Both participatory research and collaborative enquiry are not study
designs per se but signify a philosophical perspective that advocates an active involvement of

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research participants in the research process. Participatory research is based upon the principle of
minimizing the ‘gap’ between the researcher and the research participants.
Pie chart is another way of representing data graphically. Hence, each slice of the pie is in
proportion to the size of each subcategory of a frequency distribution.
Pilot study is a pre-test of a questionnaire or other type of survey on a small number of cases in
order to test the procedures and quality of responses. See, Feasibility study.
Placebo effect: A patient’s belief that she or he is receiving the treatment plays an important role
in his or her recovery even though the treatment is fake or ineffective. The change occurs
because a patient believes that she or he is receiving the treatment. This psychological effect that
helps a patient to recover is known as the placebo effect.
Placebo study is a study that attempts to determine the extent of a placebo effect. A placebo
study is based upon a comparative study design that involves two or more groups, depending on
whether or not you want to have a control group to isolate the impact of extraneous variables or
other treatment modalities to determine their relative effectiveness.
Plagiarism is the taking and use of other people’s thoughts or writing as your own. This is
sometimes done by students who copy out chunks of text from publications or the Internet and
include it in their writing without any acknowledgement to its source.
Polytomous variable: When a variable can be divided into more than two categories, for
example religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu), political parties (Labor, Liberal, Democrat), and
attitudes (strongly favourable, favourable, uncertain, unfavorable, strongly unfavorable), it is
called a polytomous variable.
Population mean: From what you find out from your sample (sample statistics) you make an
estimate of the prevalence of these characteristics for the total study population. The estimates
about the total study population made from sample statistics are called population parameters or
the population mean.
Predictive validity is judged by the degree to which an instrument can correctly forecast an
outcome: the higher the correctness in the forecasts, the higher the predictive validity of the
instrument.
Pre-testing is practice whereby you test something that you in quantitative research developed
before its actual use to ascertain the likely problems with it. Pretest is done on a research

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instrument or on a code book. Pre-test of a research instrument entails a critical examination of

each question as to its clarity, understanding, wording and meaning as understood by potential
respondents with a view to remove possible problems with the question.
Primary data are information collected for the specific purpose of a study either by the
researcher or by someone else is called primary data.
Primary sources are those sources that provide primary data such as interviews, observations,
and questionnaires.
Probability sampling: When selecting a sample, you select the sample in such a way that each
element in the study population has an equal and independent chance of selection in the sample,
the process is called probability sampling.
Process evaluation: The main emphasis of process evaluation is on evaluating the manner in
which a service or program is being delivered in order to identify ways of enhancing the
efficiency of the delivery system.
Program planning evaluation: Before starting a large-scale program, it is desirable to
investigate the extent and nature of the problem for which the program is being developed. When
an evaluation is undertaken with the purpose of investigating the nature and extent of the
problem itself, it is called program planning evaluation.
Proportionate stratified sampling: In proportionate stratified sampling, the number of elements
selected in the sample from each stratum is in relation to its proportion in the total population.
Thus, a sample selected is called a proportionate stratified sample.
Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude
or outcome in the future. Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event or what is
likely to happen. Experiments are usually classified as prospective studies because the researcher
must wait for an intervention to register its effect on the study population.
Pure research is concerned with the development, examination, verification and refinement of
research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that form the body of research methodology.
Qualitative research is based upon the philosophy of empiricism, follows an unstructured,
flexible and open approach to enquiry, aims to describe than measure, believes in in-depth
understanding and small samples, and explores perceptions and feelings than facts and figures.

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Quantitative research is a second approach to enquiry in the social sciences that is rooted in
rationalism, follows a structured, rigid, predetermined methodology, believes in having a narrow
focus, emphasizes greater sample size, aims to quantify the variation in a phenomenon, and tries
to make generalizations to the total population.
Quasi-experiments: Studies which have the attributes of both experimental and non-
experimental studies are called quasi- or semi-experiments. A part of the study could be
experimental and the other non-experimental.
Questionnaire is a written list of questions whereby the answers are recorded by respondents. In
a questionnaire, respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down
the answers.
Quota sampling: The main consideration directing quota sampling is the researcher’s ease of
access to the sample population. In addition to convenience, a researcher is guided by some
visible characteristic of interest such as gender or race of the study population. The sample is
selected from a location convenient to you as a researcher, and whenever a person with this
visible relevant characteristic is seen, that person is asked to participate in the study. The process
continues until you have been able to contact the required number of respondents.
Random design: In a random design, the study population groups as well as the experimental
treatments are not predetermined but randomly assigned to become control or experimental
groups. It is important to note that the concept of randomization can be applied to any of the
experimental designs.
Random sampling is probability sampling and imperative that each element in the study
population has an equal and independent chance of selection in the sample.
Random variable: When collecting information from respondents, there are times when the
mood of a respondent or the wording of a question can affect the way a respondent replies. There
is no systematic pattern in terms of this change. Such shifts in responses are said to be caused by
random or chance variables.
Randomization is a process that ensures that each and every person in a group is given an equal
and independent chance of being in any of the groups, thereby making groups comparable in
experimental and comparative studies.

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Reactive effect: Sometimes the way a question is worded informs respondents of the existence
or prevalence of something that the study is trying to find out about as an outcome of an
intervention. This effect is known as reactive effect of the instrument.
Rationalism is one source of knowledge in which knowledge gained by deductive reasoning.
Recall error is an Error that can be introduced in a response because of a respondent’s inability
to recall correctly its various aspects when replying.
Regression effect: Sometimes people who place themselves on the extreme positions of a
measurement scale at the pre-test stage may, for a number of reasons, shift towards the mean at
the post-test stage. They might feel that they have been too negative or too positive at the pre-test
stage. Therefore, the expression of the attitude in response to a questionnaire or interview has
caused them to think about and alter their attitude towards the mean at the time of the post-test is
known as the regression effect.
Reflective journal log is basically a method of data collection in qualitative research that entails
keeping a log of your thoughts as a researcher whenever you notice anything, talk to someone,
participate in an activity or observe something that helps you understand or add to whatever you
are trying to find out about.
Reflexive control design: In experimental studies, to overcome the problem of comparability in
different groups, sometimes researchers study only one population and treat data collected during
the non-intervention period as representing a control group, and information collected after the
introduction of the intervention as if it pertained to an experimental group. It is the periods of
non-intervention and intervention that constitute control and experimental groups.
Reliability is the ability of a research instrument to provide similar results when used repeatedly
under similar conditions. Reliability indicates accuracy, stability and predictability of a research
instrument. The higher the reliability is the higher the accuracy or the higher the accuracy of an
instrument is the higher its reliability.
Replicated cross-sectional design is study design that based on the assumption that participants
at different stages of a program are similar in terms of their socioeconomic, demographic
characteristics and the problem for which they are seeking intervention.

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Research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions
validly, objectively, accurately and economically. Therefore, a research design answers questions
that would determine the path you are proposing to take for your research journey.
Research objectives are specific statements of goals that you set out to be achieved at the end of
your research journey.
Research problem: Any issue, problem or question that becomes the basis of your enquiry is
called a research problem. It is what you want to find out about during your research endeavor.
Research question is a theoretical question that indicates a clear direction and scope for a
research project. Research questions become the basis of research objectives. The main
difference between research questions and research objectives is the way they are worded.
Research questions take the form of questions whereas research objectives are statements of
achievements expressed using action oriented words.
Retrospective study investigates a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue that has happened
in the past. Such studies are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available for that
period or on the basis of respondents’ recall of the situation.
Retrospective-prospective study focuses on past trends in a phenomenon and studies it into the
future. A study where you measure the impact of an intervention without having a control group
by constructing a previous baseline from either respondent’s recall or secondary sources, then
introducing the intervention to study its effect, is considered a retrospective-prospective study.
Row percentages are calculated from the total of all the sub-categories of one variable that are
displayed along a row in different columns.
Sample size is the number of individuals from whom you obtain the required information and is
usually denoted by the letter n.
Sample statistics are findings based on the information obtained from your respondents
(sample).
Sampling is the process of selecting a few respondents (a sample) from a bigger group (the
sampling population) to become the basis for estimating the prevalence of information of interest
to you.

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Sampling design: The way you select the required sampling units from a sampling population
for identifying your sample is called the sampling design or sampling strategy. There are many
sampling strategies in both quantitative and qualitative research.
Sampling element: Anything that becomes the basis of selecting your sample such as an
individual, family, household, members of an organization, residents of an area is called a
sampling unit or element.
Sampling error is the difference in the findings or sample statistics that is due to the selection of
elements in the sample.
Sampling frame: When you are in a position to identify all elements of a study population, the
list of all the elements is called a sampling frame.
Sampling population: The bigger group such as families living in an area, clients of an agency,
residents of a community, members of a group, people belonging to an organization about which
you want to find out about through your research endeavor, is called the sampling population or
study population.
Sampling with replacement: When you select a sample in such a way that each selected
element in the sample is replaced back into the sampling population before selecting the next,
this is called sampling with replacement. Theoretically, this is done to provide an equal chance
of selection to each element so as to adhere to the theory of probability to ensure randomization
of the sample. In case an element is selected again, it is discarded and the next one is selected. If
the sampling population is fairly large, the probability of selecting the same element twice is
fairly remote.
Sampling without replacement: When you select a sample in such a way that an element, once
selected to become a part of your sample that is not replaced back into the study population is
called sampling without replacement.
Saturation point refers to the stage in data collection where you, as a researcher, are discovering
no or very little new information from your respondents. In qualitative research this is considered
an indication of the adequacy of the sample size.
Scale is a method of measurement and classification of respondents on the basis of their
responses to questions you ask of them in a study. A scale could be continuous or categorical. It
helps you to classify a study population in subgroups or as a spread that is reflective on the scale.

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Scientific method is the foundation of modern scientific inquiry. It is based on observation and
testing of the soundness of conclusions, commonly by using the hypothetico-deductive method.
The four-step method is: (1) identification of a problem, (2) formulation of a hypothesis, (3)
practical or theoretical testing of the hypothesis, and (4) rejection or adjustment of the hypothesis
if it is falsified.
Secondary data: Sometimes the information required is already available in other sources such
as journals, previous reports, censuses and you extract that information for the specific purpose
of your study. This type of data which already exists but you extract for the purpose of your
study is called secondary data.
Secondary sources are those sources that provide secondary data are called secondary sources.
Sources such as books, journals, previous research studies, records of an agency, client or patient
information already collected and routine service delivery records all form secondary sources.
Semi-experimental studies are designs that have the properties of both experimental and non-
experimental studies; part of the study may be non-experimental and the other part experimental.
Simple random sampling is the most commonly used method of selecting a random sample. It
is a process of selecting the required sample size from the sampling population providing each
element with an equal and independent chance of selection by any method designed to select a
random sample.
Snowball sampling is a process of selecting a sample using networks. To start with, a few
individuals in a group or organization are selected using purposive, random or network sampling
to collect the required information from them. They are then asked to identify other people in the
group or organization who contacted to obtain the same information. The people selected by
them become a part of the sample. The process continues till you reach the saturation point in
terms of information being collected.
Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) is among the most widely used program for
statistical analysis in social science. This is a data analysis package for quantitative research. It is
particularly useful for the analysis of survey data as it covers a broad range of statistical
procedures. There are other packages available such as SAS, Stata or Minitab.
Stacked bar chart is similar to a bar chart except that in the former each bar shows information
about two or more variables stacked onto each other vertically. The sections of a bar show the

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proportion of the variables they represent in relation to one another. The stacked bars can be
drawn only for categorical data.
Stakeholders in research are those people or groups who are likely to be affected by a research
activity or its findings. In research there are three stakeholders: the research participants, the
researcher and the funding body.
Stem and leaf display is an effective, quick and simple way of displaying a frequency
distribution. The stem and leaf for a frequency distribution running into two digits is plotted by
displaying digits 0 to 9 on the left of the y-axis, representing the tens of a frequency.
Stratified random sampling is one of the probability sampling designs in which the total study
population is first classified into different subgroups based upon a characteristic that makes each
subgroup more homogeneous in terms of the classificatory variable. The sample is then selected
from each subgroup either by selecting an equal number of elements from each subgroup or
selecting elements from each subgroup equal to its proportion in the total population.
Stub is a part of the table structure. It is the subcategories of a variable, listed along the y-axis
(the left-hand column of the table). The stub, usually the first column on the left, lists the items
about which information is provided in the horizontal rows to the right. It is the vertical listing of
categories or individuals about which information is given in the columns of the table.
Study design is used to describe the type of design you are going to adopt to undertake your
study; that is, if it is going to be experimental, correlational, descriptive or before and after. Each
study design has a specific format and attributes.
Study population: Every study in the social sciences has two aspects: Study population and
study area (subject area). People who you want to find out about are collectively known as the
study population or population and are usually denoted by the letter N. It could be a group of
people living in an area, employees of an organization, a community, and a group of people with
special issues.
Subject area is study area, any academic or practice field in which you are conducting your
study. It could be health or other needs of a community, attitudes of people towards an issue,
occupational mobility in a community, coping strategies, depression, or domestic violence.

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Subjectivity is an integral part of your way of thinking that is ‘conditioned’ by your educational
background, discipline, philosophy, experience and skills. Subjectivity is not deliberate, it is the
way you understand or interpret something.
Systematic sampling is a way of selecting a sample where the sampling frame, depending upon
the sample size, is first divided into a number of segments called intervals. The selection of
subsequent elements from other intervals is dependent upon the order of the element selected in
the first interval. If in the first interval it is the fifth element, the fifth element of each subsequent
interval will be chosen.
Table of random numbers: Most books on research methodology and statistics have tables that
contain randomly generated numbers. There is a specific way of selecting a random sample using
these tables.
Tables offer a useful way of presenting analyzed data in a small space that brings clarity to the
text and serves as a quick point of reference. There are different types of tables housing data
pertaining to one, two or more variables.
Thematic writing is a style of writing which is written around main themes.
Theoretical framework: The information obtained from different sources needs to be sorted
under the main themes and theories highlighting agreements and disagreements among the
authors. This process of structuring a network of theories that directly or indirectly has a bearing
on research topic is called theoretical framework.
Theory of causality advocates that in studying cause and effect there are three sets of variables
that are responsible for the change. These are: cause or independent variable, extraneous
variables and change variables. It is the combination of all three that produces change in a
phenomenon.
Thurstone scale is one of the scales designed to measure attitudes in the social sciences.
Attitude through this scale is measured by means of a set of statements, the attitudinal value of
which has been determined by a group of judges. A respondent’s agreement with the statement
assigns a score equivalent to the attitudinal value of the statement. The total score of all
statements is the attitudinal score for a respondent.
Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be
generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings.

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Trend curve is a set of data measured on an interval or a ratio scale can be displayed using a line
diagram or trend curve. A trend line can be drawn for data pertaining to both a specific time and
a period.
Trend studies involve selecting a number of data observation points in the past, together with a
picture of the present or immediate past with respect to the phenomenon under study, and then
making certain assumptions as to the likely future trends. In a way you are compiling a cross-
sectional picture of the trends being observed at different points in time over the past, present
and future.
Type I error: In testing a hypothesis, many reasons you commit a mistake and draw the wrong
conclusion with respect to the validity of your hypothesis. If you reject a null hypothesis when it
is true and you should not have rejected it is called a Type I error.
Type II Error: In testing a hypothesis, for many reasons you commit a mistake and draw the
wrong conclusion in terms of the validity of your hypothesis. If you accept a null hypothesis
when it is false and you should not have accepted it is called a Type II error.
Univariate analysis is an analysis that considers the qualities of one variable at a time.
Unethical is any professional activity that is not in accordance with the accepted code of conduct
for that profession.
Unstructured interview is a flexible format interview, usually based on a question guide but
where the format remains the choice of the interviewer, who can allow the interview to ramble in
order to get insights into the attitudes of the interviewee. No closed-format questions are used.
Validity can be applied to every aspect of the research process. In simplest form, validity refers
to the appropriateness of each step in finding out what you set out to. In terms of the
measurement procedure, validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is designed to
measure.
Variable is an image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement. In other words, a
concept that can be measured is called a variable. A variable is a property that takes on different
values. It is a rational unit of measurement that can assume any one of a number of designated
sets of values.

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Padgett, D. K. (2008). Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research (2nd edn), Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publishing.
Peirce, S. C. (1957). Essays in the Philosophy o Science. New York: Liberal Arts Press.
Pine, G.J. (1981). Collaborative action research: The integration of research and
service. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association
of Colleges for Teacher Education, Detroit, MI.
Sagor, R. (1992). How to conduct collaborative action research. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum, research and development. London:
Heinemann.
Ward, P. (2010). Family law in Ireland: Alphen aan den Rijn. The Netherlands: Kluwer Law
International.
Williams, S. (1963). Presentations. Tadworth: Elliot Right Way Books.

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APPENDIX-I
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies and footnotes to
eliminate tedious repetition. The researcher should learn to recognize abbreviations as well as he
should learn to use abbreviations. The following is a partial list of the most common
abbreviations and acronyms frequently used in report-writing:
 anon. anonymous
 ante. before
 art. article
 aug. augmented
 bk. book
 bull. bulletin
 cf. compare
 ch. chapter
 col. column
 diss. dissertation
 ed. editor, edition, edited.
 ed. cit. edition cited
 e.g. exempli gratia: for example
 eng. enlarged
 et.al. and others
 et seq. et sequens: and the following
 ex. example

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 f., ff. and the following

 fig(s). figure(s)
 fn. footnote
 ibid. ibidem: in the same place. When two or more successive footnotes
refer to the same work, it is not necessary to repeat complete reference for the second
footnote. ibid. may be used. Different pages are referred to pagination must be shown.
 id., idem: the same
 ill., illus., or illust(s). illustrated, illustration(s)
 Intro., intro. introduction
 l, or ll, line(s)
 loc. cit. in the place cited; used as op.cit., when new reference loco
citato: is made to the same pagination as cited in the previous note.
 MS., MSS. Manuscript or Manuscripts
 N.B. nota bene: note well
 n.d. no date
 n.p. no place
 no pub. no publisher
 no(s). number(s)
 o.p. out of print
 op. cit: in the work cited. If reference has been made to a work
opera citato and new reference is to be made, ibid. may be used. If intervening reference
has been made to different works, op.cit. must be used. The name of the author must
precede.
 p. or pp. page(s)
 passim: here and there
 post: after
 rev. revised
 tr., trans. translator, translated, translation
 vid or vide: see, refer to

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 viz. namely
 vol. or vol(s). volume(s)
 vs. versus: against
APPENDIX-II
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Types of Research
From the Point of View of
Application Objectives Inquiry mode
Pure Applied Qualitative Quantitative

research research Descriptive Exploratory research research
Research research
Correlationa Explanatory
l research
research
 Research can be classified from point of view of application, objective and inquiry mode.
 Based on Application: Basic research and applied research
 Based on objective: Descriptive research, exploratory research, correlational research and
explanatory research.

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 Based on inquiry mode: Quantitative research and qualitative research.
APPENDIX-III
PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH
Philosophical assumptions with implications for practice
Assumptions Questions Characteristics Implications for practice
(Examples)
What is the nature of Reality is subjective and Researcher uses quotes
Ontological reality? multiple, as seen by the and themes in words of
participants in the study. participants and provides
evidences of different
perspectives.
What is the Researcher attempts to Researcher collaborates
Epistemological relationship between lessen distance between and spends time in field
the researcher and him or her and that with participants, and
that being being researched. becomes an insider.
researched?
What is the role of Researcher Researcher openly

Axiological values? acknowledges that discusses values that
research is value-laden shape narrative and
and that biases present. includes his or her own
interpretation in
conjunction with
interpretations of
participants.
What is the language Researcher writes in a Researcher uses engaging
Rhetorical of research? literary and informal style of narrative may use
style using personal first-person pronoun, and
voice, and uses employs the language of
qualitative terms and qualitative research.
limited definitions.
What is the process Researcher uses Researcher works with
Methodological of research? inductive logic, studies particulars (details) before
the topic within its generalizations, describes

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contexts and uses an in detail the context of the

emerging design. study, and continually
revises questions from
experiences in the field.
APPENDIX-IV: SUMMARY CHART CONCERNING DATA ANALYSIS

In broad general way, data analysis can be categorized in to
Data Processing Data analysis

(Preparing data for analysis) (Proper analysis)
Editing Descriptive and causal analyses Inferential/ statistical analysis
Coding
Classification Uni-dimensional Bivariate Multivariate Estimation of Testing

Tabulation analysis analysis analysis parameter values hypothesis
Using percentages
Point interval Parametric Non-

estimation estimation parametric tests
Calculation of several measures Simple correlation and regression

mostly concerning one variable in respect of variables
(i) Measures of central tendency
(ii) Measures of dispersion Association of attributes through
(iii) Measures of skewness coefficient of association and
(iv) One-way ANOVA, index numbers, coefficient of contingency
Time series analyses, and
(v) Others like simple correlation and
regression in simple classification Two-way ANOVA of paired data
 Regression analysis whether simple or multiple is termed as causal analysis.

 Correlation analysis indicates simply co-variation between two or more variables.
Multiple regression and correlation/ partial correlation

in respect of variables

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Multiple discriminant analysis in respect of attributes
Multiple ANOVA in respect of variables
Canonical analysis in respect of both variables and

attributes
Other analyses like factor analysis and cluster analysis
Further Explanation on the Data Analysis Methods (To be continued)
There are several reasons why researchers may want to analyze data such as: To measure,
construct concepts and theories, make comparisons, explore, examine relationships, control,
make forecasts, explain, and test hypotheses. Quantitative analysis deals with numbers and uses
mathematical operations to investigate the properties of data. The levels of measurement used in
the collection of the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data which are an important factor in
choosing the type of analysis that is applicable as the number of cases involved. Statistics is the
name given to this type of analysis. Statistical methods are a valuable tool to enable researchers
to present and describe the data, and to discover and quantify relationships. User-friendly
computer packages (such as Excel and SPSS –Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) will do
all the presentation and calculations for researchers as you do not even have to be a
mathematician to use these techniques.
 Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics
The two major classes of statistics are parametric and non-parametric statistics. Researchers need
to understand the meaning of a parameter in order to appreciate the difference between these two
types. A parameter is a constant feature of a population that it shares with other populations. The
most common one is the bell or Gaussian curve of normal frequency distribution. This parameter
reveals that most populations display a large number of more or less average cases with extreme
cases tailing off at each end. For example: Most people are of about average height, with those
who are extremely tall or small being in a distinct minority. The distribution of people’s heights
shown on a graph would take the form of the normal or Gaussian curve. Although the shape of
this curve varies from case to case that may be flatter or steeper, lopsided to the left or right. This
feature is so common among populations that statisticians take it as a constant or a basic

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parameter. Calculations of parametric statistics are based on data that conform to a parameter,
usually a Gaussian curve.
Non-parametric statistics are tests that have been devised to recognize the particular
characteristics of non-curve data and to take into account these singular characteristics by
specialized methods. In general, these types of test are less sensitive and powerful than
parametric tests; they need larger samples in order to generate the same level of significance.
Data measured by nominal and ordinal methods will not be organized in a curve form. Nominal
data tend to be in the dichotomous form of either cow or a sheep and neither while ordinal data
can be displayed in the form of a set of steps in terms of the first, second and third positions on
the winner’s podium. For those cases where this parameter is absent and non-parametric statistics
may be applicable.
 Statistical Tests in Parametric Test
There are two classes of parametric statistical tests: Descriptive statistics which quantify the
characteristics of parametric numerical data, and inferential statistics which produce predictions
through inference based on the data analyzed. Distinction is also made between the numbers of
variables considered in relation to each other:
 Univariate analysis deals with analysis of the qualities of one variable at a time.
 Bivariate analysis considers the properties of two variables in relation to each other.
 Multivariate analysis looks at the relationships between more than two variables.
Univariate Analysis (Descriptive Statistics)
A range of properties of one variable can be examined using the following measures:
 Frequency distribution is usually presented as a table. This simply shows the values for
each variable expressed as a number and as a percentage of the total of cases. Alternative
ways of presentation are a bar chart, histogram or pie charts which are easier to read at a
glance.

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 Measure of central tendency is one number that denotes what is commonly called the
average of the values for a variable. There are several measures that can be used in measures
of central tendency:
 Arithmetic mean is the arithmetic average calculated by adding all the values and
dividing by their number. This can be calculated for ordinal, interval and ratio variables.
 Mode is the value that occurs most frequently. The only measure that can be used with
nominal variables, as well as all the others.
 Median is the mid-point in the distribution of values that is the mathematical middle
between the highest and lowest value. It is used for ordinal, interval and ratio variables.
 Measures of dispersion (variability): All of the above measures are influenced by the
nature of dispersion of the values or how values are spread out or bunched up and the
presence of solitary extreme values. To investigate the dispersion, the following measures
can be made:
Range is the distance between the highest and lowest value.
Interquartile range is the distance between the value that has a quarter of the values
less than it (first quartile or 25th percentile) and the value that has three-quarters of
the values less than it (third quartile or 75th percentile).
Variance is the average of the squared deviations for the individual values from the
mean.
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance.
Standard error is the standard deviation of the mean score.
Charts and Diagrams
The most basic is a summary table of descriptive statistics that gives figures for all of the
measures. More graphical options which make comparisons between variables simpler are:
 Bar graph shows the distribution of nominal and ordinal variables. The categories of the
variables are along the horizontal axis (x axis) and the values are on the vertical axis (y
axis). The bars should not touch each other.
 Histogram is a bar graph with the bars touching to produce a shape that reflects the
distribution of a variable.

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 Frequency polygon (frequency curve) is a line that connects the tops of the bars of a
histogram to provide a pure shape illustrating distribution.
 Pie chart shows the values of a variable as a section of the total cases like slices of a pie.
The percentages are also usually given.
 Standard deviation error bar shows the mean value as a point and a bar above and
below that indicates the extent of one standard deviation.
 Confidence interval error bar shows the mean value as a point and a bar above and
below that indicates the range in which investigator can be (probabilistically) sure that
the mean value of the population from which the sample is drawn lies. The level of
confidence can be varied, but it is commonly set at 95 per cent.
 Box and whisker plot gives more detail of the values that lie within the various
percentiles (10th, 25th, 50th, 75th and 90th). Individual values that are outside this range can
be pinpointed manually if they are judged to be important.
Normal and Skewed Distributions
Normal distribution is when the mean, median and mode are located at the same value. This
produces a symmetrical curve. Skewedness occurs when the mean is pushed to one side of the
median. When it is to the left, it is known as negatively skewed, and to the right, positively
skewed. The curve is lopsided in these cases. If there are two modes to each side of the mean and
median points, then it is a bimodal distribution. The curve will have two peaks and a valley in
between.
Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate analysis considers the properties of two variables in relation to each other. There are
various methods for investigating the relationships between two variables. An important aspect is
the different measurement of these relationships such as assessing the direction and degree of
association, statistically termed correlation coefficients. The commonly used coefficients assume
that there is a linear relationship between the two variables either positive or negative. In reality,
this is seldom achieved, but degrees of correlation can be computed is about how near to a
straight line the relationship is.

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Scatter Grams
Scatter grams are a useful type of diagram that graphically shows the relationship between two
variables by plotting variable data from cases on a two-dimensional matrix. If the resulting
plotted points appear in a scattered and random arrangement, then no association is indicated. If
they fall into a linear arrangement, a relationship can be assumed either positive or negative. The
closer the points are to a perfect line, the stronger the association. A line that is drawn to trace
this notional line is called the line of best fit or regression line. This line can be used to predict
one variable value on the basis of the other.
It is quite possible to get forms of relationships between variables that are not represented in a
straight line, for example groupings or curved linear arrangements. Thus, the strength of the
scatter grams is that these are clearly shown needing some discussion and possible explanation.
For these relationships, statistical tests that assume linearity should not be used.
Contingency Tables
Cross-tabulation or contingency tables are a simple way to display the relationship between
variables that have only a few categories. The cells made by the rows show the relationships
between each of the categories of the variables in both number of responses and percentages. In
addition, the column and row totals and percentages are shown. These can be conveniently
produced by SPSS from the data compiled on a matrix. Patterns of association can be detected if
they occur. As an alternative, the display can be automatically presented as a bar chart. The
choice of appropriate statistical methods of bivariate analysis depends on the levels of
measurement used in the variables. Here are some of the most commonly used methods:
o Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) should be used for examining relationships between
interval/ ratio variables. The r value indicates the strength and direction of the correlation
(how close the points are to a straight line). +1 indicates a perfect positive association and −1
a perfect negative association. Zero indicates a total lack of association.
o Spearman’s rho (p) should be used either when both variables are ordinal or when one is
ordinal and the other is interval or ratio.
o Spearman rank correlation coefficient and Kendall’s Tau are both used with ordinal data.

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o Phi (Φ) should be used when both variables are dichotomous (like yes or no).
o Cramer’s V is used when both variables are nominal and with positive values.
o Eta is employed when one variable is nominal and the other is interval or ratio. It expresses
the amount of variation in the interval or ratio variable that is due to the nominal variable.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
The most common requirement to look for differences between values obtained under two or
more different conditions is analysis of variance. There are a range of tests that can be applied
depending on the number of groups, you can use:
 Chi-square( X 2) is a test of goodness of fit. Chi-Square is significance tests of categorical

variables that involve the comparison of a set of observed frequencies with frequencies
specified by a hypothetical distribution. When data consist of one categorical variable, it
is often informative to ask whether the proportions of responses in the categories conform
to a particular pattern. Researchers use in such case a goodness of fit test. Chi-square
statistic used to test the hypothesis of equal proportions. Example: Practices on your data,
show the result of sex with distance. Analyze----Non-parametric tests----Chi-Square.
 One-group t-test compares the means of the results from the sample compared with the
population mean.
 Two-group t-test compares the means of two groups. There are two types of test, one for
paired scores where the same persons provided scores under each condition or for
unpaired scores where this is not the case.
ANOVA (analysis of variance) tests the difference between the means of results gained under
different conditions. One-way analysis of variance is applicable when there is one dependent
variable (like an exam mark) and one independent variable (such as a new study course) and no
matter how many groups or tests is involved. For more complex situations, when more than one
independent variable is involved and a single variable, then multiple-way or factorial ANOVA
should be used.
Multivariate Analysis

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Multivariate analysis looks at the relationships between more than two variables. If the two
tables show a similar significant relationship between the two original variables, this is called
replication, the original relationship remains. If neither table shows a significant relationship
zero-order correlation between the two variables, the original relationship was either spurious,
meaning that the test variable actually caused the association between the original variables or
that the test variable is an intervening variable, one that varies because of the independent
variable and in turn affects the dependent variable.
If one of the conditional tables demonstrates the association but the other one does not, then it
shows a limitation to the association of the original pair of variables or provides a specification
of the conditions under which association occurs. You can continue the process of producing
tables for fourth and fifth variables, but this quickly becomes unwieldy. It is also difficult to get
enough data in each table to achieve significant results. There are better ways to understand the
interactions between large numbers of variables and the relative strength of their influence, for
example: Regression techniques such as multiple regression and logistic regression.
Multiple Regressions
Multiple regression is a technique used to measure the effects of two or more independent
variables on a single dependent variable measured on interval or ratio scales, for example the
effect on income due to age, education, ethnicity, area of living, and gender. Thanks to computer
programs such as SPSS, the complicated mathematical calculations required for this analysis are
done automatically. Note that it is assumed that there are interrelationships between the
independent variables as well, and this is taken into account in the calculations. The result of
multiple regressions is the combined correlation of a set of independent variables with the
dependent variable is termed multiple R. The square of this, multiple R2, indicates the amount of
variance in the independent variable due to the simultaneous action of two or more independent
variables.
Logistic regression
Logistic regression is a development of multiple regressions that has the added advantage of
holding certain variables constant in order to assess the independent influence of key variables of

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interest. It is suitable for assessing the influence of independent variables on a dependent

variable measured in a nominal scale. The statistic resulting is an odds ratio assuming all the
other variables were held constant.
Multiple analyses of variance
Just as ANOVA measured the differences between two variables, the program called MANOVA
(multiple analyses of variance) enables you to do many types of analysis of variance with several
nominal and interval variables together. It is particularly appropriate when the dependent
variable is an interval measure and the predicting variables are nominal. It is also able to detect
differences on a set of dependent variables instead of just one.
 Statistical tests (Non-parametric tests)
Statistical tests built around discovering the means, standard deviations and variance of the
typical characteristics of a Gaussian curve are clearly inappropriate for analyzing non-parametric
data that does not follow this pattern. Hence, non-parametric data cannot be statistically tested in
the ways listed above. Non-parametric statistical tests are used when:
 The sample size is very small;

 Few assumptions can be made about the data;
 Data is rank-ordered or nominal; and
 Samples are taken from several different populations.
According to Siegel and Castellan (1988), the tests are acknowledged to be much easier to learn
and apply, and their interpretation is often more direct than with parametric tests. Detailed
information about which tests to use for particular data sets can be obtained from specialized
texts on statistics and your own expert statistical advisor. The levels of measurement of the
variables, the number of samples, whether they are related or independent are all factors that
determine which tests are appropriate. Here are some tests that you may encounter:
 Komogarov-Smirnov is used to test a two-sample case with independent samples, the values
of which are ordinal level.

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 Kruskal-Wallis test is a non-parametric equivalent of the analysis of variance on

independent samples, with variables measured on the ordinal scale.
 Friedman test is the equivalent of the Kruskal-Wallis test but with related samples.
 Cramer coefficient gives measures of association of variables with nominal categories.
 Spearman and Kendall provide a range of tests to measure association, such as rank-order
correlation coefficient, coefficient of concordance and agreement for variables measured at
the ordinal or interval levels.

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Handbook On Research

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Fundamental Research Handbook መሠረታየጥናትና ምርምር ማጣቀሻ መጽሐፍ

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 1

effort to gain new knowledge. According to Webster’s International Dictionary, research is a

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 2

1.2. What is not Research

Research is not an existing bag of techniques. Research is not a fishing expedition or an

1.3. Characteristics of Research

Research has the following unique features:

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 3

 To discover new knowledge

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 4

 To assess the rational relationships between variables

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 5

C. Analytical or Explanatory Research

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 6

Based on outcomes, research is classified in to fundamental research and applied research

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 7

1.6. Research Paradigm or Philosophy

Research paradigm is a perspective about research held by a community of researchers that is

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 8

position is known as interpretivism or social constructionism, and its data-gathering procedures

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 9

In general, a using of multiple measures is better because observations or other mathematical

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 10

many variables to be recorded as possible. It is a qualitative approach. In general, the position

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 11

An example of a research methodology that a post-structuralist researcher is most likely to use is

The Research Approach

Qualitative Research Mixed Research Quantitative Research

1.7. Research Title

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1.7.1. Functions and Types of Research Titles

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 13

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 14

1.7.2. Attributes of a Good Title

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 15

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will be collected. A research design includes the following components:

The important features of a research design are:

Purposes of Research Design:

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 17

 It provides the scheme for answering research question.

The various concepts considered in research designs include:

 Dependent and independent variables

 If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable is said to be a

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 18

Formulation of hypothesis becomes essential in studies involving use of empirical research

 Experimental and Control Groups

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In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions is

Characteristics of Good Research Design

Good research design has the following important characteristics:

 Appropriateness to the research question

Sometimes, types of research design are descriptive or exploratory survey, correlational,

A. Descriptive or Exploratory Survey Studies

By: Tsalafo Chaka Chame (MA) 2020 Page 20

C. Experimental Research Design

D. Quasi Experimental Design

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conceptualization of a problem to the literature review, research questions, methods, and

I. Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods focus on discovering and understanding the experiences,