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CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
MAIN CAMPUS
ECE-IPC 312
ADVANCED ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND DESIGN
JOHN ALFRED D. LOBO

BSECE 3-7
PROFESSOR:
DR. JUN-JUN A. OBISO, ECE, Meng.Ed-ECE, LPT
MODULE 1
Microwave communications
Objectives:
 Familiarize the key terms, concepts, and principles in microwave communications

 Internalize the different diversity schemes as used in microwave communications
 Analyze and solve the different line of sight path characteristics
MICROWAVES
Microwaves
 These are electromagnetic waves operating from 500MHz to 300GHz.
Microwave Communication
 It is the use of electronic circuits in the transmission and reception of

signals using microwaves.
Microwave Frequency Band
Microwave Communication Link
Key Terms:
 Short Haul – links used to carry information over short distances.

 Long Haul – links used to carry information over long distances.
Disclaimer: The professor does not own some contents and all pictures of this module. Full credits are given to all sources
especially to the book “Advanced Electronic Communication Systems” by Wayne Tomasi
Advantages of Microwave Communications
Disadvantages of Microwave Communications
Microwave Transmitter
Microwave Receiver
Microwave Repeater
 It is a transmitter and receiver placed back to back with each other.

 The repeater station receives a signal, amplifies and reshapes it, and then
retransmits the signal to the next repeater station down line from it.
Types of Repeaters
1. IF Repeater
 It is also called as heterodyne repeater.
 The received RF carrier is down converted to an IF frequency,
amplified, reshaped, up converted to RF level, and then
retransmitted.
2. Baseband Repeater
 The received RF is down converted to an IF frequency,
amplified, filtered, and then further demodulated to baseband.
3. RF Repeater
 The received microwave signal is not down converted to IF or
baseband.
 It is simply mixed (heterodyned) with a local oscillator frequency
in a nonlinear mixer.
Microwave Propagation Paths
DIVERSITY
Diversity
 It is a technique used to eliminate fading.
Fading
 It is the degradation of the signal due to multipath propagation
Diversity Schemes:
1. Frequency diversity
2. Space diversity
3. Polarization diversity
4. Receiver diversity
5. Quad Diversity
6. Hybrid diversity
Frequency Diversity
 It is the usage of 2 or more carrier frequencies to be modulated by the

information.
 It is simply modulating 2 different RF carrier frequencies with the same IF
intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals to a given destination.
 At the destination, both carriers are demodulated, and the one that yields
the better quality IF signal is selected.
Space Diversity
 It is the usage of 2 or more antennas separated by several wavelengths.

 The output of the transmitter is fed to 2 or more antennas that are physically
separated by an appreciable number of wavelengths.
 It is important that the electrical distance of the transmitter to each of its antenna
is an equal multiple of wavelengths long.
 This is to ensure that when 2 or more signals of the same frequency arrive at the
input, they are in-phase and additive.
Polarization Diversity
 A single RF carrier is propagated with 2 different electromagnetic polarizations

(vertical and horizontal).
 Electromagnetic waves at different polarizations do not necessarily experience
the same transmission impairments.
 It is generally used in conjunction with space diversity.
Receiver Diversity
 It is using more than one receiver for a single radio frequency channel.
Quad Diversity
 It is another form of hybrid diversity.

 It provides the most reliable information but however the most expensive.
Hybrid Diversity
 It is consists of a standard frequency diversity path where the 2

transmitter/receiver pairs at one end of the path are separated from each other
and connected to different antennas that are vertically separated as in space
diversity.
Hot Standby
 With hot-standby protection, each working radio channel has a dedicated back
up or spare channel.
PATH CHARATERISTICS
Distance between Antennas (D)
 It is the horizontal distance (range) between the transmitter and the receiver in a
microwave path.
D(KM) = √ +√
where: hRx ,hTx = heights of the antennas in m
Free Space Path Loss (Lp)
 It is the loss incurred by the signal as it propagates from Tx to Rx in the absence

of absorption and reflection.
 It is the loss incurred by the electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight
line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby
objects
LpdB) = 92.4 +20log D(km)+ 20logf(GHz)
LpdB) = 96.6 +20log D(mi)+ 20logf(GHz)
Fade Margin (FM)
 It is an attenuation allowance so that the received signal level is still above the
minimum received level due to fading.
FM(dB)= 30 log D(km)+10log6ABfGHz-10log(1-R)-70
Where:
A= roughness factor B=climate factor
= 4 (smooth terrain) = 0.5 if humid
= 1 (average terrain) = 0.25 if average
=0.25(rough terrain) = 0.125(very dry)
K-Curve Factor (k)
 The numerical figure that considers the non- ideal condition of the atmosphere
resulting to atmospheric refraction.
 It is the ratio of effective earth radius to the true earth radius.
k=
where: Re= effective earth’s radius, km
Ro= true earth’s radius, 6370km
Note:
K<1 ---- substandard condition
K=4/3 ---- standard condition
K> 4/3 ---- super standard condition
K= infinity ----- flat earth condition
Effective Earth Radius (Re)
Re (km) =
Ns = No * e-0.1057 hs
Where: Re= effective earth radius

Ro= true earth radius, 6370km
Ns= surface refractivity
No= sea level refractivity
hs= height of site, km
Earth Bulge (Eb)
 The number of feet or meters an obstacle is raised higher in elevation owing to

earth curvature or earth bulge.
Eb(FT)=
Where: d1, d2 = distance in miles
Fresnel Zone
 It is the area in space wherein microwave signals are either constructive or

destructive.
Note:
 For multipath signals to be additive, the beam must clear at least 60% of
the 1st Fresnel Zone.
 If odd number of Fresnel zone, the signals are additive.
 If even number of Fresnel zone, signals are subtractive
Fresnel Zone Radius (Rz)
 It is the radius of signal coverage surrounding the antennas.
√
Rz (m) = 17.3 *
where:
d1(km) = distance closer to Tx
d2(km) = distance closer to Rx
n = nth radius
f=operating frequency in GHz
Effective R(beam) = 0.6 Rz(m)
Note:
 For effective microwave transmission, the path should be cleared by at least 60%
of the Fresnel Zone Radius.
System Gain (Gs)
 It is the difference between the nominal output power of a transmitter and the
minimum input power required by the receiver.
Gs(dB) = FM(dB)+Lp(dB)+Lb(dB)+Lf(dB)- ATX(dB)-ARx(dB)
where:
Pt= transmit power, dBm

Cmin= minimum received power, dBm
Lb= branching loss,dB
Lf= feeder loss,dB
ATX(dB),ARx(dB) = antenna gains, dB
Received Signal Level to Transmit Power Ration ( )
 It is the ratio of the signal as received in the receiver to the net power propagated
into free space by the transmitter.
(dB) = At x(dB) + Arx (dB) - Lp(dB)
Received Power (Pr)
Pr (dBm)= Pt(dBm) + (dB)
Where: Pt= transmit power in dBm
Noise Temperature of the Antenna (Ta)
 It is the temperature of the antenna due to noise.
where:
L= feedline and antenna loss (unitless)
Tsky = sky temperature in K
NF = noise factor (unitless)
Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te)
Teq = 290(NF-1)
Carrier to Noise Ratio (
 It is the ratio of the carrier signal power and the noise power at the receiver side.
Where: C= carrier power, dBm

N= noise power , dBm
Energy Bit to Noise Density Ration ( )
Where: Pr= received signal power, W

fb = bit rate, b/s
T = total temperature in K
k= Boltzman’s constant
No= noise density
Sample Problems:
1. Two microwave antennas have equal heights. They are separated by 40km.
Solve the height of each antenna.
Solution:
D(KM) = √ +√
Since they have equal heights, then hTx= hRx
40= √ +√
40 =2√
hRx=hTx= 23.53m (Answer)
2. Calculate the earth bulge 10 mi away from a transmitter for a 25 mi microwave
link.
Solutions:
Eb(FT)=
Eb(FT)=
Eb(FT)= 100 ft (Answer)
3. Determine the surface refractivity for a potential microwave site 250m above sea
level with a sea level refractivity of 312. Solve also the effective earth radius.
Solutions:
Solve for Ns:
Ns = No * e-0.1057 hs
Ns = 312 * e-0.1057*0.25
Ns = 303.86
Solve for Re:

Re (km) =
Re (km) =
Re= 8539km (Answer)
4. An obstacle is present between Tx and Rx. It is located 10km from Tx. The
distance between Tx and Rx is 40km and the operating frequency is 6GHz.
Determine the secured clearance for effective reception.
Solutions:
Solve for Fresnel Zone Radius:
√
Rz (m) = 17.3 *
√
Rz (m) = 17.3 *
Rz (m) = 19.3419km
Solve for the clearance:

R(beam) = 0.6 Rz(m)
R(beam) = 0.6 *19.3419
R(beam) = 11.605km (Answer)
5. A space diversity system operates at 1.8GHz.The separation between antennas

is 40km. The terrain is rough and the climate is very dry. The branching loss is
2dB for each of the antennas. The feeder loss is 5.4dB of each antenna. Each
antenna has a gain of 20dB. The reliability objective is 99.98%. Solve the system
gain in dB.
Solutions:
Solve for path loss:
LpdB) = 92.4 +20log D(km)+ 20logf(GHz)
LpdB) = 92.4 +20log (40)+ 20log (1.8)
LpdB) = 129.547dB
Solve for fade margin:
FM(dB)= 30 log D(km)+10log6ABfGHz-10log(1-R)-70

FM(dB)= 30 log (40)+10log6(0.25)(0.125)(1.8)-10log(1-0.9998)-70
FM(dB)= 10.3343dB
Solve for system gain:

Solve for system gain:
Gs(dB) = FM(dB)+Lp(dB)+Lb(dB)+Lf(dB)- ATX(dB)-ARx(dB)
Gs(dB) = 10.3343dB+129.547dB+2*2dB+2*5.4dB – 20dB-20dB
Gs(dB) = 114.684dB (Answer)
6. A microwave antenna has a feedline loss of 2dB. The antenna sees a sky
temperature of 120K. Solve the noise temperature of the antenna.
Solutions:
Solve for feedline loss:
2dB= 10log L
L= 1.5849
Solve for noise temperature

Ta=
Ta=
Ta= 182.73K (Answer)
7. 8. A microwave system has a Teq = 182K and Ta=168K. The operating

bandwidth is 20MHz. The received signal power before demodulation is -60dBm.
Solve for the noise power and carrier to noise ratio in dB
Solutions:
Solve for noise power:
N= kTB
N= 1.38x10-23(182+168)* 20x106
N= 9.66x10-14 W
In dBm:
N= 10log
N= -100.15dBm
Solve for Carrier to noise ratio in dB:
(Answer)
8. A microwave system is operating at a bit rate of 40Mb/s. The received signal
power is 2W. The system temperature is 350K. Solve for Eb/No in dB.
Solutions:
Solve for Energy per Bit :
5x10-8 W/bps
Solve for noise density:

No= kTe
No= 1.38x10-23 * 350
No= 4.83 x10-21
Solve for energy per bit to noise density ratio:

= 10log
= 10log
= 130.15dB (Answer)
Exercise No. 1
Microwave Communications
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Course & Year: ______________ Professor:_______
Answer the following questions:
Assignment:
 Answer question numbers 1 to 19 of PDF pages 567-568 (Tomasi’s book)
Required Readings:
 Read PDF pages 535-567 (Tomasi’s book)
MODULE 2
Microwave devices
Objectives:
 Familiarize the functions and operations of the different microwave devices.

 Comprehend the operation of radars.
 Analyze and solve problems involving radars.
MICROWAVE DEVICES
Waveguide
 It is a hollow metal conducting pipe designed to carry and constrain the

electromagnetic waves of a microwave signal.
 It can be used to carry energy between pieces of equipment or over longer
distances to carry transmitter power to an antenna or microwave signals from an
antenna to a receiver.
 A microwave signal to be carried by a waveguide is introduced to one end of the
waveguide with an antenna-like probe that creates an electromagnetic wave that
propagates through the waveguide.
 The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal bounce off the inside
walls back and forth as the signal progresses the down the waveguide.
Hybrid T’s
 It can be formed by combining the series and shunt T sections.

 It is also called Magic T.
 It is used as a duplexer to permit simultaneous use of a single antenna by both a
transmitter and a receiver.
Disclaimer: The professor does not own some contents and all the pictures of this module. Full credits are given to all
sources especially to the book “Principles of Electronic Communication System” by Louis Frenzel 1
Note:
 Diplexer is a device which allows a single antenna to be shared by the

transmitter and the receiver.
 Duplexer is a device that allows bi-directional communication over a single
channel
Circulator
 It has 3 or more ports which can accept input in one port and will output the
signal in another port.
 It is a ferrite device and is often a 4-port device.
 It has the property that each terminal is connected only to the next clockwise
terminal.
 The main applications of isolators are either the isolation of transmitter and
receivers connected to the same antenna.
Directional Coupler
 It transmits and receives signals in one direction only.

 It is used to facilitate the measurement of microwave power in a waveguide and
the SWR.
 It can be used to tap-off a small portion of a high power microwave signal to be
sent to another circuit
 A small portion of the energy of signals moving from left to right will be measured
and sampled
 Any signal entering from the right and moving to the left will simply be absorbed
by the terminator.
Cavity Resonator
 It is a waveguide like device that acts as a high Q parallel resonant circuit.
 A simple cavity resonator can be formed with a short piece of waveguide one-half
wavelength long.
 When microwave energy is injected into the cavity, the signal bounces off the
shorted ends of the waveguide and reflects back toward the probe.
Isolator
 It is a variation of the circulator but it has one input and one output.
 Isolators are often used in situations where a mismatch or the lack of proper
load, could cause reflection so large that it could damage the source.
 It has low loss in one direction and high loss in another direction.
Point Contact Diode
 It is the oldest microwave semiconductor device.

 It is also called “crystal diode”.
 It comprises a piece of semiconductor material and a fine wire that makes
contact with the semiconductor material
Gunn Diode
 It is also called “Transferred Electron Device (TED)”.

 It is not a diode in the usual sense because it has no junction.
 It is a slab of n-type gallium arsenide that forms a special resistor when voltage is
applied to it.
 This device exhibits a negative resistance characteristic.
 It is used as a microwave oscillator.
PIN DIODE
 It is a 3 layer semiconductor device which serves as a microwave switch.

 It is a special PN junction diode with an I (intrinsic) layer between P and N
materials.
 When the diode is reversed biased, it acts as a very high resistance.
 When the diode is forward biased , it shorts the line , creating almost total
reflection
 Its resistance can change significantly with the applied bias.
 It is capable of handling appreciable amount of power.
IMPATT (Impact Avalanche Transit Time) and TRAPATT Diodes
 These diodes are widely used as oscillators.

 Both are PN junction diodes.
 They are designed to operate with a high reverse bias that causes them to
avalanche or breakdown.
 A negative resistance characteristic is produced that causes oscillation when the
diode is mounted in a cavity and properly biased.
General Classes of Microwave Tubes
1. Cross Filled Tube

 It is a tube wherein the electric and magnetic fields are of right angles.
2. Linear Beam Tube

 It is a tube wherein the electron beam propagates down its length in a straight
line mode.
Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)
 It is a linear beam tube wherein the electron beam will release energy to a slow
wave structure as it propagates.
 The main virtue of the TWT is an extremely wide bandwidth.
 It is not resonant at a single frequency.
 It is consists of a cathode and filament heater plus an anode that is biased
positively to accelerate the electron beam forward and to focus it in a narrow
beam.
 The electrons are attracted by a positive plate called the collector to which is
applied a very high DC voltage.
Klystron
 It is a linear beam tube which uses velocity modulation of the electron beam
 It is a microwave tube using cavity resonators to produce velocity modulation of
an electron beam that produces amplification.
 The vacuum tube itself consists of a cathode that is heated by a filament.
 At a very high temperature, the cathode emits electrons. These negative
electrons are attracted by a plate or collector which is biased with a high positive
voltage.
Magnetron
 It is a cross filled tube wherein electrons surround the cathode under the
influence of a magnetic field.
 It is a combination of a simple vacuum tube diode with built-in cavity resonators
and an extremely powerful permanent magnet.
 In a magnetron tube, the direction of electrons is modified because the tube is
surrounded by a strong magnetic field.
RADAR
 The word radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging.

 A wireless communication technology wherein the transmitter emits a signal to a
target and the reception of the signal is used to determine the distance of the
target.
RADAR Block Diagram
Types of Radar
1. Pulse Radar
o The transmitter emits a short burst of signal to the target.

o In this type, signals are transmitted in short burst or pulses.
Key Terms:
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT) – it is the time between transmitted
pulses.
Pulse Repetition Frequency- it is the reciprocal of the PRT.
Pulse Width- the duration of pulse.
Duty Cycle – it is the ratio of the pulse width to the PRT.
2. Continuous Wave (CW) Radar
o The transmitter continuously transmits signal to the target. The variation in

the frequency of the received signals is analyzed.
o In CW radar, a constant amplitude continuous microwave sine wave
transmitted.
o The echo is also a constant-amplitude microwave sine wave of the same
frequency but of lower amplitude and obviously shifted in phase.
Received Signal Power (Pr)
Where:
λ – free space wavelength
G – gain of the antenna (Tx)
Pt = transmitter power, w
A= radar cross sectional area, m2
R= range of the target,m
Distance from a Target
Doppler Effect
 It is the frequency shift that occurs when there is relative motion between the
transmitting station and a remote target.
Doppler Shift (DS)
Where: DS= doppler shift

f=frequency
Vr= relative velocity
Sample Problems
1.
2.A radar transmitter operating at 9.5GHz having an output power of 10kw transmits a
signal to a target. The target is 15 km away and the radar cross section is 10.2m2. The
antenna gain is 20dB. Solve the received power.
Solutions:
Solve for λ:
Solve for G:
GdB= 10 log G
20dB= 10 log G
G= antilog ( )
G= 100
Solve for received power:
(Answer)
Exercise No. 2
Microwave Devices
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Required Readings
 Read PDF pages 588-650 (Frenzel’s Book)
MODULE 3
SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS
Objectives:
 Familiarize the terminologies, concepts, and principles of spread spectrum

 Identify the different types of spread spectrum and their corresponding
operations and applications
 Analyze and solve problems involving spread spectrum.
SPREAD SPECTRUM
 It is also called as “Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)”.

 The information signals are encoded in a circuit called a “vocoder” to produce a
serial digital compressed voice signal .
 The ultimate purpose of spread spectrum is to eliminate hacking or jamming in a
communication signal.
 The primary concept is that the information (baseband ) is combined with
spreading codes in order to produce a wide band (spread spectrum) signal.
 With wide band (spread spectrum), it is more difficult to intrude the system
because the spreading codes are just known to the transmitter and the receiver
using appropriate protocols.
Disclaimer: The professor does not own some contents and all the pictures of this module. Full credits are given to all sources
especially to the following authors: Wayne Tomasi, Louis Frenzel, and Roy Blake for their respective books about Electronic
Communications 1
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
 In direct sequence system, a high bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a low
bit rate information signal to generate a high bit rate pseudorandom signal
closely resembling noise that contains both the original data signal and the
pseudorandom code.
 Before successful transmission, the pseudorandom code must be known to both
transmitter and the receiver.
 When the receiver detects a direct sequence transmission, it simply subtracts the
pseudorandom signal from the composite receive signal to extract the
information.
 Adding a high bit rate pseudorandom signal to the voice information makes the
signal more dominant and less susceptible to interference, allowing lower power
transmission, and hence, a lower number of transmitters and less expensive
receivers.
Key Terms
 Rayleigh Fading – It is the fading due to the cancellation of signals because of

reflections.
 Pseudorandom Noise (PN) Sequence- a bit sequence known only to the
transmitted and the receiver and can be treated as noise by an intruder
 Processing Gain (Spreading Gain) - It is the amount by which the signal to noise
ratio (S/N) of a signal is reduced by the spreading process during transmission .
This reduction is reversed at the receiver side.
Communications 2
Processing Gain (Gp)
Communications 3
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
 It was first used my military to ensure reliable “antijam” and to secure

communications in a battlefield environment.
 The fundamental concept of frequency hopping is to break a message into fixed
size blocks of data with each block transmitted in sequence except on a different
carrier frequency.
 With frequency hopping, a pseudorandom code is used to generate a unique
frequency hopping sequence.
 The sequence in which the frequencies are selected must be known by both the
transmitter and the receiver prior to the beginning of the transmission.
 The transmitter sends once block on a radio frequency carrier and then switches
(hops) to the next frequency in the sequence and so on.
 After reception of a block of data on one frequency, the receiver switches to the
next frequency in the sequence.
 Each transmitter in the system has a different hopping sequence to prevent one
subscriber from interfering with transmissions from other subscribers using the
same radio channel frequency.
Communications 4
Sample Problems
1.
2.
3.
Communications 5
Exercise No. 3
Spread Spectrum
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Answer the following questions:
Required Readings

 Read PDF pages 780-781 (Frenzel’s book)
 Read PDF pages 126 -134 (Blake’s book)
Communications 6
MODULE 4
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Objectives:
 Familiarize the terminologies, concepts, and principles in satellite

communications
 Analyze and solve problems involving satellite communications.
 Internalize the concepts of multiple access
 Comprehend the principles of Global Positioning System (GPS).
SATELLITE
 It is any device placed into orbit around the earth which can relay communication
signals.
Basic Principle of Satellite
 If a satellite was launched vertically from the earth and then released, it would fall
back to earth because of gravity.
 For the satellite to go into orbit around the earth, it must have some forward
motion.
 When the satellite is launched, it is given both vertical and forward motion.
 The forward motion produces inertia which tends to keep the satellite moving in a
straight line.
 The satellite constantly changes its direction from a straight line to a curved line
to rotate about the earth.
Key Terms
 Orbital Dynamics- it is a collective term given to the ability to launch a satellite

and keep it in orbit depends upon following well known physical and
mathematical laws
Communications 1
 Geocenter- it is the center of gravity of the earth.
 Footprint- The area of coverage of a certain satellite.
 Sub satellite Point (SSP)- the point on earth directly below the satellite.
 Apogee- the farthest point in the axis of the satellite
 Perigee- the nearest point in the axis of the satellite
 Posigrade- Revolution along the earth’s axis.
 Retrograde- revolution against the earth’s surface.
 Line of Apsides- The line connecting the apogee and perigee.
 Sidereal period- the time it takes the satellite to complete one orbit.
 Synodic Period – time of one revolution with respect to the altitude or longitude.
 Angle of Inclination- it is the angle formed between the line that passes through
the center of the earth and the north pole and a line that passes through the
center of the earth but that is also perpendicular to the orbital plane
 Angle of Elevation – it is the angle that appears between the line from the earth
station’s antenna to the satellite and the line between the earth station’s antenna
and the earth’s horizon.
 Azimuth Angle- it is the horizontal pointing angle with respect to the north pole.
 Uplink- it is the original signal being transmitted from the earth station to the
satellite.
 Downlink- it is the retransmitted signal from the satellite to the receiving earth
stations.
 Transponder- it is the transmitter-receiver combination in the satellite
 Line of Nodes- the line connecting both the ascending and descending nodes.
Communications 2
Note:
 Ascending Node- the path of movement from south pole to the north pole
 Descending Node- the path of movement from north pole to the south pole
Brief History
 1945 – Arthur Clarke pioneered the study of satellites.

 Sputnik 1- The first active satellite by Russia in 1957
 Explorer 1- The first American satellite in 1957.
 Score - The first communication satellite in 1958.
 Echo- The first passive reflector satellite in 1960.
 Telstar- The first dual satellite in 1962.
 Syncom- The first geosynchronous satellite in 1963
 Intelsat - It is also called as EARLY BIRD.
- The first commercial satellite in 1965.
 Aguila 1- The first satellite of the Phils. In 1997.
Kepler’s Laws
 Law of Orbit- The orbits of the planets are elliptical.
 Law of Areas – A line drawn from the centers of the planets and the sun sweeps
equal areas in equal time intervals.
Communications 3
 Law of Periods- The square of the period of revolution is equal to the cube of the
mean distance of the planet to the sun.
CLASSES OF SATELLITES
 According to Operation
1. Passive Satellite- It serves as a reflector.
2. Active Satellite- It serves as a space repeater.
 According to Orbital Patterns

1. Polar-Circular Orbiting Satellite
2.Equatorial-Circular Orbiting Satellite
3. Inclined Elliptical Orbiting Satellite
Communications 4
 According to Altitudes
1. Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) Satellite

o It has an altitude of 100 to 300 miles.
o It has an availability of 1.5 hours.
2. Medium Earth Orbiting (MEO) Satellite

o It has an altitude of 6000 to 12000 miles.
o It has an availability of 6 to 12 hours.
3. Geosynchronous or Geostationary Earth Orbiting (GEO) Satellite.

o It has an altitude of 19,000 to 25, 000 miles
o It has an availability of 24 hours.
Note:
Clarke Orbit –it is the orbit as followed by GEO satellites.
 According to Stabilization Method
1. Spinner Satellite
o It spins in 2 axes (x and y).
Communications 5
2. Three-Axes Stabilizer Satellite
o It spins in 3 axes (roll, pitch, and yaw).
 According to Coverage Areas
1. DOMSAT- It covers a certain country.

2. REGSAT- It covers an entire continent.
3. GLOBSAT- It covers an entire globe.
Types of Footprints:
a. Spot beam
It concentrates its power to a very small geographical area.
It covers usually 10% of the earth’s surface.
b. Hemispherical beam
It covers roughly 20% of the earth’s surface.
c. Global beam
It covers roughly 42% of the earth’s surface.
 According to Services
 Fixed satellite Service

o It is dedicated to a single earth station.
 Mobile Satellite Service
o It is dedicated to a mobile earth station.
 Broadcasting Satellite
o It is used for broadcasting.
 Inter satellite Service
o It hands signals from one satellite to the another.
 According to Applications
o Biosatellites
o Communication satellites
o Earth Observation Satellites
o Navigation Satellites
o Reconnaissance Satellites
o Weather Observation Satellites
Communications 6
Satellite Systems
 If a transmitter cannot communicate directly with one or more receivers because

of line of sight restrictions, a satellite can now be used.
 The transmitting station sends the information to the satellite which in turn
retransmits it to the receiving stations.
 Basically, the satellite is a “sky repeater” or “transponder”.
Satellite Frequency Allocations
Note:
 Frequency Reuse
o It is a method to save the spectrum space by utilizing the same assigned
channel.
o In the case of satellites, 2 transponders transmit in the same frequency
spectrum.
o The 2 systems though operating in the same frequencies are isolated from
each other by the use of special antenna techniques.
Uplink Model
Satellite Transponder
Communications 7
Downlink Model
Satellite Transponder Subsystems
 Payload
o It is the most important subsystem because it is essentially the
transponder section that acts as the repeater.
o It receives the uplink signals, amplify them, translate them in frequency,
and amplify them again for retransmission as downlink signals.
 Bus – it is the subsystem that supports the payload for it to operate efficiently.
o Power System
 The primary source of power for satellites is the solar panels.
 Batteries are used during emergencies like eclipses
o Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TTC)
 It monitors on-board conditions such as temperature and battery
voltage and transmits these data back to the ground station for
analysis.
 The ground station may then issue orders to the satellite by
transmitting a signal to the command subsystem, which is then
used to control many spacecraft functions such as firing the jet
thrusters.
o Propulsion Subsystem
 It is comprised of the jet thrusters and apogee kick motor.
o Altitude Control Subsystem

 It provides stabilization in orbit and senses changes in orientation.
 It fires the jet thrusters to perform altitude adjustment and station
keeping maneuvers that keep the satellite in its assigned orbit.
Inter-satellite Link
 It is the interconnectivity between 2 or more satellites.
Communications 8
Satellite Multiple Access Techniques
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 It involves partitioning the satellite’s bandwidth into several subdivisions.
Types of FDMA
 Single Channel per Carrier

o Each channel is assigned to 4-KHz voice channel.
 Multiple Channel per Carrier

o Each carrier has one or more voice channels which are frequency
multiplexed together.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

 Each station can occupy the entire satellite’s bandwidth at different time
slots (epoch).
Types of TDMA
 Fixed Assignment Multiple Access (FAMA)

o A certain station has a fixed epoch.
 Demand Assignment Multiple Access (DAMA)

o The epoch assignment of each station varies depending on the station’s
demand.
Communications 9
3.Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 It can occupy the entire bandwidth at any given time provided that there is a
noise code protocol between the satellite and the ground station.
 It applies spread spectrum techniques.
SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Global Positioning System (GPS)
 It is a satellite navigation system created by the US Defense Department in 1994

which is open to anyone who has a GPS receiver.
 It refers to the multiple satellite systems used for worldwide navigation.
 It was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense in 1973.
 It is also called as NAVSTAR- Navigation System with Time And Ranging
 The Russian counterpart of GPS is GLONASS
GPS Services
1. Standard Position Service

 This service is open to everyone.
2. Precise Position Service

 It is of limited use only.
Note: The GPS is capable of providing longitude, latitude, altitude, and timing
information.
Communications 10
GPS Segments
1. Space Segment
o It consists of a group of satellites called the constellation (24 satellites).
2. Control Segment
o It refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and
provide controls and updates information.
o This is the land based master station found in Colorado Springs, USA.
3. User Segment
o It refers to any GPS receiver
GPS Triangulation
 The determination of the location of the GPS receiver is based on measuring the
distance between the receiver and the 3 satellites.
 The distance is determined by measuring the time of arrival of the satellite
signals and then computing distance based on the speed of the radio waves ,
with correction factors.
Communications 11
Summary of GPS
Summary of GLONASS
Personal Communication Service Satellites
First Satellites of Countries
Communications 12
Satellite Parameters
 Orbital Velocity (v):
 Orbital Period (T):
Where: T= orbital period, sec
 Slant Distance (d)
Where:
R= true earth’s radius, 6400 km

H= height of satellite above earth’s surface, km
β = elevation angle in degrees
 Energy per Bit (Eb)
Where: Pt =transmit power

fb= bit rate
 Noise Density (No)
Where: N= noise power, W

B= bandwidth, Hz
 Gain to Equivalent Noise Temperature Ration ( )
Where: GRx = gain of the receiver, dB

GLNA = gain of the low noise amplifier, dB
Ta= antenna noise temperature, K
Te= equivalent noise temperature, K
Communications 13
 Uplink Equation
 Downlink Equation
Sample Problems
1. Solve the slant distance of a geostationary satellite from the earth station if the
elevation angle is 16.8 degrees.
Solutions:
2. Determine the orbital period and the orbital velocity of a satellite located 15,000
km above the surface of the earth.
Solutions:
a. Solve for orbital period (T)
Communications 14
b. Solve for orbital velocity
3. Calculate the propagation time, propagation delay, and the free space path loss
for a GEO satellite located directly above the earth operating at 12 GHz.
Solutions:
a. Solve for path loss:
b. Solve for propagation time:
c. Solve for propagation delay:

Delay = 2t
Delay = 2*120ms
Delay =240 ms (Answer)
4. In a satellite system, for a total transmit power of 500w, determine the energy per
bit for a transmission rate of 50MBps in dBW/bps.
Solutions:
In dB:
Communications 15
5. For an equivalent noise bandwidth of 10MHz in a satellite system and noise
power of 0.0280 pW, determine the noise density in dBW.
Solutions:
In dB:
6. Calculate the G/T of a receiving antenna with a gain of 38dB and looks at a sky
with a temperature of 15K if the loss between the antenna and the LNA input due
to the feedhorn is 0.5dB, and the LNA has a noise temperature of 38K.
Solutions:
Feedhorn loss in dB (L):
0.5 =10 log L
L= antilog (
L= 1.122
Solve for Ta:
Solve for G/T:
Communications 16
Exercise No. 4
Satellite Communication
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Answer the following questions.
Assignment:
 Answer question numbers 1 to 40 of PDF pages 693-694 (Frenzel’s book)
Required Readings
 PDF pages 655-693 (Frenzel’s book)

 PDF pages 400-429 (Blake’s book)
 PDF pages 570- 609 (Tomasi’s book)
Communications 17
MODULE 5
Cellular communications
Objectives:
 Familiarize the key terms, concepts, and principles in cellular communications

 Analyze and solve problems involving cellular communications
 Explain the concepts and principles of personal communication system
CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
 It is a communication technique which uses a large number of low power

transmitters to create a cell.
Brief History
 MTS (Mobile Telephone Systems)

 The first batch of mobile phones that began in 1940’s/.
 It utilized frequency modulation and were generally assigned a single
carrier frequency in the 35MHz to 45MHz range that was used by both
the mobile unit and the base station.
 The mobile unit used a “push to talk (PTT)” switch to activate the
transceiver.
 Depressing the PTT button turn the transmitter ON and the receiver
OFF, whereas releasing the PTT button turned the receiver ON and
the transmitter OFF.
 IMTS ( Improved Mobile Telephone System)

 It was introduced in 1964.
 It used several carrier frequencies and can handle simultaneous
communications at a given time.

Key Terms
 Cellular Radio System

o It provides standards telephone service by two way radio at remote
locations.
o The area served by a cellular telephone system is divided into small areas
called cells
especially to the following authors: Wayne Tomasi and Louis Frenzel for their respective books about Electronic
Communications 1
 Cell
o It is the most basic unit of cellular communication.
o It is the base station transmitter/receiver which covers a geographical
area.
 Number of Cells (N)
where:
N= number of cells
A= total area covered
r= cell radius
 Footprint
o It is the coverage area of the cell
o The coverage area of a cell is represented as a honeycombed shaped
(hexagon).
 Cluster
o It is a group of cells.
Types of Cluster
a. Picocell – it covers an area of 0.5 to 3 square miles.
b. Microcell – it covers an area of 6 to 7 square miles
c. Macrocell- It has a radius of up to 16 miles and the power is up to 6W.
 Cell Splitting
o It is the technique of dividing a cell to cater the increase in the number of
subscribers.
Communications 2
 Frequency Reuse
o It is the usage of the same channels by the adjacent cells.
o Individual frequency bands are shared by multiple base stations and
receivers.
o Number of Full- Duplex Channels
o Total Channel Capacity
o Frequency Reuse Factor (FRF)
 Sectoring
o It involves increasing the D/R ratio while maintaining the same cell radius.
o It consists of decreasing co-channel interference while increasing capacity
by using directional antennas.
Communications 3
 Segmentation
o It divides a group of channels into smaller groupings or segments of
mutually exclusive frequencies.
o It is a means of avoiding co-channel interference, although it lowers the
capacity of a cell by enabling reuse inside the reuse distance.
 Dualization
o It is a means of avoiding full cell splitting where the entire area would
otherwise need to be segmented into smaller cells.
 Roaming
o It happens when a mobile unit transfers from one cell to another.
 Hand-off
o It is the transfer of a call from one cell to another.
o it is sometimes called as “handover”.
Types of Handover
1. Hard Handover- make before break.
2. Soft Handover- break before make.
 Hand-off Basic Steps:
 Co-channel Interference
o It is the interference between two cells using the same frequencies.
o Co-Channel Reuse Ratio (Q)
Communications 4
 Adjacent Channel Interference
o It is the interference from other cells operating at different
frequencies.
 Duplexing
o It refers to the ways in which two way radio or telephone
conversations are handled.
Kinds of Duplexing
1. Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)

o Separate frequency channels are assigned for the transmit and
receive functions.
o The transmit and receive channels are spaced so that they do not
interfere with one another inside the cell phone or base station
circuits.
2. Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

o The system assigns the transmit and receive data to different
time slots both on the same frequency.
CELLULAR COMMUNICATION ELEMENTS
1.PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network)
o It is the global interconnection of the telephone system.
2. Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
o It is the master control center in cellular communication.

o It controls all the cells and provides the interface between each cell
and the main telephone office.
o It is also called the Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
o It houses the Electronic Switching Center (ESC) which is the digital
telephone exchange which is the heart of the cellular
communication.
Communications 5
3. Cellsite
o It is the transceiver that connects the mobile phone to the MTSO.

o It is also called as the base station that is consists of many
transmitters and receivers so that many calls can be handled on
many different channels simultaneously.
o It contains the “cell site controller” or the “base station controller”
that operates under the direction of the MTSO.
o It transmits in the forward control channel and forward voice
channel.
o It receives in the reverse control channel and reverse voice
channel.
o The base station can be located in the following location:
 Center Excited Cell
 Edge Excited Cell
 Corner Excited Cell
o It is consists of the ff:
a. power supply
b. antenna system
c. transmitter
d. receiver
e. supervisory audio tones
4. Mobile Unit
o It is considered as the mobile transceiver.

o It contains the ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and SIM (Subscriber’s
Identification Mobile) number.
Types of Mobile Units
a. Mobile– It has an output power of 4watts.
b. Portable – it has an output power of 0.6 watt.
c. Transportable – It has an output power of 1.6watts.
Technical Operations
 Mobile Unit Initialization:

o It involves the setting up of the 21 channels
Types of Channels:
a. user channels (voice channels)
b. control channels (initiated by MTSO)
Communications 6
 Call Completion
o MTSO provides the voice channels.
 Call Termination
o A 10kHz tone is provided by the mobile unit to release the voice
channels.
 Call Blocking
o The call is made for every 100ms. After 10 trials, a busy tone is given.
 Call Drop
o If the signal fades, the MTSO automatically cut-off the connection after
5 seconds.
ANALOG CELLULAR SYSTEMS
 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

o It is developed by Motorola and AT & T
o It is operating on 50MHz in the 800MHz band and supports 666
channels split into 30kHz voice channels.
 Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS)
o The system capacity is improved by splitting into three 10 kHz

channels, thereby tripling AMPS capacity.
 Total Access Communication System (TACS)

o It supports to 1000 channels, compared with the 666 supported by
AMPS.
 Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT)
Types of NMT
 NMT 450 ( operates in the 450MHz which yields excellent signal
propagation)
 NMT 900 ( operates in the 900MHz, and is for more densely
populated areas)
DIGITAL CELLULAR SYSTEMS
 Japanese Digital Cellular (JDC)

o It has found acceptance in Japan.
 United States Digital Cellular (USDC)

o Operates at 800MHz band.
 Global System for Mobile (GSM)

o Operates in the 800MHz and 900Mhz band
 Digitally Enahnced Cordless Telephone (DECT)

o It is a European standard as an interoffice wireless phone.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

o The North American standard for personal communication service
operating in the 1900 MHz band.
Communications 7
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
o It is also known as IS- 95 by Qualcomm in the United States.
GSM Subscriber Services
1. Advice of Charge
2. Barring of Calls
3. Call Forwarding
4. Call Holding
5. Call Waiting
6. Cell Broadcast
7. Multiparty Service
8. Short Message Service (SMS)
9. Voice Mail
Cellular Evolution
 1G
o It uses analog technology with frequency modulation.
o The AMPS is the most popular analog technology.
o It is only capable of voice transmission using FM.
 2G
o It uses full digital technology.
GSM (Global Systems for Mobile)
 It was developed by European Telecommunications Standardization

Institute (ETSI).
 It uses TDMA.
 It allows 8 telephone calls to be transmitted concurrently in a single
200kHz wide channel.
 It uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK).
 2.5G
o It refers to the generation of cell phones between 2G and 3G.
o It permits subscribers to exchange emails and text messages and
access the internet via cell phone.
Communications 8
2.5G Technologies:
 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) – it uses one or more of the
8 TDMA time slots in a GSM phone system to transmit data rather
than digitized voice.
 EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution)- it is based on the

GPRS but uses 8-PSK modulation instead Gaussian Minimum Shift
Keying (GMSK) to achieve even higher data rates up to 384 kbps.
 3G
o These are true packet data phones.
o It has enhanced digital voice and high speed data transmission capability.
o 3G phones were originally described by the term International Mobile
Telecommunication 2000 (IMT 2000).
o The 2000 refers to the 2000MHz, the approximate center of the frequency
range defined for 3G ( 1800 to 2200MHz).
3G Technology
o Universal Mobile Telephone Service (UMTS) – it is also known as
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access).
 It is a direct sequence spread spectrum technology
 It is designed to use a 3.84 MHz chipping rate in a 5MHz
widebands.
 The modulation used is QPSK
 The data rate is up to 2Mbps.
 4G
o It is also called as LTE (Long Term Evolution).
o It is a standard developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project.
o It has much higher data rates and amazing new cell phone capabilities,
particularly that of being able to receive and generate video.
o It is a broadband wireless technology that uses wide channels to achieve
the high data rates and accommodates lots of users.
o It used the popular Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
 5G
o It is the newest evolution of cellular technology.
o It has the following features:
 Broadband access in dense areas
 Higher user mobility
 Massive internet of things
 Extreme real time communications
 Lifeline communications
 Ultra-reliable communications
 Broadcast like services
 Massive MIMO system
 Very low latency
 Network slicing
Communications 9
Comparison between 3G and 4G
Sample Problems
1. A province in the Philippines has an area of 2000 sq. kms. It has to be covered
by cellular telephone service using cells of radius 2 km. Find the number of cells
needed.
Solutions:
2. Calculate the theoretical number of full duplex channels available in a cluster for
a cellular system where there are 20 clusters, each consisting of 10 cells with 16
channels each cell.
Solutions:
F=Gn
F= 20* 10*16
F= 3200 channles (answer)
Communications 10
Exercise No. 5
Cellular Communication
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Required Readings:
 Read PDF pages 775 -812 (Frenzel’s book)

Communications 11
MODULE 6
Telephone communications
Objectives:
 Familiarize the key terms, concepts, and principles in microwave communications

 Internalize the different diversity schemes as used in microwave communications
 Analyze and solve the different line of sight path characteristics
TELECOMMUNICATION
 It is the technology of transmitting information electronically to a distant

location
TELEPHONY
 the science of transmission of sound at long distances
TELEPHONE
• It is an electronic device that has a built in transmitter and receiver used in

telecommunications.
BRIEF HISTORY
• Antonio Meucci (1854) designed and built the first transmitter and receiver of a
telephone set.
• 1860- Philip Reiss (Germany) invented the DAS telephone, the first publicly
demonstrated telephones
• 1876- Alexander Graham Bell patented the invention of the first telephone.
• 1889- Almond Strowger invented the first automatic telephone.
TELEPHONE SYSTEM
 It provides private two-way communication between two points separated by a

distance and has to fulfill the following requirements:
o It must have fidelity
o It must have reliability
o It should transmit information over the channels as quickly as possible.
Communications 1
OPERATION OF TELEPHONE SET
 All telephone sets are connected to a central switching office through a 2-wire or
4-wire line according to the following conventions:
o TIP (GREEN) – used to transmit the signal (positive terminal).
o RING (RED) – used to receive the signal from far end (negative terminal).
o SLAVE (YELLOW) – used as a spare or for special-purpose applications
o GROUND (BLACK OR WHITE)
Note:
 Telephone set is powered by a -42 to -52 Vdc (typically -48 Vdc) supplied by the
central office on the ring side of the telephone.
 The operating current of the telephone set is from 24 to 60 mA (optional value of
35 mA).
 Telephone resistance is around 600 ohms (early telephone are 150 ohms).
Local Loop
 It is also called as the subscriber loop.

 It is a 2 wire twisted pair connection between the telephone and the central office
MAIN PARTS OF A TELEPHONE SET
1. Transmitter
o It is also known as mouthpiece.

o It converts the acoustic energy into electric energy --- by means of a
carbon microphone.
o Sound waves from the voice compress and decompress the granules,
changing the resistance of the granules and modulating the current
flowing through the microphone.
o The resultant variations in the current flow represent the variations in the
speaker voice.
Communications 2
2. Receiver
o It is also known as earpiece

o It converts electrical energy into audible signals.
o It consists of a diaphragm of magnetic material placed in a steady
magnetic field supplied by a permanent magnet and a varying magnetic
field caused by voiced currents flowing through the voice coils.
o The alternating voice currents cause the magnetic field of the receiver to
alternately increase and decrease making the diaphragm move and
respond to the variations. Thus an acoustic pressure wave is set-up, more
or less exactly reproducing the original sound.
3. Switch Hook
 It is also known as plunger.

 It is a double pole mechanical switch that is usually controlled by a
mechanism actuated by the telephone handset.
 When the switch hook is “on the hook”, the switch hook is open, thereby
isolating all the telephone circuitry from the central office local loop.
 When a call is to be made, the handset is taken “off the hook”.
SWITCHHOOK CONDITIONS:
 On-hook - handset is in the cradle

 Off-hook – handset is out of the cradle
4. Dialer
 It provides the way for entering the telephone number to be called.
5. Ringer
 It is either a bell or an electronic oscillator connected to a speaker.

 It is continuously connected to the twisted pair of the local loop back to the
central office.
 When an incoming call is received, a signal from the central office causes
the bell or ringer to produce a tone.
6. Hybrid Circuit
 It is a special transformer used to convert signals from the four wires from
the transmitter and receiver to a signal suitable for a single two-wire line
pair to the local loop.
Communications 3
TYPES OF DIALING
 Dialing – It is the process of entering the telephone number to be called.
1. Pulse dialing
 It used a rotary dialing mechanism.
 Rotating the dial and releasing it cause a switch contact to open and close
at a fixed rate, producing current pulses in the local loop.
 These current pulses are detected by the central office and used to
operate the switches that connect the dialing telephone to the called
telephone.
 The pulse dialing produces 0.1 sec/pulse
 It has an interdigit interval that takes 0.5 sec.
2. Tone dialing
 It is also called as “Dual Tone Multifrequency Dialing (DTMF)”.
 It uses pairs of audio tones to create signals representing the numbers to
be dialed.
 In DTMF, any digit dialed takes 0.25 - 0.5 second.
 In DTMF, the interdigit interval takes 0.25 - 0.5 second.
Communications 4
TYPES OF SWITCHING
1. MANUAL SWITCHING
 Uses a switchboard where all telephone line pairs are terminated.
Interconnected manually by the operator.
2. STROWGER SWITCHING
 The strowger, or step-by-step, switch connects pairs of telephone wires by
progressive step-by-step operation of several series switches called
“switch train” operating in tandem.
 Each operation is under direct control of the dial pulses produced by the
calling telephone.
 Line Finders/ Equipment when the telephone set is lifted, it identifies a request
for a dial tone.
 Switch train-It responds the request for a dial tone. It consists of selectors
arranged to operate in a sequence connecting the calling line to the connector
group of the called line.
 Connectors -This are switches that complete the connection between the
subscriber. A two-motion switch that tests whether the called line is busy. The
last two digits the caller dials control the connector.
3.CROSSBAR SWITCHING
 As the name implies, depends on the crossing or intersection of two points

to make a connection
Communications 5
 It is a method of switching which when directed by a common control unit,
will select a closed path through electromechanical switching.
 The switching matrix is called “Crosspoint Array”

 The cross bar matrix is controlled by common control.
4.Electronic Switching System (ESS)
 It uses electronic devices and computers.
Telephone Offices
 Tandem Trunk or Intermediate Trunk connects local offices and tandem

switch or switcher’s switch.
 Toll connecting trunk or Interoffice toll trunk connects local offices and toll
offices.
 Intertoll Trunk connects toll offices
The Central Office
 It is also called as the “centrex”.

 It is the main switching center in telephone communications
 It provides the BORSCHT functions.
B- battery operated
O- Overvoltage Protection
R- ringing capabilities
S- supervisory functions
C- Coding Operations
H- hybrid circuitry
T- test signals
Private Branch Exchange (PBX)
 It is a private telephone system for larger organizations.

 It is also called as Private Automatic Branch Exchange (PABX) or Computer
Branch Exchanges (CPX).
Communications 6
SIGNALING
 The main functions of signaling are to help the switching equipment

to provide connections, announce incoming calls, supply the dial
tone, and send the busy signal.
Types of signaling:
 Control Signaling: Ex. Operator’s tone
 Supervise signaling: Ex: busy tone
 Alert Signaling: Ex: ringing tone
 Address signaling: Ex. Progress tone
Key Terms in Signaling

 Station signaling – it is between local loop and the end office.
 Inter office Signaling – it is between end offices.
 In-band signaling- it is signaling using the same channel.
 Out-band signaling- it is signaling using different channels.
DIALING CODES
 Local Code - it specifies the local address of the end office.
 Area Code- it indicates the numeric code of a province or city within a
country
 Country Code- it indicates the numeric code of a country.
 Toll Access Code- it is used to access a certain trunk office within a
country from other remote locations.
NATIONAL DIRECT DIALING (NDD)

 It is used to connect anywhere within the country without the operators
assistance.
INTERNATIONAL DIRECT DIALING (IDD)

 It is used to connect anywhere within the globe without the operators
assistance.
Communications 7
Technical Problems in Telephony
 Crosstalk
 It is the interference from other channels
 It can either be near-end crosstalk or far-end crosstalk.
 Singing
 It is the continuous oscillations as a positive feedback from amplifying
circuits.
 Echo
 It is due to distant reflections. It can either be a listener’s echo or
talker’s echo.
Units of Telephone Traffic:
1Erlang= 30EBCH= 36CCS= 60Cm= 3600CS
Where:
EBCH – Equated Busy Call Hour

CCS – Century Call Second
Cm –Call minutes
CS- Call seconds
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1.Find the dialing period if the number 2640589 is dialed using
Solutions:
a. Using Pulse Dialing

T= 2* (0.1)+ 6 (0.1)+ 4(0.1)+ 10(0.1)+ 5(0.1)+ 8(0.1)+ 9(0.1)+6 (0.5)
T= 7.4 sec
b. Using pulse dialing.
T= 7(0.25)+6(0.25)
T= 3.25 sec
2. A call center has 450 calls in a certain day. The average minute per call is 3 mins. Find the
telephone traffic in Erlangs and in Call minutes
Solutions:
T= 450 Call * 3 mins
T= 1350 Cm
T= 22.5 Erlangs
Communications 8
Exercise No. 6
Telephone Communication
Name: _______________ Date: __________
Required Readings
 Read PDF pages 696 -723 (Frenzel’s book)
Communications 9

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CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JOHN ALFRED D. LOBO

 Familiarize the key terms, concepts, and principles in microwave communications

 These are electromagnetic waves operating from 500MHz to 300GHz.

 It is the use of electronic circuits in the transmission and reception of

Microwave Frequency Band

Microwave Communication Link

 Short Haul – links used to carry information over short distances.

Disadvantages of Microwave Communications

 It is a transmitter and receiver placed back to back with each other.

Microwave Propagation Paths

 It is the usage of 2 or more carrier frequencies to be modulated by the

 It is the usage of 2 or more antennas separated by several wavelengths.

 A single RF carrier is propagated with 2 different electromagnetic polarizations

 It is another form of hybrid diversity.

 It is consists of a standard frequency diversity path where the 2

Distance between Antennas (D)

where: hRx ,hTx = heights of the antennas in m

Free Space Path Loss (Lp)

 It is the loss incurred by the signal as it propagates from Tx to Rx in the absence

FM(dB)= 30 log D(km)+10log6ABfGHz-10log(1-R)-70

K-Curve Factor (k)

where: Re= effective earth’s radius, km

Ro= true earth’s radius, 6370km

Effective Earth Radius (Re)

Where: Re= effective earth radius

Earth Bulge (Eb)

 The number of feet or meters an obstacle is raised higher in elevation owing to

Where: d1, d2 = distance in miles

 It is the area in space wherein microwave signals are either constructive or

Fresnel Zone Radius (Rz)

 It is the radius of signal coverage surrounding the antennas.

Effective R(beam) = 0.6 Rz(m)

System Gain (Gs)

Gs(dB) = FM(dB)+Lp(dB)+Lb(dB)+Lf(dB)- ATX(dB)-ARx(dB)

Pt= transmit power, dBm

Received Signal Level to Transmit Power Ration ( )

Pr (dBm)= Pt(dBm) + (dB)

Where: Pt= transmit power in dBm

Noise Temperature of the Antenna (Ta)

 It is the temperature of the antenna due to noise.

Equivalent Noise Temperature (Te)

Carrier to Noise Ratio (

Where: C= carrier power, dBm

Energy Bit to Noise Density Ration ( )

Where: Pr= received signal power, W

Solve for Re:

Re= 8539km (Answer)

Solve for the clearance:

5. A space diversity system operates at 1.8GHz.The separation between antennas

FM(dB)= 30 log D(km)+10log6ABfGHz-10log(1-R)-70

Solve for system gain:

Solve for feedline loss:

Solve for noise temperature

7. 8. A microwave system has a Teq = 182K and Ta=168K. The operating

Solve for Carrier to noise ratio in dB:

Solve for noise density:

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