Pangasinan State University

College of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Architecture

COLLEGE/DEPARTMENT: DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

SUBJECT: BT 122 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1 (BUILDING MATERIALS)
TIME SCHEDULE: 8:00 AM – 9:30 PM TUESDAY

RESEARCH WORK NO.: RESEARCH WORK No. 02

RESEARCH WORK TITLE: “MASONRY AND CONCRETE”
RESEARCH WORK GIVEN: MARCH 31, 2022
RESEARCH WORK DUE: MARCH 31, 2022

STUDENT: NOWELLA T. MENDOZA ARCHI-1D

INSTRUCTOR: Ar. Prudencio M. Sumera Jr.

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College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Architecture

MASONRY AND CONCRETE

MASONRY

Masonry, the art and craft of building and fabricating in stone, clay, brick, or
concrete block. Construction of poured concrete, reinforced or unreinforced, is often
also considered masonry.

The art of masonry originated when early man sought to supplement his
valuable but rare natural caves with artificial caves made from piles of stone. Circular
stone huts, partially dug into the ground, dating from prehistoric times have been
found in the Aram Islands, Ireland. By the 4th millennium BCE, Egypt had developed
an elaborate stonemasonry technique, culminating in the most extravagant of all
ancient structures, the pyramids.

The choice of masonry materials has always been influenced by the prevailing
geological formations and conditions in a given area. Egyptian temples, for example,
were constructed of limestone, sandstone, alabaster, granite, basalt, and porphyry
quarried from the hills along the Nile River. Another ancient center of civilization, the
area of western Asia between the Tigris and Euphrates, lacked stone outcroppings
but
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was rich in clay deposits. As a result, the masonry structures of the Assyrian and
Persian empires were constructed of sun-dried bricks faced with kiln-burned,
sometimes glazed, units.

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

The Reinforced brick masonry is totally different from the normal method of
the brick masonry. The reinforced brick masonry consists of brick masonry which
has Steel reinforcement embedded in the mortar. Reinforced brick masonry is
brickwork which is strengthened by using mild steel iron mesh or bars which are
known as Reinforced brick masonry. The property of reinforced brick masonry is that
it is capable of resisting compressive shear stress as well as tensile shear stress.
Reinforced brick masonry has the property of resistance to the lateral forces. The
reinforced brick masonry is widely used in the seismic areas due to its resistance to
the lateral forces.

Generally, the first class bricks and reach and dense cement mortar are used
in the reinforced brickwork. The Reinforcement should be effectively surrounded by
the mortar cover of 15 cm to 25 cm. It will help to protect the Reinforcement against
the corrosion. The Reinforced Brick Masonry has more resistance to the forces that
produce tensile and shear stresses. The Reinforced Brick Masonry is used in the
construction of the retaining walls, especially where the exposed brickwork is
necessary from architectural consideration.
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The construction by using reinforced brick masonry is cheaper as compared

to reinforced cement concrete. Reinforced Brick masonry has been used for the
construction of different structures, especially in the countries where labor costs are
very less, one of its principal uses has been for the construction of floor and roof
slabs. The applications of reinforced brick masonry range from the retaining walls to
exterior cladding. The added tensile strength of the reinforcing steel opens the
possibility for prefabricated brick panels. Reinforced Brick masonry have higher
ductility and stiffness as compared to normal masonry.

This method of design and construction is utilized frequently to achieve

unusual shapes and bold patterns in Brick masonry.
Reinforced Brick concrete construction has been adapted to a wide variety of
applications such as Beams, column, pilasters, arches and other elements which
have been used in buildings, culverts, retaining walls, silos, chimneys, pavements
and bridges. Research in the Reinforced brick masonry is going on to make it more
economical and withstand all types of loadings.
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BRICK BONDS

A brick bond is a pattern in which bricks are laid. It applies to both brick walls
and brick paving for patios and paths, as well as to concrete block and other types of
masonry construction. There are many different types of brick bonds and each has
its own look, installation challenges, and in the case of walls, structural
considerations.

Most brick bonds require bricks (or other masonry units) of the same size or at
least compatible sizes. Uniform sizing creates a regular, repeatable pattern that can
be applied over any size of the area. Many bond patterns include some method of
interlocking each row of brick (called a course) to the neighboring courses. If you
stack up bricks in single-file columns, the stacks can easily topple. But if you stack
them so that the joints are staggered, or are offset, between neighboring courses,
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the bricks are essentially woven together. In this way, the bond adds strength to the
construction to make a mortared wall even stronger. When using mortar between
bricks, keep in mind that the thickness of the mortar is added to the unit size of each
brick.

10 Most Popular Types of Wall Brick Bonds

Brick walls can be structural, like load-bearing walls, or they can also be
primarily decorative, like a brick-veneer wall. Structural walls demand solid structural
bonds, while decorative walls can use any bond pattern. Let’s take a look at some of
the most traditional and popular brick bonds used for walls:

1. STRETCHER BOND

One of the most common brick bonds, also popularly called running bonds. This
bond is very easy to lay, in fact, is one of the simplest ones used today. Stretcher
bond is suitable when walls of half brick thickness need to be constructed. Different
types of wall construction done using this kind of bond are:

 Sleeper walls
 Partition walls
 Division walls (internal dividers)
 Chimney stacks

Stretcher bonds are not very suitable for stand-alone structural walls, but very
useful for construction of walls with less thickness. Note, this bond will fail if the
thickness of the walls is more than half of the total length of the brick used.
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2. HEADER BOND

A header is the shorter face of the brick. In header bond brick masonry all
bricks are constructed in the header course. In this bond, the overlap is performed
corresponding to a half width of the bricks. The three-quarter brickbats are utilized in
alternative courses as quoins. This bond is mainly used for the construction of one
brick thick walls.

3. ENGLISH BOND

One of the most commonly utilized variations of brick bonds in masonry

works. This bond essentially comprises of alternating courses of headers and
stretchers.

Headers are laid center over the stretchers in the course below and each
alternate row is vertically aligned. To break the continuousness of vertical joints, a
quoin closer is used at the start and end of a wall after the first header. A quoin close
is a brick that is cut lengthwise into 2 halves and used in the corners in brick walls.
This type of bond is mainly used to construct strong one brick thickness walls.
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4. FLEMISH BOND

For this type of bond, each course is made up of alternate headers and
stretchers. Each header is centered on a stretcher above and below and every
alternate course begins with a header in the corner. For breaking the vertical joints in
the successive courses, quoin closers are introduced in alternate courses next to the
header. This bond can be significantly sub-divided into two diverse types:

 Single Flemish Bond – A combination of English bond and Flemish Bond.

The front exposed surface of the wall is composed of Flemish bong and
the back surface is composed of English bond in every single course.
 Double Flemish Bond – This bond takes a similar appearance both in the
front and the back elevations.
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5. STACK BOND

In a stack bond, all the bricks are plainly loaded on top of each other and held
with mortar where all bonds are perfectly aligned. Because of its weak masonry
structure and less strength, Stack bonds are perfect for decorative purposes. This
bond is a non-structural bond, hence not suitable for walls which require to transfer
loads.

6. DUTCH BOND
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A modified form of the English cross bond which consists of alternate

courses of headers and stretchers. In this arrangement of the brick bond,
every single stretching course begins at a quoin with a 3-quarter bat. Every
alternate stretching course has a header set next to the 3-quarter bat brick
provided at the quoin. This bond is perfect to construct strong corners along
the wall which are subjected to excess loads.

This bond is very similar to the English Bond, but this one has courses of
headers inserted in every five or six courses. Header courses are centered with
the previous header course. This header bond basically acts as a tie brick
between the fronting and the backing. To achieve the sufficient offset in a
standard common bond, queen closers are inserted at both ends of the header
courses. The common bond is normally used in exterior load-bearing walls.

7. COMMON BOND / AMERICAN BOND

This bond is very similar to the English Bond, but this one has courses of headers
inserted in every five or six courses. Header courses are centered with the previous
header course. This header bond basically acts as a tie brick between the fronting
and the backing. To achieve the sufficient offset in a standard common bond, queen
closers are inserted at both ends of the header courses. The common bond is
normally used in exterior load-bearing walls.
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8. FACING BOND

This bond is primarily adopted for thick walls, where the facing and backing are
chosen to be constructed with bricks of diverse thickness. Typically, this bond
consists of heading and stretching courses arranged in a manner that one heading
course comes after quite a lot of stretching courses. The load distribution of walls
using this bond is not uniform because of the difference between the facing and the
total number of joints in the backing. This can also lead to unequal settlement of the
2 thickness of the wall.

9. DIAGONAL BOND

Best suited for walls of two to four brick thickness. This bond is normally
introduced at every 5th or 7th course along the height of the wall. Bricks in this bond
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are placed end to end in such a manner that extreme corners of the sequence
remain in contact with the stretchers.

10. RAT TRAP BOND

In this bond, bricks are laid on edge or placed in a vertical position instead of
the conventional horizontal position. This creates a cavity (hollow space) within the
wall. This feature helps in keeping enhanced thermal comfort and keep the interiors
cooler than the outside and vice versa. This type of walls consumes a smaller
number of materials due to the internal cavity. The Rat Trap Bond looks very similar
to the Flemish Bond in appearance. Skilled labor and extra care are needed to
design this bond.

CONCRETE

Concrete, in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically

inert particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is
bonded together by cement and water.
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 CONCRETE MIXER

Traditionally, concrete mixtures were prepared manually which consumed a

lot of time as well as lacked precision. With growing demand and advances in
technology, now, concrete mixture, even in small scale applications, is prepared
using concrete mixers. Concrete mixers are devices capable of preparing concrete
mixtures of varying strength precisely as well as quickly. Some concrete mixers are
even capable of dispensing the concrete mixture directly on the location of the
construction. Depending

on the requirement of the application, concrete mixers of various sizes and types are
available. Portable concrete mixers can be used in small and medium-sized
applications whereas for large scale applications concrete batching plants can also
be built at the construction site.

Types of Concrete Mixer

Needless to say, just like the requirements of various applications, types of

concrete mixers commonly used are also quite versatile in nature. Here’s a list of
some of the most commonly used types of concrete mixers and their applications in
various construction works.
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1. BATCH MIXER

As the name suggests, this type of mixer produces concrete one batch at a
time. Batch mixers either have a drum or a pan, consisting of blades, which when
rotated prepares the concrete mix. The speed of rotation, angle of the blades and in
some cases the angle of inclination of the drum can be controlled. These are the
most commonly used concrete mixers and are highly preferable to be used in small
and medium-sized construction sites.

2. CONTINUOUS MIXER

These concrete mixers work without any interruption and keep producing
concrete continuously as long as work is going on. They are fed raw materials
continuously and the concrete is discharged and collected by construction workers
as soon as the mix is ready. Continuous mixer systems are generally set up in the
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construction site itself. They have a separate feeder unit for the intake of constituent
materials, a mixer unit for mixing concrete and a discharge mechanism for
dispensing the concrete mix. These mixers are deployed while constructing very
large structures such as bridges, tunnels for roads, dams, etc.

 MORTAR MIXTURE

Mortar is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the
bricks and blocks. Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and
water and is applied as a paste which then sets hard.

1. Gypsum mortar

The earliest known mortar was used by the ancient Egyptians and was made
from gypsum. This form was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite
soft.

2. Portland cement mortar

Portland cement mortar (often known simply as cement mortar) is created by

mixing Portland cement with sand and water. It was invented in the mid-19th-
century, as part of scientific efforts to develop stronger mortars than existed at the
time. It was popularized during the late 19th century, and by 1930 it had superseded
lime mortar for new construction. The main reason for this was that it sets hard and
quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction.
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 CEMENTS

Cement is a substance used for binding and hardening other materials. Water
and cement set and harden through a chemical reaction known as 'hydration'. The
process of hardening is described as 'curing', which requires particular conditions of
temperature and humidity.

Cement can be mixed with a fine aggregate and water to produce mortar,
used in masonry construction as a bedding and adhesive to bind and fill the gaps
between adjacent blocks of brick, concrete or stone.

It can be also be mixed with water, aggregates (such as gravel, sand or rock),
and sometimes admixtures, to form concrete, and can be used to make renders,
screeds and so on. The ratio of water and cement will determine the overall strength
and quality of the mix.

Types of Cement

1. Portland cement

Almost all concrete is made with Portland cement. It is also the principal
cement used in most masonry mortars and renders. It is manufactured by heating
together limestone (or chalk) and clay (or shale) in large rotary kilns. The chemistry
of Portland cement largely consists of calcium silicate which reacts with water to
form a strong, durable cement paste.

2. Low heat blast-furnace Portland cement

This is a special blended cement with low heat of hydration characteristics for
mass concreting. The advantage of this kind of cement over ordinary Portland
cement is that, although it has a slower strength gain, it has a higher ultimate
strength, as well as better workability.
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3. Rapid hardening cement

This hardens faster than Portland cement, as it includes more silicates,

however, the final strength is only slightly higher. The one-day strength of this
cement is equal to the three-day strength of Portland cement with the same water-
cement ratio. It is mainly used where formwork has to be removed for reuse.

4. Sulphate resisting cement

Sulphates exist in rain and sea water and can be harmful to building
materials. Sulphate resisting cement is a type of modified Portland cement that can
be used in conditions where concrete is exposed to the risk of deterioration due to
sulphate attack.

 AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE

‘Aggregate’ is a term for any particulate material. It includes gravel, crushed

stone, sand, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregate may
be natural, manufactured or recycled. Aggregates make up some 60 -80% of the
concrete mix. They provide compressive strength and bulk to concrete. Aggregates
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in any particular mix of concrete are selected for their durability, strength, workability
and ability to receive finishes.

For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free
of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause
the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates are divided into either ‘coarse’ or ‘fine’
categories.

- Coarse aggregates are particulates that are greater than 4.75mm. The usual range
employed is between 9.5mm and 37.5mm in diameter.

- Fine aggregates are usually sand or crushed stone that are less than 9.55mm in
diameter.

Typically the most common size of aggregate used in construction is 20mm. A

larger size, 40mm, is more common in mass concrete. Larger aggregate diameters
reduce the quantity of cement and water needed.

Common Aggregates

1. Crushed Stone and Manufactured Sand

Stone is quarried, crushed and ground to produce a variety of sizes of aggregate to fit
both ‘coarse’ and ‘fine’ specifications.
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2. Gravel

Gravel is formed of rocks that are unconnected to each other. The Wikipedia
entry explains that ‘Gravel is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have
a general particle size range and include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized
fragments.’

3. Light Weight Aggregates

Lightweight aggregates can be from natural resources, or they can be man-

made. The major natural resource is volcanic material whilst synthetic aggregates
are produced by a thermal the thermal treatment of materials with expansive
properties.

These materials can be divided in three groups—natural materials, such as

perlite, vermiculite, clay, shale, and slate; industrial products, such as glass; and
industrial by-products, such as fly ash, expanded slag cinder, and bed ash.

• CONCRETE MIXES APPLICATION

You can find concrete almost anywhere you look, including buildings, bridges,
walls, swimming pools, roadways, airport runways, floors, patios or even a cement
house. All of these structures depend on a man-made material with a simple formula.
How is all that concrete made?
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Concrete is composed of cement, water and coarse aggregates. When mixed

together, they create a construction material that hardens over time. How much
water and cement you use determine the properties of concrete, such as:

 Strength
 Durability
 Resistance to heat or radiation
 Workability

Fresh concrete has many applications and can be cast into circles, rectangles,
squares and more. It can also be used for staircases, columns, doors, beams, lentils

and other familiar structures. Concrete is made in different grades, including normal,
standard and high-strength grades. These grades indicate how strong the concrete
is and how it will be used in construction. What kind do you need? Our guide can
help you decide based on your project requirements.

How Do You Make Concrete?

When you make concrete, regardless of what you plan to use it for, you have
to mix the right proportions to achieve the quality you desire. You can use two
different mixes to make concrete:

1. Nominal mix: This mix is used for ordinary construction such as small
residential structures. Most nominal mixes use a proportion of 1:2:4. The first
number is the ratio of cement, the second number is the ratio of sand and the
third number is the ratio of aggregate needed based on weight or volume of
materials.

2. Design mix: The design mix, or mix design, relies on proportions finalized
using lab tests to determine the compressive strength of the mixture. This will
determine the strength you need based on the structural design of the
concrete component.

3. Machine mixing: This uses different types of machines. The ingredients are
placed into the machine and then mixed. The result is fresh concrete.

4. Hand mixing: When mixed by hand, the ingredients are placed on a flat
surface. Workers then add water and mix the cement by hand using special
tools designed for the task.

 CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

Concrete is basically a mixture of two components: aggregates and paste. The

paste, comprised of Portland cement And water, binds the aggregates (usually sand
and gravel or crushed stone) into a rocklike mass as the paste hardens because of
the chemical reaction of the cement and water.
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1. MIXING

The basic components of concrete are shown separately. To ensure that they are
combined into a homogeneous mixture requires effort and care. The sequence of
charging ingredients into a concrete mixer can play an important part in uniformity of
the finished product. The sequence, however, can be varied and still produce a
quality concrete. Different sequences require adjustments in the time of water
addition, the total number of revolutions of the mixer drum, and the speed of
revolution. Other important factors in mixing are the size of the batch in relation to
the size of the mixer drum, the elapsed time between batching and mixing, and the
design, configuration, and condition of the mixer drum and blades. Approved mixers,
correctly operated and maintained, ensure an end-to-end exchange of materials by a
rolling, folding, and kneading action of the batch over itself as concrete is mixed.

2. WORKABILITY

The degree of workability required for proper placement of concrete is controlled

by the placement method, type of consolidation, and type of concrete. Different types
of placements require different levels of workability.
Factors that influence the workability of concrete are: (1) the method and duration of
transportation; (2) quantity and characteristics of cementations materials; (3)
concrete consistency (slump); (4) grading, shape, and surface texture of fine and
coarse aggregates; (5) entrained air; (6) water content; (7) concrete and ambient air
temperatures; and (8) admixtures. A uniform distribution of aggregate particles and
the presence of entrained air significantly help control segregation and improve
workability. Fig. 1-6 illustrates the effect of casting temperature on the consistency,
or slump, and potential workability of concrete mixtures.
Properties related to workability include consistency, segregation, and mobility,
pump ability, bleeding, and finish ability. Consistency is considered a close indication
of workability. Slump is used as a measure of the consistency or wetness of
concrete. A low-slump concrete has a stiff consistency.

3. CONSOLIDATION

Vibration sets into motion the particles in freshly mixed concrete, reducing friction
between them, and giving the mixture the mobile qualities of a thick fluid. The
vibratory action permits use of a stiffer mixture containing a larger proportion of
course and a smaller proportion of fine aggregate. The larger the maximum size
aggregate in concrete with a well-graded aggregate, the less volume there is to fill
with paste and the less aggregate surface area there is to coat with paste; thus less
water and cement are needed. Concrete with an optimally graded aggregate will be
easier to consolidate and place.